COMMUNICATION SKILLS

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON 3
• By the End of the Lesson, The students will be able to
appreciate the background of communication
• The students will be able to apply the models into practice
• The students will be able to appreciate therapeutic
communication with Patients and family
• The models of communication render an important contribution in
facilitating the processes of communication in an efficient manner.
• A model is referred to the graphic image, which is aimed to make
provision of description in terms of the ways of the working of the
variable.
• It is a strategy, design, illustration or explanation that is created to
represent the structure as well as the working of the articles, objects,
schemes, tasks and concepts.
• A model of communication makes provision of a useful way of
generating information in terms of graphical checklist in terms of
various components.
• When the communication models are implemented in an effectual
manner, the individuals can facilitate communication processes in an
effectual manner.
• The purpose of a “model” is to offer a visual representation of a
concept with the intent of facilitating the understanding of it.
• There are three standard models of the communication
process:
• Linear, Interactive, and Transactional, and each offers a slightly
different perspective on the communication process.
• Linear models – only looks at one-way
communication.
• Interactive models – looks at two-way
communication.
• Transactional models – looks at two-way
communication where the message gets more
complex as the communication event (e.g.
conversation) progresses.
Linear Communication Model

• Linear model: a sender encodes a message via a channel and the

message is decoded by the receiver.
• It is straight-line communication found typically in mass
communication; think television, radio, newspapers, etc.
• According to this model, there is no means for immediate
feedback.
• Thus, while there are some aspects of the linear model that
represent what happens when we communicate (for example,
the code or channel), the linear model does not reflect enough
of the elements that describe communication.
• Unfortunately, some people communicate as if the linear model
were accurate. For example, a lecture where the lecturers don’t
ask for questions or take advantage of feedback? It is almost as
though they believe they just need to deliver information and
that you will receive it in the way it was meant with 100 per cent
accuracy.
• This impedes meaningful and efficient communication.
Interactive Communication Model
• The Interactive Model takes the Linear Model and multiplies it
times two with a quick flip of the return message.
• It allows for a feedback element because after a message is
encoded and sent to the decoding receiver, the roles then
reverse, and the receiver encodes and sends a response to the
original sender who has now turned receiver.
• Envision an exchange of text messages whereby your friend
sends you a message and you respond to it.
• The same thing happens during a telephone call, or even an
email exchange. A message is sent and received, then the roles
reverse.
Transactional Communication Model

• In the Transactional Model, receiver and sender can play the

same roles simultaneously, as sometimes happens, as messages
can be sent back and forth simultaneously.
• It appears chaotic and ineffective, but sometimes
communication is just that.
• Throw in some noise, and it would be a wonder whether any
message is conveyed successfully in this environment.
Models of communication

• Lasswell Model (1948),

• Shannon and Weaver Model (1949)
• Charles Osgood’s Model (1954),
• Schramm Model (1954),
• George Gerbner’s Model (1956),
• Theodore M. Newcomb’s Model (1953)
• Bruce H. Wesley’s and M.S. MacLean’s Model (1957).
(Groups assignment 1-9)
OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION MODELS
• Easy understanding of communication process: Communication model
helps to understand the communication process easily and logically.
• Showing information flow: Communication model shows how
information flows from one person to another in the organization.
• Introducing the parts of communication process: Communication
model is also helpful to orient the various parts of communication process
to its readers.
• Easy presentation of communication process: Communication process
is a complex issue. Through a model, this complex issue can be presented
easily.
• Understanding the communication complexities: Complex issues of
communication process cannot be shown in the communication model.
Comparing these complexities with the model, one can measure the
degree of complexities in each communication issue
Through acquiring an efficient understanding of these models,
the individuals can identify how the flow of information takes
place between the senders and receivers.
• In some cases, there are limitations.
• But the individuals need to ensure that limitations do not prove
to be barriers within the course of effective communication.
• Models of communication facilitate the communication
processes in a well-organized manner.
1. Berlo's model of communication developed
from Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver's
• The model was primary designed to improve the technical
communication but was later widely applied in different fields of
communication.
• According to the Shannon-Weaver model, communication
includes the following concepts: sender, encoder, channel,
decoder, receiver and feedback.
• There is also concept of "noise", which affects the
communication process going through the channel and makes
the message more difficult to understand by the receiver.
• Each of those concepts are defined as follows:
1). Sender: the originator of message
2). Encoder: the transmitter which converts the message into signals (the
way message is changed into signals, for example sound waves)
3). Channel: the signal carrier or medium
4). Decoder: the reception place of the signal which converts signals into
message. Decoding is done by the receiver when he gets the message
5). Receiver: the recipient of the message from the sender. He gives
feedback to the sender to make sure that the message was properly
received.
6). Noise the message, transferred through a channel, can be
interrupted by external noise (for instance, conversation may be
interrupted by thunder or crowd noise).
7). Feedback: The receiver can get an inaccurate message.

