20MCA136 NETWORKING & SYSTEM ADMINISTRATION LAB DEPT.

OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

1. Introduction to Computer hardware: Physical identification of major components of a

computer system such as mother board, RAM modules, daughter cards, bus slots, SMPS,
internal storage devices, interfacing ports.

Procedure:

What is Computer Hardware?

Computer hardware is a hardware part of a computer system. In simple words, only those parts
of the computer system which we can see or touch are called computer hardware.

Hardware is an important part of our computer system without which the computer is
incomplete. You cannot use a computer without hardware and without hardware, there cannot
be a computer system or construction.

1. Mouse

A mouse is a hardware input device that is used to move the cursor or pointer on computer
screens. It can also be used to run computer programs, select items in a graphical user interface,
and manipulate objects in the computer world. Some common examples of how it can be used
are clicking on buttons, scrolling up and down the screen, selecting files, opening folders, and
so on.
2. Keyboard

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A keyboard is an input device that you use to enter data into a computer. It's also called the
input device for your computer. Keyboards are used with PCs, laptops, tablets, and other
devices. There are many different types of keyboards, but the most common one is the
QWERTY keyboard. A QWERTY keyboard has all the letters in alphabetical order on it. This
is different from some other types of keyboards, like Dvorak or Colemak keyboards. For
example, these keyboards have keys arranged differently than what you’re used to seeing on a
QWERTY keyboard. And that means that typing on these keyboards will feel like typing in
another language at first! But don’t worry - once you get accustomed to it, it feels natural!

3. Monitor

Personal computers use a monitor to display data, run the software, and interact with the user.
A monitor is an electronic visual display that connects to your computer or laptop. It is used
for displaying images, text, videos, games, web pages, and more. Monitors are available in
different sizes depending on the needs of the person using them. The most common types of
monitors are CRT (cathode ray tube), LCD (liquid crystal display), and LED (light-emitting
diode).

4. Motherboard

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The motherboard is the backbone of our computer system. It's the central processing unit or
CPU. It connects all the other components, like memory and graphics card, to the power supply.
The motherboard is where all the wires are plugged in and it's also where you place your RAM,
which is your computer's working memory. The motherboard is what makes one machine
different from another.

Motherboards are made up of tiny transistors that control the flow of electricity through copper
tracks on their surface. These transistors are called Integrated Circuits or ICs for short.

5. CPU (Central Processing Unit)

A CPU, or central processing unit, is the brain of a computer. The CPU processes information
and runs programs. It functions as a control unit that executes programs according to
instructions in its program memory. The CPU contains elements such as registers, an arithmetic
logic unit (ALU), and control logic for sequencing instructions.

6. RAM Memory

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A computer's RAM is a type of computer memory that stores information so the CPU can
access it directly. Computer systems use main memory to store both data and programs. The
more RAM you have, the more data your system can process at one time. This will lead to
more efficient operations on your computer, which translates into better performance for the
user.

7. ROM Memory

ROM stands for a type of memory chip that can be read from but not written to. In other words,
it's a form of data storage that can't be changed after being programmed. It's sometimes called
"non-volatile" memory because the stored information will remain even when not powered up
or in use. ROM is often used to store a computer's basic start-up instructions and certain types
of data, such as your car's on-board computer system and a calculator's data tables.

8. Hard Disk Drive

A hard disk drive is a piece of hardware inside a computer that stores information.It's used to
store software and data in a safe place, which can be accessed when needed. With magnetic
storage, there are no moving parts - unlike a CD or DVD player in which you need to move a

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disk in order to access data. You can think of it as "a closet" where all your stuff is stored
safely. As long as you have power, you can get to your things when you need them.

9. Optical Drive

Optical Drives are used in PCs to read and write CDs and DVDs. The optical drive reads the
data from the disc, which can then be transformed into a digital file that is readable by the
computer. This makes it easy to backup files, play music or movies, or copy data from one disc
to another. The term "CD" refers to Compact Discs, which are the most common type of optical
drive on modern computers. They are often used for installing software on your computer,
moving data between computers, or writing new programs.

10. Power Supply

A power supply is an electrical appliance that provides the necessary power to operate a
computer.Computers are powered by electricity, and the power supply converts the alternating
current (AC) from the electric outlet into direct current (DC). The power supply in a computer
can be an internal or external component.

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2. Install latest version of Ubuntu on a virtualbox

Procedure:
1. Download and Virtualbox Windows 10 Installation

2. Ubuntu ISO download

3. Install Virtualbox

4. Create an Ubuntu VM

5. Install Ubuntu on Virtualbox Windows 10 6. Install Virtualbox Guest Additions

Download and Virtualbox Windows 10 Installation

1. Install Ubuntu on VirtualBox

2. HowTo Install Ubuntu On VirtualBox?

2.1. Open VirtualBox

2.2. Click on “New” to create a virtual machine

2.3. Enter Name for your Virtual Machine

2.4. Select “Linux” Operating System from“Type”

2.5. Click “Next”

2.6. Enter amount of memory (RAM) =1024 MBand click “Next”

2.7. Click “Create” to create hard drive

2.8. Click “Next”

2.9. Click “Next”

2.10. Enter Size of Virtual Hard Drive= 20 GBand Click “Create”

2.11. Select Virtual Machine

2.12. Click on “Start” to start the virtual machine

2.13. Select disk file source

2.14 Afterselecting the OS file to be installed click “Open”
2.15. Click “Start”

2.16. Click “Ok”

2.17. Click “Install Ubuntu”

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2.18. Click “Continue”

2.19. Click “Install Now”

2.20. Click “Continue”

2.21. Select location and click “Continue”

2.22. Select keyboard layout & click “Continue”

2.23. Fill all the details and Click “Continue”

2.24. Now the installation process will start and installation window will appear

2.25. Click “Restart Now”

2.26. When the system will get restarted the following message will appear. Press “Enter”

2.27. Close the pop-up messages by clicking on the Close (×) button

3. Steps To Maximize The Size Of Ubuntu Desktop

3.1. Go to “Devices”

3.2. Click “Insert Guest Additions CD Image…”

3.3. Click “Run”

3.4. Click “Authenticate”

3.5. Press “Enter”

3.6. Now “Restart” your system for the changes to be applied.

3.7. After the system gets restarted. Go to “View”

3.8. Click “Switch to Full screen”

3.9. Click “Switch”

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Output Screenshot
STEP 1: Installing Virtual Box.

a. Starting pop-up window for the installation.

b. Custom setup window to select the features you want and select installation location

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c. Custom setup window to choose from the option below.

d. Custom setup window to confirm the installation.

