LESSON 1: Definition and Process of Communication

The word communication comes fro the Latin word communis, which means "common"
and communicare, which means "to share"

Communication is a systematic process in which individuals interact with and though

symbols to create and interact meaning (Wood, 2004)

Communication is a process of sharing and conveying messages or information from one

person to another within and across channels, contexts, media, and (McGornack, 2014)

So basically, communication is the transmission of ideas and emotions between or among

persons with the use of verbal and nonverbal cues.

Nature of Communication

1. Communication is a process.

2. Communication occurs between two or more people. (speaker and the receiver)

3. Communication can be expressed through:

* Written or spoken words (verbal)

* actions (verbal)

* both spoken words and nonverbal actions at the same time

Elements of Communication

• Sender

• Message

• Encoding

• Channel

• Receiver

• Decoding

• Feedback

• Context
• Barrier

• Sender - the speaker or the source of information, thought, or Idea. The sender starts the
communication process

• Message - the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker through words or

actions.

• Encoding - the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other form that
the speaker understands. It answers the question. "How will I send the message?" "Should
I say it?" "Should I write it?" "Express it with my actions?"

• Channel- the medium or the means such as personal or non-personal, verbal or

nonverbal in which the encoded message is conveyed. It answers the question, "What was
used to send the message?" You could send a message through your voice, your bodily
movements, pen and paper, online chats, text messages, etc.

• Receiver-the recipient of the message. The person who will decode the message he got
from the sender.

• Decoding - the process of interpreting the encoded message received from the sender. It
answers the question, " What did I understand from the message received?"

• Feedback - the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver after

decoding the message from the sender. It answers the question, "What was the reply?”
"How did the receiver respond to the message?"

• Context - the environment and setting where communication takes place such as
location, time, place, mood, etc. It affects how messages are constructed, delivered, and
perceived.

• Barrier- the factors that affect the flow of communication. It is any problem, obstacle, or
hindrance that makes communication difficult.

After understanding the elements. It is now easier to perceive the process of

communication.

The Process of Communication

1. The speaker generates an idea

2. The speaker encodes an idea or converts the idea into words or actions.

3. The speaker transmits or sends out the message through the channel.

4. The receiver gets the message

5. The receiver decodes or interprets the message

6. The receiver sends or provides o feedback

LESSON 2: Functions of Communication

Why do people communicate?

The functions of communication are the primary purposes why people use language.

The functions of communication are:

1. Control

2. Social Interaction

3. Motivation

4. Emotional Expression

5. Information Dissemination

Control

- also known as Regulation. This function of communication aims to guide or control an

individual's behavior.

- When communicating for control, people often tell you what to do.

- It may be in a form of advice or command. It could also be expressed implicitly

Example

- The doctor tells you "Take your medicine 3 times a day:

- Your parents order you to wash the dishes.

- Your teacher said, Please tone down your voice"

Social Interaction

- this function of communication allows individuals to interact and socialize with others.

- It produces social relationships and develops intimacy, connections, and bond

Examples:

- Someone says, "It's nice to meet you / How do you do?"

- When a person confesses his/her feelings or another, I feel sate and calm when I'm with
vou.

Motivation

- this function of communication encourages people to live better and have a more positive
outlook. It is used to power up preferences, goals, and strengths.

Example:

- The valedictorian exclaimed, 'we have to be the change our society needs."

- The teacher said that you are doing great and to keep It up.

- When your city mayor encouraged ever one to be the best citizen they can be.

Information Dissemination

- this function of communication aims to acquire and/or convey information

Examples：

-When your teacher discusses the lesson

- When the president delivers the state of the Notion Address

Emotional Expression

-this function of communication facilitates people's expression of their feelings and

emotions
Examples:

- When your mother tells your father, "I love you"

- "I appreciate that you are my friend".

-I've been feeling down lately.

7Cs of Effective Communication by Mulder (2012)

1. Completeness
2. Conciseness
3. Consideration
4. Concreteness
5. Courteousness / Courtesy
6. Clearness
7. Correctness

Effective communication is 20% of what you know and 80% of how you feel about it – Jim
Rohn

Lesson 4: Models of Communication

The process of passing any information from one person to the other person with the end of
some medium is termed as communication.

A model is a pictorial presentation to show the structure of communication process in

which various component elements are linked.