Therefore, feedback from the receiver is important in case the

message is not properly received. Furthermore, the noise can
also affect the decoding of the message by the receiver.
Practical Example of Shannon-Weaver model of communication:

Mr. Johnson made a call to his secretary "come here I want to see you."
During his call, noise appeared (transmission error) and his secretary
received "I want" only. Again, the secretary asked Johnson (feedback) "what
do you want Mr. Johnson?"
• Sender: Mr. Johnson
• Encoder: Telephone (Mr. Johnson)
• Channel: Cable
• Noise: Distraction in voice
• Decoder: Telephone (Secretary)
• Receiver: Secretary
• The model includes four components to describe the communication
process: sender, message, channel, and receiver, each of them affected by
many factors.
• The model also focuses on encoding and decoding, which happens before
the sender sends the message and before the receiver receives the
message, respectively.
• The main feature from the previous Shannon-Weaver model is the focus
on the purpose and objectives of communication.
• Berlo's model also includes verbal and non-verbal communications, and it
considers the emotional aspects of the message.
Components of SMCR Model
• The SMCR model explains the various components in the communication process. The four basic
components are sender (or source), message, channel and receiver
Sender
• Sender is the source of the message or the person who originates the message. The sender
transfers the information using the following factors:
 Communication Skills (ability to read, write, speak, and listen) directly affect the
communication process: An individual must possess excellent communication skills to make his
communication effective and create an impact on the listeners. He should know how to speak and
how to pronounce a word correctly, where to take pauses and where to repeat, and so on. Similarly,
if the receiver does not understand the message, the communication will be ineffective
 Attitudes towards the audience and subject: The attitude of the sender and the receiver affects
the message. The person's attitude towards the receiver and the environment changes the meaning
and effect of the message.
 Knowledge: In this context, knowledge is not the level of education. It is the clarity of the
information which the sender wants to convey to the receiver. Familiarity with the subject of the
message makes it easier to understand.
 Social Systems: Values, beliefs, religion, laws, rules and general understanding of society affect
the sender's way of communicating the message
 Culture: Culture refers to the cultural background of the sender or receiver
2.Aristotle model of communication
• Aristotle’s Model of Communication is a unique communication tool
proposed before 300 b.c by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
• Is a linear model that puts a greater onus on public speaking instead
of interpersonal communication that other models do
• Aristotle’s Model of Communication is the first model of
communication and is considered very simple and straightforward
• It is used while preparing speeches, lectures, and seminars.
• Aristotle’s model of communication is mainly a speaker centered
model where the speaker and speech are very important.
• It is broadly divided into 5 primary elements Speaker, Speech,
Occasion, Audience, and Effect.
• The speaker’s role to deliver a speech is considered as
the first element of the 5 primary elements.
• In this model, the speaker gives the speech whereas
the target audience is passively influenced.
Three Elements of Aristotle’s Model of Communication

• Aristotle’s model of communication is mainly categorized into

three components that are related to each other and are
considered a must to become a good communicator.
• These elements of communication are as follows:
1) Ethos
• Ethos is the characteristic that defines the credibility of the speaker
in a communication model.
• It is a fact that without credibility the words of the speaker will hold
no power over its audience and thus fail to impress and persuade
them.
• Remember it is the position and expertise in a specific field that
gives the speaker credibility, authority, and power.
• The speaker plays an important role and must maintain eye contact
so that his speech is widely accepted by the target audience.
• This is referred to as Ethos and is one of the important elements of
Aristotle’s Model of Communication.
example of Aristotle model
• Suppose two politicians are contesting from the same seat. One
has the reputation of working diligently for the people whereas
the other person is known for his corrupt nature. In such a
scenario people will most probably go to hear the speech of the
good politician and not the corrupt one. This is because it is
Ethos that is showcasing the credibility of the speaker or the
writer. Remember it is easy to damage the Ethos of a person in
the Aristotle Model of Communication. In the above example,
the corrupt one was not considered a corrupt politician from the
beginning but when he became involved in a scandal people
started thinking of him in a bad light.
• Tips for building ethos in communication:
• Use words that suit the target group
• Keep communication professional
• Conduct research before words are presented as facts
• Use recommendations from qualified experts
• Make logical connections and avoid fallacies
2) Pathos

• The literal translation of pathos is emotion.