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e. Custom setup window to install the virtual box with the install button.

f. Installation box showing the installation status.

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g. Installation complete pop-up windows with the finish button.

STEP 2: Setup the Ubuntu Instance in the VM Virtual Box.

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a. After selecting the NEW button to create the Ubuntu instance, the pop-up window
to enter & select the name, type and version of the OS.

b. Choose the main memory size for the OS.

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c. Option to add a virtual hard disk to the new machine instance.

d. Option to choose the type of new virtual hard disk for new instance of OS.

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e. Options to choose the methods of accessing the physical hard disk space for the new
instance from the existing hard disk

f. Panel to select the size of the virtual disk in megabytes and location and name of the
instance and final submit to create the instance of OS.

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g. The newly created OS instance and at the left side of the

application.

h. Settings the configurations of the instance created and adding the ISO image file of the OS
correspondingly and Selecting the ISO image file from the local device.

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STEP 3: Installation of the Ubuntu OS within the newly created instance.

a. Running the new OS instance and selecting the “Install Ubuntu” to
install the loaded ISO file.

b. Selecting the language for install the ubuntu OS.

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c. Selection of other installation along & within with the installation of ubuntu.

d. Selecting the disk partitioning allocation options from the given below.

e. Selecting the geographical location for the time/location.

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f. Entering the name, username & password for the account to sign in to the ubuntu
OS after installation.

g. Installing the ubuntu OS in the instance, extracting the ubuntu ISO file,
setting configurations, setting the various software within, etc.

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h. Restarting the OS instance to finalize the installation.

i. Signing in and visiting the home screen of the ubuntu OS using the previously registered
username & password.

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Output

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3. Study of a terminal based text editor such as Vim or Gedit, Basic Linux commands: -
familiarity with following commands/operations expected

Procedure

Pwd: This command is used to display the location of the current working directory.

Syntax :-$ pwd

Output

Mkdir: This command is used to create a new directory under any directory.
Syntax :-$ mkdir<directory name>
Output

ls: This command is used to display a list of content of directory.

Syntax :-$ ls

Output

Man:This command is used to display the user manual of any command that we can run on
the terminal.

Syntax :-$ man <command name>

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Cd:This command is used to change the current directory.

Syntax :-$ cd <directory name>

Output

 cd.. : This command is used to move to the parent directory of current directory, or the
directory one level up from the current directory.

 cd –:This command is used to switch back to previous directory

we were working earlier.

cat > filename:This command is used to create a file and add contents to that
file.

Syntax :-$ cat > filename.txt

cat filename:This command is used to view the contents in the file.

Syntax :-$ cat filename.txt

Output

cat>>filename:This command is used to add contents to an existing file.

Syntax :-$ cat >> filename.txt
Output

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cat filename1 > filename2:This command is used to copy the content from one
file to another file.

Syntax :-$ cat filename1 > filename2

Output

read :This command is used to read the content of a line to a variable.

Syntax :-$ read variablename

Find:This command is used to display contents of particular directory.

Syntax :-$ find filename.txt

grep :This command will let you search through all the text in a given file.
Syntax :-$ grep word filename.txt
Output:-

 grep -i :command used for a case insensitive search

Syntax: $ grep -i filename.txt

 grep -v :command used for inverted search.

Syntax: $ grep -v filename.txt

 grep -A1:command used to display line after the result.
Syntax: $ grep -A1 filename.txt
 grep -B1:command used to display line before the result.

Syntax: $ grep -B1 filename.txt

 grep -C1:command used to display line before and after the result.

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Syntax: $ grep -C1 filename.txt

wc -word count:This command is used for counting purpose which is used to
find the number of lines,the number of words,the number of characters and the
number of bytes.

 wc -l (count number of lines)

 wc -w (count number of words)

 wc -c (count number of characters)

 wc -m (count number of bytes)

Syntax :- $ wc -l filename.txt

$ wc -w filename.txt

$ wc -c filename.txt

$ wc -m filename.txt

Output

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df :This command is used to get a report on system disc space usage.

Syntax :-$ df filename.txt
Output

 df -m :This command is used to see the report in mega bytes.

Syntax :$ def -m filename.txt

cut -d:This command is used to cut and display the content based on the
delimiter given.

Syntax :-$ cut –d delimiter –fieldnumber filename

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cut -b:This command is used tocut and display the content based on the specified
byte number.

Syntax :-$ cut –b bytenumber filename

Output

cut --complement -c:This command is used to erase the specified character and
display the remaining content of the file.

Syntax :-$ cut --complement –c characternumber filename.txt

Output

Paste:This command is used to paste the contents from the specified file.
Syntax :-$ paste filename

More:This command is used to view the text files in the command prompt,
displaying one screen at a time in case the file is large.

Syntax :-$ more filename

Cp:This command is used to copy the contents from an existing file to a new
file.

Syntax :-$ cpexisting_filenamenew_filename

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Output

Mv:This command is used to move an existing file or directory from one

location to another.

Syntax :-$ mv filename directory_name

Output

Head:This command is used to display the first 10 lines of the file by default.
Syntax :-$ head filename

Output

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 head -number:This command is used to display the lines of the

file to the specified number from head.
Tail:This command is used to display the last 10 lines of the file by default.
Syntax :-$ tail filename
Output

 tail -number:This command is used to display the lines of the

file to the specified number from tail.

sudo useradd :This command is used to add new user.

Syntax :-$ sudo useradd username

Output

 sudo passwd :This command is used to add password to the user.

Syntax :-$ sudo passwd username

 sudo usermod :This command is used to add members.

Syntax :-$sudo usermod -G groupname username delete

 sudo userdel username - used to delete user.