The three general types of communication models:

• Linear Communication Model

• Interactive Communication Model

• Transactional Communication Model

Linear Model
 - This model presents communication as a one - way activity in which information
flows from the sender to the receiver. This process shows only a passive receiver.
- Feedback is not a part of the process, and the role of the receiver is only to accept
information.

Interactive Model

- Shows communication as a two – way activity. The sender and the receiver have the
same role in the activity: either one comes up with an idea, sends a message, and
reacts to it.
- The model involves feedback, an element missing from the linear communication
model. It may also include noise, an element that affects the interpretation of the
message.

Transactional Model

- Presents communication not only as a two-way activity but also as a simultaneous

activity.
- Also called circular model of communication and is used for interpersonal
communication.
- Senders and receivers are called participants since they are capable of sending and
receiving messages anytime or at the same time.
- Nonverbal cues such as gestures, tone of voice, or body language are also
considered as feedback in this type of communication model.
- The noise and the environment are the other elements that affect the process.
- Also, this model takes into account that communicators react to the situation based
on their own past experience, current status, and anticipated future. Each
communicator also has a different background and may have a different set of
norms, values, and beliefs.
- All these influence the transmission and interpretation of messages.
- The diverse perceptions and backgrounds of the communicators influence their
response to a particular communication situation.

Various Models of Communication

• Aristotle’s Model of Communication

• Lasswell’s Model of Communication

• Shannon – Weaver’s Model of Communication

• Berlo’s Model of Communication

• Eugene White Model of Communication

• Dance’s Helical Model of Communication

• Wood’s Symbolic Interaction Model

• ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

- devised during 5 BC.

- A linear or one-way model.
- Focused on the speaker and receiver and the message.
- Setting dictates the message.
- The three (3) settings were legal, deliberative, and ceremonial.
- Examples are presentations, public speech, campaigns, eulogies, wedding toasts,
etc.

• SHANNON-WEAVER MODE by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver.

- Based off of telephone model.

- Gave concept of noise which hampers the communication.
- Criticized for lacking the element of feedback.

• BERLO’S SMCR MODEL by David Berlo.

- Based off of the Shannon-Weaver Model.

- Designed to improve technical communication.
- Emphasized concepts under each element of communication.

• SHCRAMM’S MODEL by Wilbur Shcramm.

- Modified the Shannon-Weaver Model.

- Each person has a field of experience that should overlap for communication to take
place.
- Introduced the concept of feedback.

• WHITE’S MODEL by Eugene White.

- Tells us that communication is circular and continuous and has no beginning nor
end.
- Communication can be observed from any point in the cycle.
• HELICAL MODEL ( DANCE) by Frank Dance.

- Presents the concept of time where continuous communication process is

important.

LESSON 5a: Communication Barriers

Communication is a complex process. It is helpful to consider these models because they

serve a valuable purpose for students' communication. They…

• Allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the process of communication;

• define communication; and

• apply communication concepts

Communicate and interact with each other with respect and kindness to make harmony in
our families, community, and workplace.

To be an effective communicator, you should recognize these barriers that hinder the
communication process. This will enable you to control the situation, reset conditions, and
start anew.

What are the different types of barriers that cause communication breakdown?

Types Of Communication Barriers:

1. Language Barrier

2. Psychological Barrier

3. Physiological Barrier

4. Physical Barrier

5. Attitudinal Barrier

Language Barrier

- language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to communication. However, even
when communicating in the same language, the terminology used in a message may act as
a barrier if it is not fully understood by the receiver/s.

- a message that includes a lot of specialist jargon and abbreviations will not be
understood by a receiver who is not familiar with the terminology used.
- Example: "Please check if you have a tachycardia after biking.'

- We cannot understand it because it is the terminology used by allied health professional

such as doctors and policemen.

- Not using of language that others understood may create miscommunication.

Example:

A Japanese trying to talk to a Filipino who uses any of filipino dialect will not understand
each other.

That's why communication becomes worthless at times.

Psychological Barrier

- The psychological state of the receiver will influence how the message is received.

- For example, if someone has personal worries and is stressed, they may be preoccupied
by personal concerns and not as receptive to the message as if he is not stressed.

- Stress management is on important personal skill that affects our interpersonal

relationship

- Anger is another example of a psychological barrier to communication. When we are

angry, it is easy to say things that we may later regret and to misinterpret what others are
saying.

- More generally, people with low self-esteem may be less assertive and therefore.