• In the rhetoric, pathos refers to the audience and the way in which they react to the
speaker’s message, the center in the Aristotle Model of Communication.
• The idea behind pathos is that the audience must feel that they are communicated
with.
• In certain situations, they want to feel more confident, in others more sad, angry, or
emotional.
• . For instance, if people of a village need water and the politician tells
them that he will help in building roads, the people will not get influenced
but might be more influenced if he says he’ll build a dam for drinking
water and irrigation.
3)Logos

• Logos is logic.
• People believe in you only if they understand what you are trying to
say.
• People find logic in everything. If there is no logic behind the
speaker’s work or time, they do not want to get involved. Everybody
has a sense of reason. You must present facts to the audience for
them to believe in you.
• For example, a presenter using factual data in an awareness program
will attract the audience’s attention and will make them believe in
the need of awareness in the matter.
Tips for effectively addressing emotions:
People’s involvement is stimulated by humor. Always keep different types of
humor in mind, though
• Use images or other visual materials to evoke strong emotions
• Pay attention to the intonation and tempo of one’s voice in order to elicit
enthusiasm or anxiety
Criticisms of Aristotle’s Model of Communication

• There is no concept of feedback, it is one way from speaker to

audience.
• There is no concept of communication failure like noise and barriers.
• This model can only be used in public speaking.
• This model is less focused on intrapersonal or interpersonal
communication.
3)Lasswell's model of communication
• Describes an act of communication by defining who said it, what was
said, in what channel it was said, to whom it was said, and with what
effect it was said
Convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the
following questions:
• Who?
• Says What?
• In Which Channel?
• To Whom?
• With What Effect
• The model organizes the "scientific study of the process of
communication".
• The focus of the model is broken down by each element of
communication:
• "'who' refers to the communicator who formulates the message;
'what' is the content of message
• 'channel' indicates the medium of transmission;
• 'whom' describes either an individual recipient or
the audience of mass communication
• 'effect' is the outcome of the message...
• " The movement of the message travels from the communicator
to the audience. Although this model represents a one-way flow
of communication, the "effect" also refers to feedback in public
relations
• The model can be used in pedagogical settings to teach
students major elements of a communication process and as a
starting point for developing hypotheses
 Question Element Analysis

Who? Communicator Control Analysis

Says What? Message Content Analysis

In Which Channel? Medium Media Analysis

To Whom? Audience Audience Analysis

With What Effect? Effect Effects Analysis

Model of
Type of Model Brief Description
Communication
Aristotle argues that we
should look at five elements
of a communication event to
1. Aristotle’s Model Linear analyze how best to
communicate: speaker,
speech, occasion, target
audience and effect.
Lasswell’s model is a basic
framework for analyzing
one-way communication by
2. Lasswell’s Model Linear asking five questions: Who,
said what, through which
channel, to whom, with what
effects?
The Shannon-Weaver
model is the first to highlight
the role of ‘noise’ in
Shannon-Weaver
3. Linear communication, which can
Model
disrupt or alter a message
between sender and
receiver.
4) The Shannon and Weaver Model
• Is a mathematical theory of communication that argues that
human communication can be broken down into 6 key
concepts: sender, encoder, channel, noise, decoder, and
receiver.
• A later version of the theory by Norbert Weiner added a 7th
concept (‘feedback’) which changed the model from a linear to
cyclical model.
• The model’s primary value is in explaining how messages are
lost and distorted in the process of communication
• The Shannon and Weaver model is a linear model of
communication that provides a framework for analyzing how
messages are sent and received.
• It is best known for its ability to explain how messages can be
mixed up and misinterpreted in the process between sending
and receiving the message.
• Claude Shannon was a mathematician.
• Warren Weaver was an electrical engineer.
• Many believe this mathematical theory of communication was
mainly developed by Claude Shannon alone and Warren
Weaver had a minimal role.
• Shannon developed the theory to improve understanding of
communication via telephone and eventually improve the quality
of phones.
• It was later used as a general theory of communications
Sender (Information Source)

• The Shannon Weaver model starts with the sender or “information

source”. They are the person (or object, or thing – any information
source) who has the information to begin with. The information
source starts the process by choosing a message to send, someone
to send the message to, and a channel through which to send the
message.
• A sender can send a message in multiple different ways: it may be
orally (through spoken word), in writing, through body language,
music, etc.
• Example: An example of a sender might be the person reading a
newscast on the nightly news. They will choose what to say and how
to say it before the newscast begins.
2. Encoder (Transmitter)