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 sudo groupdel groupname - used to delete group name.

Syntax :-$ sudo userdel username

 sudo groupdel groupname

chmod :This command is used change directory permission of files.

 chmod +rwx

 chmod -wx

 chmod -rwx

Syntax :- $ chmod +wx filename

$ chmod -wx filename

$ chmod -rwx filename

Output

chown:This command is used to give ownership to user .

Syntax :- $ sudo chown username filename

Output

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Ssh:This command is used to provide a secure encrypted connection between two

hosts over an insecure network.

Syntax :- $ ssh mca@ipaddress

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4. Shell scripting: study bash syntax, environment variables, variables, control constructs
such as if, for and while, aliases and functions, accessing command line arguments passed
to shell scripts.

Source code &Output

Program 1
Write a Shell program to check the given number is even or odd.

check_odd_even() {
if [ $((number % 2)) -eq 0 ]; then
echo "$number is even"
else
echo "$number is odd"
fi
}

echo "Please enter a number: "

read number

check_odd_even "$number"

Program 2
Write a Shell program to check a leap year.

echo "Enter the year (YYYY)"

read year
if [ $((year % 4)) -eq 0 ]
then
if [ $((year % 100)) -eq 0 ]
then
if [ $((year % 400)) -eq 0 ]
then
echo "$year is a leap year"
else
echo "$year is not a leap year"

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fi
else
echo "$year is a leap year"
fi
else
echo "$year is not a leap year"
fi

Program 3
Write a Shell program to find the area and circumference of a circle.

echo "Enter the radius:"

read r
area=`echo 3.14 \* $r \* $r| bc`
cir=`echo 2 \* 3.14 \* $r| bc `
echo "Area : $area"
echo "Circumference : $cir"

Program 4
Write a Shell program to check the given number and its reverse are same.

read num
reverse=$(echo "$num" | rev)
if [ "$num" -eq "$reverse" ]; then
echo "$num is same when reversed."
else
echo "$num is not same when reversed."

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fi

Program 5
Write a Shell program to check the given string is palindrome or not.

echo Enter the string

read s
echo $s>temp
rvs="$(rev temp)"
if [ $s = $rvs ]
then
echo "it is palindrome"
else
echo " it is not a Palindrome"
fi

Program 6
Write a Shell program to find the sum of odd and even numbers from a set of numbers.

echo "Enter a set of numbers separated by spaces: "

read -a numbers
sum_even=0
sum_odd=0
for num in "${numbers[@]}"
do
if [ $(($num % 2)) -eq 0 ]

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then
sum_even=$(($sum_even + $num))
else
sum_odd=$(($sum_odd + $num))
fi
done
echo "Sum of even numbers is: $sum_even"
echo "Sum of odd numbers is: $sum_odd"

Program 7
Write a Shell program to find the roots of a quadratic equation.

echo "Enter the coefficients of the quadratic equation (a, b, c): "
read a b c
discriminant=$((b*b - 4*a*c))
if [ $discriminant -lt 0 ]
then
echo "The quadratic equation has no real roots."
else

root1=$(echo "scale=2; (-$b + sqrt($discriminant)) / (2*$a)" | bc)

root2=$(echo "scale=2; (-$b - sqrt($discriminant)) / (2*$a)" | bc)

echo "The roots of the quadratic equation are: $root1 and $root2"
fi

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Program 8
Write a Shell program to check the given integer is Armstrong number or not.

echo "Enter an integer: "

read number
count=${#number}
sum=0
for (( i=0; i<count; i++ ))
do
digit=${number:i:1}
sum=$((sum + digit**count))
done
if [ "$sum" -eq "$number" ]
then
echo "The number $number is an Armstrong number."
else
echo "The number $number is not an Armstrong number."
fi

Program 9
Write a Shell program to check the given integer is prime or not.
echo "Enter an integer: "
read number
flag=1
for (( i=2; i<=number/2; i++ ))
do
if [ $((number%i)) -eq 0 ]
then
flag=0
break
fi

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done
if [ $number -eq 1 ]
then
echo "1 is neither prime nor composite."
elif [ $flag -eq 1 ]
then
echo "$number is a prime number."
else
echo "$number is not a prime number."
fi

Program 10
Write a Shell program to generate prime numbers between 1 and 50.

echo "Prime numbers between 1 and 50 are:"

for (( number=2; number<=50; number++ ))
do
flag=1

for (( i=2; i<=number/2; i++ ))

do
if [ $((number%i)) -eq 0 ]
then
flag=0
break
fi
done
if [ $flag -eq 1 ]
then
echo $number
fi

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Done

Program 11
Write a Shell program to find the sum of square of individual digits of a number.

echo "Enter a number: "

read number
sum=0
while [ $number -ne 0 ]
do
digit=$((number % 10))
sum=$((sum + digit * digit))
number=$((number / 10))
done
echo "The sum of the squares of the digits is $sum."

Program 12
Write a Shell program to count the number of vowels in a line of text.

echo "Enter a line of text:"

read line

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vowel_count=0
for (( i=0; i<${#line}; i++ )); do
char=${line:i:1}
case $char in
[aeiouAEIOU])
vowel_count=$((vowel_count + 1))
;;
esac
done
echo "The number of vowels in the line of text is: $vowel_count"

Program 13
Write a Shell program to display student grades.

INPUT_FILE="grades.txt"
if [[ ! -f "$INPUT_FILE" ]]; then
echo "Input file not found!"
exit 1
fi
declare -A grades
while read line; do
name=$(echo "$line" | cut -d ',' -f 1)
grade=$(echo "$line" | cut -d ',' -f 2)
grades["$name"]=$grade
done < "$INPUT_FILE"
for name in "${!grades[@]}"; do
echo "$name: ${grades[$name]}"
done

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Program 14
Write a Shell program to find the smallest and largest numbers from a set of numbers.