Physiological Barrier

- physiological barriers may result from the receivers physical state.

- For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not grasp the entirety of a spoken
conversation, especially if there is significant background noise:

- Besides, this kind of barrier occurs between the sender and the receiver who has physical
disability most especially those referring to senses.

Physical Barrier
- Physical barrier is the environmental and natural condition that act as a barrier in
communication in sending messages from sender to receiver.

• Organizational environment

• Interior workspace design problems

• Technological problems and

• Noise

-If for instance, you are listening to a seminar in a very hot and crowded room.

- You cannot understand what the speaker tells, thus intended message is either
misunderstood or misinterpreted.

Attitudinal Barrier

- Attitudinal barriers are behaviors or perceptions that prevent people from communicating
effectively.

- Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from personality conflicts, poor

management, resistance to change, or a lack of motivation.

- Effective receivers of messages should attempt to overcome their own attitudinal barriers
to facilitate effective communication.

Most of our activities everyday involves communication with others. But there are times the
meaning we want to convey with others are misunderstood, misinterpreted, or even
distorted.

Hence there is what we call communication breakdown which usually results to conflict
and confusion.

This is usually caused by different types of barriers: Language, Psychological,

Physiological, Physical, and Attitudinal Barriers.

To be an effective communicator, we must get acquainted or be familiarized with all of

these barriers so we can find some ways to resolve miscommunication and eventually
understand each other's message.

Understand, open-minded, and considerate to others feelings and physiological or

psychological disabilities will always lead to effective communication.

Besides, our determination to overcome all these barriers matters to make on effective
communication.
LESSON 5b: Communication Strategies to Avoid Communication Breakdown

We have known that humans are social beings who survive more effectively through
sensible discourses, creating and sustaining meaningful conversations.

However, a conversation may be complex at times; that is why some people get lost along
the way and misunderstand each other.

Hence, the importance to employ strategies avoid communication breakdown.

Communication Strategies To Avoid Communication Breakdown (Cohen, 1990)

1. Nomination

2. Restriction

3. Turn-taking

4. Topic control

5. Topic Shifting

6. Repair

7. Termination

Communication Strategies (Cohen, 1990) Nomination

– suggests to open a topic. A speaker carries out nomination to collaboratively and

productively establish a topic. Basically, when you employ this strategy, you try to open a
topic with the people you are talking to.

Example: “Do you have any idea why Albert is not attending our class?”

Communication Strategies (Cohen, 1990) Restriction

– refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker. When communicating in the
classroom, in a meeting, or while hanging out with your friends, you are typically given
specific instructions that you must follow. These instructions confine you as a speaker and
limit what you can say.

Example: “Group 1 will brainstorm about the disadvantages of peer pressure”.

Communication Strategies (Cohen, 1990) Turn-taking

– gives others the opportunity or chance to talk. Turn-taking pertains to the process by
which people decide who takes the conversational floor. Thus, speakers must give only
relevant ideas and opinions to give other people chance to speak.

Example: “Do you want to say something?” or “What do you think?”

Communication Strategies (Cohen, 1990) Topic Control

– Covers how procedural formality or informality affects the development of topic in

conversations.

For example, in meetings, you may only have a turn to speak after the chairperson directs
you to do so. This is to avoid unnecessary interruptions.

Communication Strategies (Cohen, 1990) Topic Shifting

– involves moving from one topic to another. In other words, it is where one part of a
conversation ends and where another begins.

Example: “By the way, can you tell Eryl to proceed in room 301”.

You can also use other conversational transitions like “In addition to what you said…” or
“…which reminds me of…”

Lesson 6: Speech Context

Communication involves people to converse with and how they react and relate to each
other.
Communication may breakdown because of the different types of barriers: Language,
Psychological, Physiological, Physical, and Attitudinal.

So, to become an effective communicator, we must be familiarized with them and find
ways to avoid them: Nomination, Restriction, Turn-Taking, Topic Control, Topic Shifting,
Repair, and Termination.

Types of Speech Context

1. Intrapersonal

2. Interpersonal

3. Public Speaking

4. Mass Communication

Types of Speech Context: Intrapersonal

• This refers to communication that centers on one person in which the speaker, acts both
as the sender and the receiver of message.

• The prefix “intra“ means within; so we can say that intrapersonal communication is
communication within oneself.