• The next step in the Shannon Weaver model is the ‘encoder’. The encoder
is the machine (or person) that converts the idea into signals that can be
sent from the sender to the receiver.
• The Shannon model was designed originally to explain communication
through means such as telephone and computers which encode our
words using codes like binary digits or radio waves.
• However, the encoder can also be a person that turns an idea into spoken
words, written words, or sign language to communicate an idea to
someone
• Examples: The encoder might be a telephone, which converts our voice
into binary 1s and 0s to be sent down the telephone lines (the channel).
Another encode might be a radio station, which converts voice into waves
to be sent via radio to someone
3. Channel

• The next step in the Shannon Weaver model is the ‘channel’.

• The channel of communication is the infrastructure that gets
information from the sender and transmitter through to the decoder
and receiver.
• We sometimes also call this the ‘medium’.
• Examples: A person sending an email is using the world wide web
(internet) as a medium. A person talking on a landline phone is using
cables and electrical wires as their channel.
• If we’re face-to-face, perhaps we don’t have a channel, except the
sound waves from our voice that carry the sound from the sender’s
mouth to the receiver’s ear.
4. Noise

• The next step in the Shannon Weaver model is ‘noise’. Noise

interrupts a message while it’s on the way from the sender to the
receiver.
• It’s named after the idea that ‘noise’ could interrupt our
understanding of a message.
• There are two types of noise: internal and external.
• Internal noise happens when a sender makes a mistake encoding a
message or a receiver makes a mistake decoding the message.
Here’s the two points where it can happen:
• At the point of encoding (for example, when you misspell a word in a
text message);
• At the point of decoding (for example, when someone misinterprets a
sentence when reading an email)
• External noise happens when something external (not in the
control of sender or receiver) impedes the message. So,
external noise happens:
• At the point of transmission through the channel (for example,
when we’re having a conversation by a busy highway and the
receiver is having trouble hearing over the sound of cars)
• One of the key goals for people who use this theory is to identify
the causes of noise and try to minimize them to improve the
quality of the message.
5. Decoder

• The next step in the Shannon Weaver model is ‘decoder’.

• Decoding is the exact opposite of encoding. Shannon and Weaver made
this model in reference to communication that happens through devices
like telephones.
• So, in this model, there needs to be a device that decodes a message
from binary digits or waves back into a format that can be understood by
the receiver.
• If we’re talking about direct communication between people without the
use of technology, there may still be a need for decoding.
• For example, you might need to decode a secret message, turn written
words into something that makes sense in your mind by reading them out
loud, or you may need to interpret (decode) the meaning behind a picture
that was sent to you.
6. Receiver (Destination)

• The next step in the Shannon Weaver model is ‘receiver’ The

receiver is the end-point of the original Shannon and Weaver
model of the technical communication process.
• This is the step where the person finally gets the message, or
what’s left of it after accounting for noise.
• Examples: Examples of a receiver might be the person on the
other end of a telephone, the person reading an email you sent
them, an automated payments system online that has received
credit card details for payment, etc.
7. Feedback

• The final step in the Shannon Weaver model is ‘feedback‘.

• The ‘feedback’ step was not originally proposed by Shannon
and Weaver in 1948.
• Norbert Weiner came up with the feedback step in response to
criticism of the linear nature of the approach. (‘Linear’ means
that the messages are only going one way).
• Feedback occurs when the receiver of the message responds to the
sender in order to close the communication loop.
• They might respond to let the sender know they got the message or
to show the sender:
• Whether they got the message clearly without noise
• How well they understand the message
• Nonetheless, the ‘feedback’ elements seems like a post-hoc add-on
to the model, and is the subject of a lot of criticism
• Examples: Feedback does not occur in all situations. Sometimes,
like when watching TV, we don’t tend to let the people talking on the
TV know what we’re thinking … we simply watch
Advantages:

• 1. It Explains The Barriers To Effective Communication Very

Well
• The Shannon Weaver information theory was revolutionary
because it explains the concept of ‘noise’ in detail. It shows how
information is interrupted and helps people identify areas for
improvement in communication.
• For example, the model also includes three ‘levels’ where
communication can be interrupted. These are: technical
problems, semantic problems, and effectiveness problems:
• Technical problems: when the decoder, encoder or channel
causes the problems. For example, when a machine important
for the communication of the message has a fault.
• Semantic problems: This is when the message that was sent
is different from the message that was received (a practical way
to think about this is the game ‘Telephone’, also known as
‘Chinese whispers’ or ‘telephono roto’. The message is lost
somewhere in the retelling.).
• Effectiveness problems: This explains how well the message
can cause a response or reaction from the receiver.
2. It breaks down communication into understandable parts
The model enables us to look at the critical steps in the
communication of information from the beginning to end.
3. Transferable to multiple situations
• The communication model was originally made for explaining
communication through technological devices. However, it’s
been used to explain just about any form of communication you
can think of.
Disadvantages:

• 1. It’s A Linear Model / There’s Insufficient Regard For Feedback

• The original 1948 Shannon Weaver blueprint did not contain the ‘feedback’
component. When it was added by Weaver later, it was included as a bit of
an afterthought.
• Thus, it lacks the complexity of truly cyclical models
• 2. It doesn’t account for power relationships
• The model doesn’t take a social scientific look at how information is
interpreted differently based on power relationships or identities of those
people communicating with one another.
• 3. It doesn’t address one-to-many communication
• The ‘mother of all models’ is silent on the issues that arise when there is
one sender and multiple receivers. For a better analysis of mass
communication, use a model like the Lasswell model of communication.
• The Shannon Weaver model of communication is the ‘mother of
all models’ of human communication.
• It is also known as the ‘information theory’.
• It is a mathematical theory considered to be a ‘linear’
communication model.
• Created be Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, it is a highly
effective communication model that explained the whole
communication process from information source to information
receiver.
 5. OSGOOD- SCHRAMM MODEL OF
COMMUNICATION

• It is a Circular Model, so that communication is something circular

in nature
• Encoder – Who does encode or Sends the message (message
originates)
• Decoder – Who receives the message
• Interpreter – Person trying to understand (analyses, perceive) or
interpret
• Note: From the message starting to ending, there is an
interpretation that goes on. Based on this interpretation only the
message is received.
• This model breaks the sender and receiver model it seems
communication in a practical way. It is not a traditional model.
• It can happen within our self or two people; each person acts as both
sender and receiver and hence use interpretation. It simultaneously
takes place e.g. encoding, interpreting and decoding.
• Semantic noise is a concept introduced here that occurs when sender
and receiver apply different meaning to the same message. It
happens mostly because of words and phrases for e.g. Technical
Language, So certain words and phrases will cause you to deviate
from the actual meaning of the communication.
• Note: When semantic noise takes place decoding and interpretation
becomes difficult and people get deviated from the actual message.
Advantage of Osgood- Schramm model of
communication

1.Dynamic model- Shows how a situation can change

2.It shows why redundancy is an essential part
3.There is no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver is
the same person
4.Assume communication to be circular in nature
5.Feedback – central feature.
Disadvantage of Osgood- Schramm model
of communication

• This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assumes
the moment of encoding and decoding.
Communication theory and its applications in
nursing and healthcare

• As a nursing student, you may already have thought about the code
or channel you use when communicating.
• For example, a patient may not be able to hear well, so you may
have to write out the message.
• Emailing lecturers rather than seeing them face to face may be a
choice based on your mode of study, convenience or anxiety, but
one that you hope will achieve the best results.
• You will also need to consider non-verbal communication, as it
makes up a significant proportion of communication
• In the healthcare space, some patients may have to rely on non-
verbal communication, depending on their condition.
• So, when communicating, you need to choose the channel and the
code that are most effective at the time.
Communication Theories in Nursing

• Multiple communication theories are used in nursing to help

explain and guide interactions made between nurses and
patients, as well as nurses and other health care professionals.
PEPLAU’S INTERPERSONAL
RELATIONS THEORY
• This theory focuses on the nurse-client relationship and the
therapeutic process that takes place.
• Communication that occurs in this context involves complex
factors such as environment, in addition to attitudes, practices
and beliefs in the dominant culture.
• Peplau’s interpersonal relations theory defines four stages of
the relationship that achieve a common goal:
• Orientation Phase: The nurse engages the patient in treatment, and the
patient can ask questions and receive explanations and information. This
stage helps the patient develop trust and is where first impressions about
the nurse and health care system begin to evolve.
• Identification Phase: The patient and nurse begin to work together. These
interactions provide the basis for understanding, trust and acceptance as
the patient becomes an active participant in treatment.
• Exploitation Phase: The patient takes advantage of all services offered,
exploiting the nurse-patient relationship to address treatment goals.
• Resolution Phase: As a result of effective communication, the patient’s
needs are met, and he or she moves toward full independence. The
patient no longer needs help, and the relationship ends.
Q. Why is the Transmission Model (Linear)of communication the
least applicable to nursing?

A. It does not consider whether the Client has understood what

the health care giver has said