NUMBERS=(5 3 8 1 9 4 7 2)
smallest=${NUMBERS[0]}
largest=${NUMBERS[0]}
for number in "${NUMBERS[@]}"; do
if (( number < smallest )); then
smallest=$number
fi
if (( number > largest )); then
largest=$number
fi
done
echo "Smallest number: $smallest"
echo "Largest number: $largest"

Program 15
Write a Shell program to find the smallest digit from a number.

echo "Enter a number:"

read number
smallest=${number:0:1}
for (( i=1; i<${#number}; i++ )); do
digit=${number:i:1}
if (( digit < smallest )); then

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smallest=$digit
fi
done
echo "Smallest digit: $smallest"

Program 16
Write a Shell program to find the sum of all numbers between 50 and 100, which are
divisible by 3 and not divisible by 5.
sum=0
for (( i=50; i<=100; i++ )); do
if (( i % 3 == 0 )) && (( i % 5 != 0 )); then
sum=$(( sum + i ))
fi
done
echo "Sum of numbers between 50 and 100, which are divisible by 3 and not divisible by 5:
$sum"

Program 17
Write a Shell program to find the second highest number from a set of numbers.

NUMBERS=(5 3 8 1 9 4 7 2)
highest=${NUMBERS[0]}
second_highest=${NUMBERS[0]}
for number in "${NUMBERS[@]}"; do
if (( number > highest )); then
second_highest=$highest
highest=$number
elif (( number != highest )) && (( number > second_highest )); then

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second_highest=$number
fi
done
echo "Second highest number: $second_highest"

Program 18
Write a Shell program to find the sum of digits of a number using function.

function sum_of_digits {
local number=$1
local sum=0
while (( number > 0 )); do
sum=$(( sum + number % 10 ))
number=$(( number / 10 ))
done
echo "$sum"
}
echo "Enter a number:"
read number
result=$(sum_of_digits $number)
echo "Sum of digits of $number: $result"

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Program 19
Write a Shell program to print the reverse of a number using function.

function reverse_number {
local number=$1
local reverse=0
while (( number > 0 )); do
reverse=$(( reverse * 10 + number % 10 ))
number=$(( number / 10 ))
done
echo "$reverse"
}
echo "Enter a number:"
read number
result=$(reverse_number $number)
echo "Reverse of $number: $result"

Program 20
Write a Shell program to find the factorial of a number using for loop.

echo "Enter a number:"

read number
factorial=1
for (( i=1; i<=number; i++ )); do
factorial=$(( factorial * i ))
done
echo "Factorial of $number: $factorial"

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Program 21
Write a Shell program to generate Fibonacci series.

echo "Enter the length of the Fibonacci series:"

read length
num1=0
num2=1
echo -n "$num1 $num2 "
for (( i=2; i<length; i++ )); do
next=$(( num1 + num2 ))
echo -n "$next "
num1=$num2
num2=$next
done
echo ""

Program 22
Write a shell script, which receives two filenames as arguments. It checks whether the two
files contents are same or not. If they are same then second file is deleted.

#!/bin/bash

if [ $# -ne 2 ]; then
echo "Usage: $0 file1 file2"
exit 1
fi
if cmp -s "$1" "$2"; then
echo "The contents of $1 and $2 are the same. Deleting $2..."
rm "$2"

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else
echo "The contents of $1 and $2 are different."
Fi

Program 23
Write a Menu driven Shell script that Lists current directory, Prints Working Directory,
displays Date and displays Users logged in

#!/bin/bash
while true
do
clear
echo "Menu:"
echo "1. List current directory"
echo "2. Print working directory"
echo "3. Display date"
echo "4. Display users logged in"
echo "5. Exit"

read -p "Enter your choice: " choice

case $choice in
1)
ls -l
read -p "Press enter to continue"
;;
2)
pwd
read -p "Press enter to continue"
;;
3)

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date
read -p "Press enter to continue"
;;
4)
who
read -p "Press enter to continue"
;;
5)
exit 0
;;
*)
echo "Invalid choice. Press enter to try again"
read
;;
esac
done

Program 24
Shell script to check executable rights for all files in the current directory, if a file does not
have the execute permission then make it executable.

for file in *; do
if [[ ! -x "$file" ]]; then
chmod +x "$file"
echo "Made $file executable"
fi

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done

Program 25
Write a Shell program to generate all combinations of 1, 2, and 3 using loop.
#!/bin/bash
for i in 1 2 3
do
for j in 1 2 3
do
for k in 1 2 3
do
echo "$i $j $k"
done
done
done

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Program 26
Write a Shell program to create the number series.
1
23
456
7 8 9 10

#!/bin/bash
num=1
row=1
while [ $row -le 4 ]; do
for (( i=1; i<=$row; i++ )); do
echo -n "$num "
num=$((num+1))
done

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echo ""
row=$((row+1))
done

Program 27
Write a Shell program to create Pascal’s triangle.

#!/bin/bash
function binom {
if [ $2 -eq 0 ] || [ $2 -eq $1 ]; then
echo 1
else
echo $(( $(binom $(($1-1)) $(($2-1))) + $(binom $(($1-1)) $2) ))
fi
}
echo "Enter the number of rows in Pascal's triangle: "
read rows
for (( i=0; i<$rows; i++ )); do
for (( j=0; j<=$i; j++ )); do
val=$(binom $i $j)
echo -n "$val "
done
# Move to next row
echo ""
done

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Program 28
Write a Decimal to Binary Conversion Shell Script

#!/bin/bash
# Prompt the user for the decimal number to convert
echo "Enter a decimal number: "
read decimal
# Convert the decimal number to binary
binary=""
while [ $decimal -gt 0 ]; do
remainder=$((decimal % 2))
binary="$remainder$binary"
decimal=$((decimal / 2))
done
# Print the binary number
echo "The binary equivalent is: $binary"

Program 29
Write a Shell Script to Check Whether a String is Palindrome or not

#!/bin/bash
# Prompt the user for the string to check
echo "Enter a string: "
read string
# Reverse the string
reverse=$(echo $string | rev)
# Check if the string is equal to its reverse
if [ "$string" == "$reverse" ]; then
echo "$string is a palindrome."

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else
echo "$string is not a palindrome."
fi

Program 30
Write a shell script to find out the unique words in a file and also count the occurrence of
each of these words.