• "The message is made up of your thoughts and feelings. The channel is your brain, which
processes what you are thinking and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that as you talk
to yourself, you discard certain ideas and replace them with others." (Hybels & Weaver,
2012, p. 16)

Example No. 1

You spent the night thinking and analyzing why a student from the other class talked to you
on the way home and you decided it probably meant nothing.

Example No. 2

You felt happy while thinking about how your teacher appreciated you for submitting your
project before the due date and you reflected on why this was so.

Example No. 3
You do self-talk to calm yourself down in a stressful situation "I can surpass this".

Type of Speech Context: Interpersonal

• This refers to communication between and among people and establishes personal
relationship between and among them.

• Solomon and Theiss (2013) state that the "inter" part of the word highlights how
interpersonal communication connects people.

• When you engage in interpersonal communication, you and another person become
linked together. The "personal" part means that your unique qualities as a person matter
during interpersonal communication.

• If intrapersonal communication is communication within oneself, interpersonal on the

other hand is communication with others.

Two types: Dyad and Small Group Communication

Dyad Communication

This refers to communication that occurs between two people.

Example:

✓ You offered feedback on the speech performance of your classmate.

✓ You provided comfort to a friend who was feeling down.

Small Group Communication

This refers to communication that involves at least three but not more than twelve people
engaging in a face-to-face interaction to achieve a desired goal.

In this type of communication, all participants can freely share ideas in a loose and open
discussion

Example:
✓ You are participating in an organizational meeting which aims to address the concerns of
your fellow students.

✓You are having a discussion with your group mates on how to finish the assigned tasks.

Types of Speech Context: Public Communication

Communication situation where a speaker delivers a message before an audience.

There are two forms of public communication:

1. Public Speaking

2. Mass Communication

Public Speaking

• Public Speaking is a sustained formal presentation by the speaker to an audience. The

audience primarily functions as receivers and responders.

• A prepared speech is appreciated if delivered orally.

• The message can be driven by informational or persuasive purposes.

Example

✓ President of the Philippines delivers the SONA to an audience in the Congress.

Public Speaking may be used in various ways:

✓ present a class report

✓give an inspirational talk in a club or

✓speak out in a campus forum.

Nationalistic teacher lecturing about patriotism to his class.

• It is public speaking because it is a formal and orderly discourse about her subject matter
to her class.
To maintain reciprocal communication, the speakers in these three preceding examples
must accept responsibility for their stand on issues and for their ideas while the audience
must take responsibility for examining those ideas either critically or appreciatively.

Hardworking coach mapping out strategies with his PBA basketball team

• It is not public speaking because the coach is communicating informally to his generally
less than twenty-five players.

Patriotic student participating in a debate watched by a number of people

• It is a public speaking event because the student is challenging his opponent in a debate
attended by a large group of people.

Mass Communication

• A type of public communication to an extremely large audience mediated by audio and/or

visual means such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, internet
and other social media platforms.

• So, messages may be transmitted orally, visually, or in written form.

• It is also used to inform, to persuade or to entertain the public.

Example No. 1

President speaks in a press briefing concerning Covid-19 pandemic on television.

Example No. 2

A television news anchor presenting guidelines on general community quarantine released

by IATF.

Example No. 3

A teenager chatting over the internet, or a student journalist articulating his stand on
current issues through the school's newspaper.
The three preceding situations are all examples of mass communication because the
speakers supported by audio and/or visual means can disseminate information to a large
number of people.

Sportscaster broadcasting 2019 SEA Games sports events on television

• It is mass communication because the speaker can transmit the series of sports
happenings to a huge public through television.

Consumer talking about the rise in prices of commodities with the cashier at a
crowded supermarket

• It is not mass communication simply because the consumer is communicating only to

the cashier. It is a dyad communication.

Businessman advertising his new native delicacies over the Internet

• It is mass communication because the businessman is promoting his new product to a

huge public through the internet.

Lesson 7: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Verbal Communication

- refers to an interaction in which words are used to relay a message.

• For effective and successful verbal communication, use words to express ideas which
can be easily understood.

• In public speaking, you need to consider the following characteristics of effective verbal
communication:

Characteristics Of Effective Verbal Communication:

✓ Appropriateness
✓ Brevity

✓ Clarity

✓Ethics

✓ Vividness

✓ Appropriateness

It means that the language you use should be appropriate to the environment or occasion
that is whether formal language or informal language.