#!/bin/bash
# Prompt the user for the file name
echo "Enter the file name: "
read file
# Check if the file exists
if [ ! -f "$file" ]; then
echo "File not found."
exit 1
fi
# Convert the contents of the file to lowercase and replace all non-alphanumeric characters
with spaces
contents=$(tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' < $file | sed 's/[^a-z0-9]/ /g')
# Create an array of words from the file contents
words=($contents)
# Loop through the array of words and count their occurrences
declare -A count
for word in "${words[@]}"; do
if [ -n "$word" ]; then
((count[$word]++))
fi
done
# Print the unique words and their counts
echo "Unique words in $file:"

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for word in "${!count[@]}"; do

echo "$word: ${count[$word]}"
done

Program 31
Write a shell script to get the total count of the word “Linux” in all the “.txt” files and also
across files present in subdirectories.

#!/bin/bash
# Set the search directory
search_dir="."
# Find all ".txt" files in the search directory and its subdirectories
files=$(find "$search_dir" -type f -name "*.txt")
# Initialize the count
count=0
# Loop through each file and count the occurrences of "Linux"
for file in $files; do
occurrences=$(grep -o "Linux" "$file" | wc -l)
count=$((count + occurrences))
done

# Print the total count

echo "Total count of 'Linux' in all .txt files: $count"

Program 32
Write a shell script to validate password strength. Here are a few assumptions for the
password string.
Length – minimum of 8 characters.

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Contain both alphabet and number.

Include both the small and capital case letters.
#!/bin/bash
read -p "Enter your password: " password
# Check if password is at least 8 characters long
if [[ ${#password} -lt 8 ]]; then
echo "Password length must be at least 8 characters."
exit 1
fi
# Check if password contains both alphabet and number
if ! [[ "$password" =~ [A-Za-z]+[0-9]+ ]]; then
echo "Password must contain both alphabet and number."
exit 1
fi
# Check if password includes both small and capital case letters
if ! [[ "$password" =~ [a-z]+ ]] || ! [[ "$password" =~ [A-Z]+ ]]; then
echo "Password must include both small and capital case letters."
exit 1
fi
echo "Password is valid."

Program 33
Write a shell script to print the count of files and subdirectories in the specified directory.

echo "Enter directory path: "

read directory

num_files=$(find $directory -type f | wc -l)

num_directories=$(find $directory -type d | wc -l)

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echo "Number of files: $num_files"

echo "Number of directories: $num_directories"

Program 34
Write a shell script to reverse the list of strings and reverse each string further in the list.
#!/bin/bash
my_list=("string1" "string2" "string3" "string4")
# Reverse the order of the list
my_list=($(echo "${my_list[@]}" | tr ' ' '\n' | tac | tr '\n' ' '))
# Reverse each string in the list
for i in "${!my_list[@]}"
do
my_list[$i]=`echo ${my_list[$i]} | rev`
done
# Print the reversed list of strings
echo "${my_list[@]}"

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5. File system hierarchy in a common Linux distribution, file and device permissions,
study of system configuration files in /etc, familiarizing log files for system events, user
activity, network events.

The Linux File Hierarchy Structure or the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) defines the
directory structure and directory contents in Unix-like operating systems.It is maintained by
the Linux Foundation.

 In the FHS, all files and directories appear under the root directory /, even if they are
stored on different physical or virtual devices.
 Some of these directories only exist on a particular system if certain subsystems, such
as the X Window System, are installed.
 Most of these directories exist in all UNIX operating systems and are generally used in
much the same way; however, the descriptions here are those used specifically for the
FHS, and are not considered authoritative for platforms other than Linux.

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– The Root Directory

Everything on your Linux system is located under the / directory, known as the root directory.
You can think of the / directory as being similar to the C:\ directory on Windows – but this
isn’t strictly true, as Linux doesn’t have drive letters. While another partition would be located
at D:\ on Windows, this other partition would appear in another folder under / on Linux.

/bin : Essential command binaries that need to be available in single user mode; for all users,
e.g., cat, ls, cp.

 Contains binary executables

 Common linux commands you need to use in single-user modes are located under
this directory.
 Commands used by all the users of the system are located here e.g. ps, ls, ping, grep,
cp

The /bin directory contains the essential user binaries (programs) that must be present when the
system is mounted in single-user mode. Applications such as Firefox are stored in /usr/bin,
while important system programs and utilities such as the bash shell are located in /bin. The
/usr directory may be stored on another partition – placing these files in the /bin directory
ensures the system will have these important utilities even if no other file systems are mounted.
The /sbin directory is similar – it contains essential system administration binaries.

/boot – Static Boot File: The /boot directory contains the files needed to boot the system – for
example, the GRUB boot loader’s files and your Linux kernels are stored here. The boot
loader’s configuration files aren’t located here, though – they’re in /etc with the other
configuration files.

/cdrom – Historical Mount Point for CD-ROMs

The /cdrom directory isn’t part of the FHS standard, but you’ll still find it on Ubuntu and other
operating systems. It’s a temporary location for CD-ROMs inserted in the system. However,
the standard location for temporary media is inside the /media directory.

/dev – Device Files

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Linux exposes devices as files, and the /dev directory contains a number of special files that
represent devices. These are not actual files as we know them, but they appear as files – for
example, /dev/sda represents the first SATA drive in the system. If you wanted to partition it,
you could start a partition editor and tell it to edit /dev/sda.

This directory also contains pseudo-devices, which are virtual devices that don’t actually
correspond to hardware. For example, /dev/random produces random numbers. /dev/null is a
special device that produces no output and automatically discards all input – when you pipe the
output of a command to /dev/null, you discard it.

/etc – Configuration Files

The /etc directory contains configuration files, which can generally be edited by hand in a text
editor. Note that the /etc/ directory contains system-wide configuration files – user-specific
configuration files are located in each user’s home directory.

/home – Home Folders

The /home directory contains a home folder for each user. For example, if your user name is
bob, you have a home folder located at /home/bob. This home folder contains the user’s data
files and user-specific configuration files. Each user only has write access to their own home
folder and must obtain elevated permissions (become the root user) to modify other files on the
system.

/lib – Essential Shared Libraries

The /lib directory contains libraries needed by the essential binaries in the /bin and /sbin folder.
Libraries needed by the binaries in the /usr/bin folder are located in /usr/lib.

/lost+found – Recovered Files

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Each Linux file system has a lost+found directory. If the file system crashes, a file system
check will be performed at next boot. Any corrupted files found will be placed in the lost+found
directory, so you can attempt to recover as much data as possible.

/media – Removable Media

The /media directory contains subdirectories where removable media devices inserted into the
computer are mounted. For example, when you insert a CD into your Linux system, a directory
will automatically be created inside the /media directory. You can access the contents of the
CD inside this directory.

/mnt – Temporary Mount Points

Historically speaking, the /mnt directory is where system administrators mounted temporary
file systems while using them. For example, if you’re mounting a Windows partition to perform
some file recovery operations, you might mount it at /mnt/windows. However, you can mount
other file systems anywhere on the system.

/opt – Optional Packages

The /opt directory contains subdirectories for optional software packages. It’s commonly used
by proprietary software that doesn’t obey the standard file system hierarchy – for example, a
proprietary program might dump its files in /opt/application when you install it.

/proc – Kernel & Process Files

The /proc directory similar to the /dev directory because it doesn’t contain standard files. It
contains special files that represent system and process information.

/root – Root Home Directory

The /root directory is the home directory of the root user. Instead of being located at /home/root,
it’s located at /root. This is distinct from /, which is the system root directory.

/run – Application State Files

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The /run directory is fairly new, and gives applications a standard place to store transient files
they require like sockets and process IDs. These files can’t be stored in /tmp because files in
/tmp may be deleted.

/sbin – System Administration Binaries

The /sbin directory is similar to the /bin directory. It contains essential binaries that are
generally intended to be run by the root user for system administration

/selinux – SELinux Virtual File System

If your Linux distribution uses SELinux for security (Fedora and Red Hat, for example), the
/selinux directory contains special files used by SELinux. It’s similar to /proc. Ubuntu doesn’t
use SELinux, so the presence of this folder on Ubuntu appears to be a bug.

/srv – Service Data

The /srv directory contains “data for services provided by the system.” If you were using the
Apache HTTP server to serve a website, you’d likely store your website’s files in a directory
inside the /srv directory.

/tmp – Temporary Files

Applications store temporary files in the /tmp directory. These files are generally deleted
whenever your system is restarted and may be deleted at any time by utilities such as tmpwatch.

/usr – User Binaries & Read-Only Data

The /usr directory contains applications and files used by users, as opposed to applications and
files used by the system. For example, non-essential applications are located inside the /usr/bin
directory instead of the /bin directory and non-essential system administration binaries are
located in the /usr/sbin directory instead of the /sbin directory. Libraries for each are located
inside the /usr/lib directory. The /usr directory also contains other directories – for example,
architecture-independent files like graphics are located in /usr/share.The /usr/local directory is

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where locally compiled applications install to by default – this prevents them from mucking up
the rest of the system.

/var – Variable Data Files

The /var directory is the writable counterpart to the /usr directory, which must be read-only in
normal operation. Log files and everything else that would normally be written to /usr during
normal operation are written to the /var directory. For example, you’ll find log files in /var/log.

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6. Installation and configuration of LAMP stack. Deploy an open source

application such as phpmyadmin and Wordpress.

Procedure

Install Apache2
 Update your system:

sudo apt update

 Install Apache using apt:

sudo apt install apache2

 Confirm that Apache is now running with the following command:

sudo systemctl status apache2

 If it is not working !

sudo systemctl stop apache2 # to stop if running

sudo systemctl start apache2 # to start if not running

 Once installed, test by accessing your server’s IP in your browser:

http://127.0.0.1/

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http://localhost/

Install mariadb
sudo apt install mariadb-server mariadb-client

sudo systemctl status mysql # to check status

sudo systemctl start mysq # if not running
sudo mysql_secure_installation # Secure your newly installed MariaDB

Install PHP and commonly used modules

 sudo apt install php libapache2-mod-php php-opcache php-cli php-gd

php- curl php-mysql

 sudo systemctl restart apache2

 Test PHP Processing on Web Server

sudo nano /var/www/html/phpinfo.php

 Inside the file, type in the valid PHP code:

<?php
phpinfo ();
?>

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 Press CTRL + X to save and close the file. Press y and ENTER to
confirm Open a browser and type in your IP address/phpinfo.php

http://127.0.0.1/phpinfo.php

Install phpmyadmin

sudo apt install phpmyadmin php-mbstring php-zip php-gd php-json php-

curl

sudo systemctl restart apache2

 Open a browser : http://localhost/phpmyadmin

username:root
password : yourpassword If php my admin page not found :

nano /etc/apache2/apache2.conf

 Add this line to last of the file.

Press CTRL + X to save and close the file. Press y and ENTER to
confirm

Include /etc/phpmyadmin/apache.conf

 restart apache2 - now try : http://localhost/phpmyadmin

sudo systemctl restart apache2

 If any problem for login run the following command

sudo mysql
ALTER USER root@localhost IDENTIFIED BY "yourpassword";

Install WordPress with LAMP on Ubuntu 18.04

Step 1 – Download WordPress
Download the latest version of the WordPress package and extract it by
issuing the commands below on the terminal:
 wget -c http://wordpress.org/latest.tar.gz

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 tar -xzvf latest.tar.gz

Then move the WordPress files from the extracted folder to the Apache
default root directory, /var/www/html/:
 sudo mv wordpress/* /var/www/html/
Next, set the correct permissions on the website directory, that is give
ownership of the WordPress files to the webserver as follows:
 sudo chown -R www-data:www-data /var/www/html/
 sudo chmod -R 755 /var/www/html/

Step 2 – Creating a MySQL Database and User for WordPress

The first step you’ll take is a preparatory one. Even though MySQL is
already installed, you still need to create a database to manage and store
the user information for WordPress to use. To get started, log into the
MySQL root(administrative) account by issuing the following command:
 sudo mysql