You are requested to deliver a speech on Utilizing Technology to improve Academic

performance to JHS students at the school auditorium.

Appropriateness of language, clarity of ideas, and vividness of words pertains to verbal

communication.

While suitability of body movements, correctness of tactile communication, and standard

use of space refers to nonverbal communication.

✓Brevity

This means that the speakers who often use simple, yet precise and powerful words are
found to be more credible.

Try to achieve brevity by being more direct with your words.

Avoid fillers and insubstantial expressions which do not add to the message, such as "uh",
"you know", "I guess", and others.

✓ Clarity

The meanings of words, feelings, or ideas may be interpreted differently by a listener

Hence, it is essential for you to clearly state your message and express your ideas and
feelings.

✓ Ethics
The words should be carefully chosen in consideration of the gender, rules, ethnicity,
preferences, and status of the person you are talking to.

✓ Vividness

The words that vividly or creatively describe things or feelings usually add color and spice
to communication.

Hence, you are encouraged to find ways to charm your audience using vivid words.

To further enhance the verbal part of our message, we also need to consider the nonverbal
communication skills.

Nonverbal communication can, in fact, repeat, contradict, replace, and substitute verbal
communication.

Research has shown that nonverbal messages in human communication constitute about
55 percent of the message and the verbal components only about 45 percent.

That is how important nonverbal communication is.

Nonverbal communication refers to an interaction where behavior is used to convey and

represent meanings.

All kinds of human responses that are not expressed in words are classified as nonverbal
communication.

Examples:

stares, smiles, tone of voice, movements, manners of walking, standing and sitting,
appearance, style of attire, attitude towards time and space, personality, gestures, and
others.

Non-verbal communication includes the following:

✓ Chronemics

✓ Proxemics

✓ Tactile

✓ Kinesics
✓ Silence

✓ Paralanguage

✓ Chronemics

Language of time, use of time based on position and power.

In the Philippines, time is most often used to convey how powerful a person is. Someone in
authority may show that his/her time is more important than that of the visitors.

Noting time in communication situations may also convey certain messages.

✓ Proxemics

Language of Space, the use of space and arrangement by the speaker and the listeners in
communication situations.

Distance can express the degree of intimacy and Individual acceptance.

What do you notice in terms of the use of space by two close friends sharing a secret in
contrast to newly- introduced persons talking to each other?

Distance Zone

• Intimate Distance

from actual touching to eighteen inches

applies to the closest relationships such as husband and wife

• Personal Distance

from eighteen inches to four feet

The most appropriate distance for teacher and students to discuss personal affairs such as
grades, conduct, private problems, etc.

• Social Distance

it exists from four to twelve feet

It covers people working together or meeting at social gatherings

✓ Haptics / Tactile

Language of Touch, used to expressed what cannot be said. It is also one of the most
powerful of the types of non-verbal communication.

Unlike the other types, in Haptics, there is contact between the sender and the receiver of
the message.

• Touch can comfort, encourage, dissuade, or aggravate.

Example: Handshakes, holding hands, high five, pat on the shoulder.

✓ Kinesics

These are the body movements that include repertoire of physical actions, such as
movements of your eyes, head, feet, hands, or arms, etc.

Oculesics - eye contact

Facial Expression - pertain to the way the facial muscles are set to indicate feelings,
emotions, or attitudes.

Gestures - which include the movement of the head, hands, arms or shoulders to convey or
emphasize the message.

Posture - It is used to determine a degree of attention or involvement, difference in status

and the level of fondness a person has for the other communicator.

Arms crossing - It shows self-confidence, defensive and arrogance.

Shoulders forward - indicates shyness or low self- esteem, tired and bored.

Standing erect - It indicates that a person is relaxed, full of energy, approachable, friendly
and confident.

✓ Paralanguage

It is concerned with how one says the message, not with what one said. A speaker may use
different intonation patterns, stress or pause to mean what he/she says.

1. An extra high rising-falling intonation with stress placed on first word.

2. A rising intonation with stress placed on last word

✓ Silence

It is possible that no one knows the answer.