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You will be prompted for the password you set for the MySQL root
accountwhen you installed the software. However, if you have password
authenticationenabled for your root user, you can run the following
command and enter your password information when prompted:
 mysql -u root –p
From there, you’ll create a new database that WordPress will control. You
can call this whatever you would like, but we will be using wordpress in
this guideas an example. Create the database for WordPress by writing the
following:
 CREATE DATABASE wordpress DEFAULT CHARACTER
SET utf8 COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci;

Next, you’re going to create a separate MySQL user account that you’ll
useexclusively to operate on the new database. Creating one-function
databases andaccounts is a good idea from a management and security
standpoint. We willuse the name wordpressuser as an example in this
guide. Feel free to change thisif you’d like.You can create this account,
set a password for it, and then grant it access to thedatabase you created
all by running the following command. Remember tochoose a strong
password here for your database user:
 GRANT ALL ON wordpress.* TO
'wordpressuser'@'localhost'IDENTIFIED BY 'password';

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After creating this user, flush the privileges to ensure that the current
instance ofMySQL knows about the recent changes you’ve made:
 FLUSH PRIVILEGES;
Exit out of MySQL:
 EXIT
You now have a database and user account in MySQL, each made
specifically for WordPress. Go the /var/www/html/ directory and rename
existing wp-config-sample.php to wpconfig.php. Also, make sure to
remove the default Apache index page.
 cd /var/www/html/
 sudo mv wp-config-sample.php wp-config.php
 sudo rm -rf index.html

Then update it with your database information under the MySQL settings
section (refer to the highlighted boxes in the image below):This setting
can be added after the database connection settings, or anywhere
else in the file: Save and close the file when you are finished.Restart the
web server and mysql service using the commands below:
 sudo systemctl restart apache2.service
 sudo systemctl restart mysql.service

Step 3 – Completing the Installation Through the Web Interface

Now that the server configuration is complete, you can complete the
installation through the web interface. In your web browser, navigate to
your server’s domain name or public IP address:
 https://server_domain_or_IP
Select the language you would like to use: Next you will be directed to the
main setup page. Select a name for your WordPress site and choose a
username (it is recommended not to choose something like “admin” for

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security purposes). A strong password is generated automatically. Save

this password or select an alternative strong password.Enter your email
address and select whether you want to discourage search engines from
indexing your site:Once you log in, you will be taken to the WordPress
administration dashboard: From there, you can begin using and
customizing your WordPress site

Once you log in, you will be taken to the WordPress administration
dashboard: From there, you can begin using and customizing your
WordPress site.

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7. Build and install software from source code, familiarity with make and
cmake utilities expected.
Procedure& Output Screenshot

Install the cmake

Apt show cmake

 $sudo apt install cmake g++ make: To install cmake , g++ and make using the
apt command.

Create directory
 Mkdir cmake: creating a different directory for our project using
the mkdir and cd commands.

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 Cd cmake

 gedit Helloworld.cpp
Now create a C++ source file named Hello_world.cpp and add the
following : gedit CmakeLists.txt Create a CMakeLists.txt
file(with this exact capitalization) which is required by CMake:
Create directory called
Mkdir build:
To run cmake we need to change into the build directory:
 Cmake ..

 Cmake –build : To generate the executable simply by typing:run hello

 ./hello: Run the executable by typing:

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8. Introduction to command line tools for networking IPv4 networking, network

commands: ping route traceroute, nslookup, ip. Setting up static and dynamic IP
addresses. Concept of Subnets, CIDR address schemes, Subnet masks, iptables, setting
up a firewall for LAN, Application layer (L7) proxies.

Procedure

1. ifconfig:This commands in windows allows you to see a summarized information of your

network such as ip address, subnet mask , server address etc.
Output

2. nslookup : To show the server to which the system is connected by default. If we want to
find the ip address of a particular domain name, we can also use nslookup

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3. ping : The command used to check the availability of a host. The response shows the URL
you are pinging, the ip address associated with the URL and the size of packets being sent on
the first line . The next four lines shows the replies from each individual packets including the
time(in milliseconds) for the response and the time to live(TLL) of the packet, that is the
amount of time that must pass before the packet discarded.

4. traceroute : traceroute is a command-line utility in Linux and other Unix-like operating

systems that allows you to track the path that packets take from your computer to a destination
host on a network. It's used for troubleshooting network connectivity issues and identifying
network delays

5. netstat : netstat is a command-line utility in Linux and other Unix-like operating systems
that provides information about network connections, routing tables, interface statistics,
masquerade connections, and more. It's used for monitoring network-related information and
diagnosing network issues.

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6. hostname : The hostname command is a command-line utility in Linux and other Unix-like
operating systems that allows you to view or set the hostname of the system. The hostname is
the unique name assigned to a computer within a network.

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7. arp : The arp command is a command-line utility in Linux and other Unix-like operating
systems that allows you to view and manipulate the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) cache,
which is used to map IP addresses to MAC addresses on a local network. ARP is essential for
communication between devices within the same subnet.

8. uname : The uname command is a command-line utility in Linux and other Unix-like
operating systems that provides information about the system's kernel and operating system.
It's used to retrieve information about the system's architecture, release version, and other
details.

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9. Analyzing network packet stream using tcpdump and wireshark. Perform basic
network service tests using nc.

Procedure

1. How to Install tcpdump in Linux

Many Linux distributions already shipped with the tcpdump tool, if in case you
don’t have it on a system, you can install it using the command.

 $ sudo apt-get install tcpdump [On Debian, Ubuntu and Mint]

2. Display Available Interfaces

To list the number of available interfaces on the system, run the following command
with -D option.

3. Capture Packets from Specific Interface

The command screen will scroll up until you interrupt and when we execute the
tcpdump command it will captures from all the interfaces, however with -i switch
only capture from the desired interface.

4. Capture Only N Number of Packets

When you run the tcpdump command it will capture all the packets for the
specified interface, until you hit the cancel button. But using -c option, you can
capture a specified number of packets.

# tcpdump –c 5 –i enp3s0

5. Display Captured Packets in HEX and ASCII

The following command with option -XX capture the data of each packet,
including its link level header in HEX and ASCII format

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6. Capture and Save Packets in a File

As we said, that tcpdump has a feature to capture and save the file in a .pcap
format, to do this just execute the command with -w option.

7. Capture Packet from Specific Port

Let’s say you want to capture packets for specific port 80, execute the below
command by specifying port number 80

8. Read Captured Packets File

To read and analyze captured packet 0001.pcap file use the command with -r
option

wire shark

Installing Wireshark on Ubuntu 20.04

The Wireshark utility is available on all major desktop platforms, i.e., Linux, Microsoft
Windows, FreeBSD, MacOS, Solaris, and many more. Follow the steps below to install
Wireshark on Ubuntu 20.04.

Step 1 : Update APT

First, as always, update and upgrade your APT through the following command.

Syntax:

$ sudo apt update

Step 2: Download and Install Wireshark

Now that Wireshark’s latest version has been added to the APT, you can
download and install it with the following command.

syntax

$ sudo apt install wireshark

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Step 3: Enable Root Privileges

When Wireshark installs on your system, you will be prompted by the following
window. As Wireshark requires superuser/root privileges to operate, this option
asks to enable or disable permissions for all every user on the system. Press the
“Yes” button to allow other users, or press the “No” button to restrict other users
from using Wireshark.
Step 4:

You must add a username to the Wireshark group so that this user can use
Wireshark. To do this, execute the following command, adding your required
username after “wireshark” in the command.

Syntax:

$ sudo adduser $user wireshark

Step 5: Launch Wireshark

In the terminal window, type the following command to start the

Wireshark application. Syntax:
$ wireshark
You can also open Wireshark through the Graphical User Interface (GUI) by opening
the activities on the Ubuntu desktop, and in the search bar, type “Wireshark,” and click
on the application result.

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10. Introduction to Hypervisors and VMs, Xen or KVM , Introduction to Containers:

Docker, installation and deployment

Procedure

For the Ubuntu system, all packages required to run KVM are available on official upstream
repositories.

Install them using the commands:

 sudo apt update

 apt-get install qemu qemu-kvm libvirt-bin bridge-utils virt-manager virtviewer–

y

Create Virtual Machine • You can create virtual machine using virt-manager utility. Run the
following command to start the virt-manager:

 sudo virt-manager

 virsh help

 virsh help

 virsh help list

 Sudo virsh nodeinfo

 Virsh start

 vm virsh start

 virsh start testvm1

Step 1: Update the repositories

Step 2:Install essential KVM packages

Install virt-manager, a tool for creating and managing VMs

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Step 3: Start virt-manager with

Step 4:In the first window, click the computer icon in the upper-left corner,In the dialogue box
that opens, select the option to install the VM using an ISO image. Then click Forward.

Step 5: Choose ISO, click Forward

Step 6: Enter the amount of RAM and the number of CPUs you wish to allocate to the VM and
proceed to the next step.

Step 7: Allocate hard disk space to the VM. Click Forward to go to the last step.

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Step 8: Specify the name for your VM and click Finish to complete the setup.

Step 9: Select language

Step 10: The VM starts automatically, prompting you to start installing the OS that’s on

the ISO file.

Step 11: Check the state of KVM

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Introduction to Containers: Docker installation and deployment

Procedure

Steps for Installing Docker:

Step 1 : Open the terminal on Ubuntu.

Step 2 : Remove any Docker files that are running in the system, using the following command

 Command : $ sudo apt-get remove docker docker-engine docker.io

After entering the above command, you will need to enter the password of the root and press
enter.

Step 3 : Check if the system is up-to-date using the following command:

 Command : $ sudo apt-get update

Step 4 : Install Docker using the following command:

 Command :$ sudo apt install docker.io

You’ll then get a prompt asking you to choose between y/n – choose ‘y’

Step 5 : Install all the dependency packages using the following command:

 Command :$ sudo snap install docker

Step 6 : Before testing Docker, check the version installed using the following command:

 Command :$ docker –version

Step 7 : Pull an image from the Docker hub using the following command:

 Command : $ sudo docker run hello-world

Here, hello-world is the docker image present on the Docker hub.

Step 8 : Check if the docker image has been pulled and is present in your system using the

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following command:

 Command : $ sudo docker images

Step 9 : To display all the containers pulled, use the following command:

 Command : $ sudo docker ps -a

Step 10 : To check for containers in a running state, use the following command:

 Command : $ sudo docker ps

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11. Installing and configuring modern frameworks like Laravel typically involves setting
up a web server, PHP, a database, and the framework itself. Below is a general guide to
installing and configuring Laravel on a Linux system. Please note that specific steps may
vary based on your distribution and environment.

Step 1: Prerequisites

 Install Required Software: Make sure you have a web server (e.g., Apache or Nginx),
PHP, Composer (dependency manager), and a database server (e.g., MySQL) installed
on your system.

 Install Composer: Download and install Composer by following the instructions on

the official Composer website.

Step 2: Install Laravel

1. Create a New Laravel Project: Open a terminal and navigate to the directory where
you want to create your Laravel project. Run the following command:

 composer create-project --prefer-dist laravel/laravel myproject

This will create a new Laravel project named "myproject."

Step 3: Configure the Web Server

1. Apache:

 Create a new virtual host configuration for your Laravel project in your Apache
configuration.

 Set the DocumentRoot to the public directory of your Laravel project.

 Enable the necessary Apache modules (e.g., rewrite) and restart Apache.

2. Nginx:

 Create a new server block configuration for your Laravel project in your Nginx
configuration.

 Set the root directive to the public directory of your Laravel project.

 Configure the necessary location directives and restart Nginx.

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Step 4: Configure Laravel

1. Environment Configuration:

 Rename the .env.example file in your Laravel project root to .env.

 Set database connection details, application key, and other settings in the .env
file.

2. Generate Application Key: Run the following command in your Laravel project
directory:

 php artisan key:generate

3. Run Migrations: If your .env file is configured with database details, run migrations
to create necessary database tables:

 php artisan migrate

Step 5: Testing the Setup

1. Access the Application: Open a web browser and visit the URL you configured for
your Laravel project. You should see the Laravel welcome page.

2. Create Routes and Views: Begin building your application by defining routes and
creating views in the resources/views directory.

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