✓Color

There are some color effects that have universal meaning while perceptions of colors are
somewhat subjective

Red - anger, hostility

Blue - peace, calm, sadness, truths

Gold - wealth

Pink - love, beauty

Yellow - wisdom, joy, happiness

Green - life

Violet - royalty

White - purity, cleanliness

IMPORTANCE OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION:

1. It can communicate feelings and attitudes without you saying a word.

2. It gives the audience a preview to the type of speaker you are.

3. It can build a connection with listeners.

4. It makes you a credible speaker.

5. It enhances and emphasizes the message of your speech, thus making it more
meaningful, truthful, and relevant.

6. It can sustain the attention of listeners and keep them engaged in the speech.

7. It makes you appear more dynamic and animated in your delivery.

8. It serves as a channel to release tension and nervousness.

9. It helps make your speech more dramatic.

10. It helps you vary your speaking style and avoid a monotonous delivery.

TYPES OF SPEECH

1. Purpose
2. Delivery

SPEECHES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE:

INFORMATIVE SPEECH

- Present and clarify facts and ideas for audiences.

- Informative speaker’s job is to adapt data and ideas to human needs.

DEMONSTRATIVE SPEECH

- Tell and show audience how to execute actions.

- Demonstrative speaker’s job is to explain and/or illustrate processes.

PERSUASIVE SPEECH

- Change or reinforce attitude or behaviors.

- A persuader attempts to influence the listener’s thoughts or actions.

ENTERTAINMENT SPEECH

- Provide pleasure or amusement to audience while delivering a clear message.

- An entertainment speaker aims to connect with the audience not only on cognitive but
also at the affective level.

TYPE OF SPEECH ACCORDING TO DELIVERY:

MANUSCRIPT - Speak from script.

MEMORIZED SPEECH - Speak from memory.

EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEECH - Prepare and speak.

IMPROMPTU SPEECH - Speak on the spur of the moment.

SPEECH STYLE

Speech style means the form of language that the speaker uses which is characterized by
the degree of formality - Martin Joos (1976:156)

FIVE CLASSES OF SPEECH STYLE ACCORDING TO MARTIN JOOS:

FROZEN

- The most formal communicative style that is usually used during respectful events and
ceremonies.

- Also used when one shows hesitation, disinterest, or prejudice.

- Does not require feedback from the audience.

FORMAL - Straight forward speeches.

- Speaker avoids using slang terminologies.

- What the speaker says is prepared beforehand.

- Has no ellipses like omissions or contractions.

CONSULTATIVE

- Used in semi-formal communication.

- Sentences end shorter and spontaneous.

- Speaker does not usually plan what he/she wants to say.

- Most operational among others.

CASUAL

- Informal communication between groups and peers.

- Used in conversation between friends and insiders.

INTIMATE

- Used for very close relationships like couples, family and best friends.
- Used in conversation between people who are very close and know to each other quite
well.

SPEECH ACT

- Speech act is a functional unit in communication. ( Austin’s Theory, 1962)

- A speech act might contain just one word or several word or sentences.

(Bach, 1994), To Communicate is to express a certain attitude, and the type of speech act
being performed corresponds to the type of attitude being expressed.

(L. Austin, 1964), a philosopher of language and the developer of Speech Act Theory, there
are three types of acts in every utterance, given the right circumstances or context.

THREE TYPES OF SPEECH ACTS:

LOCUTIONARY - Literal meaning of utterance.

ILLOCUTIONARY - Related to the social function that the utterance or the written text has.

PERLOCUTIONARY - Result or effect that is produced by the utterance in the given context.

INDIRECT SPEECH ACT

INDIRECT SPEECH ACT - Occurs when there is no direct connection between the form of
utterance and the intended meaning. They are different in force from the inferred speech
act.

EXAMPLE: “Can you pass me the salt?”

DIRECT SPEECH ACT - “can you pass me the salt?”

INFERRED SPEECH ACT - “do you have the ability to pass me the rice?”

INDIRECT SPEECH ACT - “I could really use some salt right now”
JOHN SEARLE (1976), a professor from the University of California, Berkeley, classified
illocutionary acts into five distinct categories:

CATEGORIES OF ILLOCUTIONARY ACTS (Searle, 1976)

REPRESENTATIVE/ASSERTIVE - Examples are suggesting, putting forward, swearing,

boasting, and concluding.

DIRECTIVE - Examples are asking, ordering, requesting, inviting, advising, and begging.

COMMISIVE - Examples are promising, planning, vowing, and betting.

EXPRESSIVE - Examples are thanking, apologizing, welcoming, and deploring.

DECLARATION - Examples are blessing, baptising, bidding, passing a sentence.