Modern Western Philosophy

For over a thousand years, from the fourth to the fifteenth centuries, Christianity
shaped the entire social and cultural world of Europe, its political and personal life,
social institutions, economic relations, knowledge of the natural world, literature
and the arts—all these were under Church direction and control. Philosophy,
science, and art were all placed in the service of religion. This coherent integration
of institutional, cultural, and personal life under Church direction and control has
come to be called the medieval synthesis. The free, rational, independent
philosophical speculation of the Greeks was brought to an end by Christianity and
was not to be restored until the modern era in philosophy emerged in the
seventeenth century, with Descartes as its first great representative.

In the early Catholic worldview, the main issue is how the individual soul connects
to a just, merciful, and perfect God, who loves humanity so much that He
sacrificed His only Son for our salvation. The world and people are seen as
creations of God, meant to fulfill His purposes. The key concern is personal
salvation for those who sin in a corrupt society. To achieve salvation, one must
have a pure heart, repent for their sins, and love God and others. Belief in Jesus
Christ is essential, as His sacrifice redeems humanity. In this view, faith, devotion,
prayer, good deeds, and obedience to God and the Church are what truly matter,
rather than science, philosophy, or the arts.

Saint Augustine (Plato – rationalism/ idealism)

Saint Augustine (354–430 A D) is now known as the Platonizer of Christianity, for

his synthesizing of Christianity with the philosophy of Plato. In Augustine’s major
work, The City of God, written to explain the fall of Rome in 410 AD, you can see
the influence of Plato. Augustine takes Plato's idea of the distinction between the
sensible world (what we can see and experience) and the intelligible world (the
world of ideas and truth) and reinterprets it in Christian terms. He contrasts the
earthly city, filled with changing opinions, with the heavenly city, which represents
God’s eternal truth.

During the Middle Ages, the philosophers who undertook to construct a rationally
defended philosophical system out of Christian beliefs with the aid of classical
thought were called Schoolmen and their philosophic systems were called
Scholastic philosophy or Scholasticism. Scholasticism is the name conventionally
given to the philosophy of the medieval cathedral schools (later to become
universities) which attempted to fuse Christian beliefs with the elements of the
Greek philosophy of Plato or Aristotle, using the logical syllogism and debate.

Saint Thomas Aquinas (Aristotle – empiricism/materialism)

Scholasticism reached its highest stage of development in the philosophy of

Thomas Aquinas.

Saint Thomas (1225–1274 AD) in the thirteenth century was able to build upon the
recovery of Aristotle’s complete philosophic works. The synthesizing philosophy
of Saint Thomas, set forth in the twenty-two volumes of his principal work,
Summa Theologiae, is the most esteemed system within Catholic philosophy and
one of the highest philosophical achievements of the Western world. The Thomistic
philosophy included theology (proofs of the existence of God and of His nature); a
metaphysical theory; a theory of evil; a theory of law (eternal, divine, natural, and
human); a theory of knowledge; ethics; psychology; and politics. psychology; and
politics. Saint Thomas makes maximum use of Aristotle while avoiding conflict
with Church dogma by sharply distinguishing between philosophy and theology.

Ptolemy
  Said that the earth is the center of the universe.
 Proposed the geocentric model of the universe
 Ideology was followed till 1800
 Model was adopted by Aristotle as well

Copernicus

 Medieval era
 Wrote a book ‘ on the revolution of celestial sphere”
 Refuted the geo centric model that was followed by the past 1800 years
 Prepared a new model “heliocentric model of the universe”
 Caused “copernical revolution”
 Number of planets also increased which caused religious discomfort,
religious beliefs were shattered
 Maps started to become distinct, gunpowder and gun was discovered,
printing press was established.
 Due to press everyone will know what was previously one persons truth.

Kepler

 Works of kepler supported the helio centric model

 Stated that planets move in an elliptical motion

Galileo

 Discovered the telescope

 Through an instrument, he confirmed the helio centric model of universe as
well as the movement of the planets
  Galileo read and published the book of Copernicus which caused retaliation
from public figures esp religious figures which he proved through his
telescope.

The concept of Unmoved Mover (God)/First Cause

The "unmoved mover" is a concept introduced by Aristotle to explain the existence

of motion and change in the universe. He argued that everything that moves or
changes must have a cause, leading to a chain of causes. However, this chain
cannot go on infinitely, so there must be a first cause that itself is not moved or
changed by anything else, which he called the unmoved mover. This entity is seen
as perfect and divine, serving as the ultimate source of all motion and existence
without itself being subject to change.

Paradigm Shift

A paradigm shift refers to a fundamental change in the underlying assumptions or

frameworks that shape our understanding of a particular field or reality. For
example, the transition from the geocentric model (Earth-centered) to the
heliocentric model (Sun-centered) of the solar system is a classic example of a
paradigm shift in astronomy.

 After Galileo, Newton discovered gravity. Book name: Principia

 1500 – 1750 Scientific revolution

Rene Descartes

 Descartes was the father of modern western philosophy + modern skepticism

 Modern skepticism: René Descartes is often associated with the roots of
modern skepticism through his philosophical method of doubt. In his work
Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes famously sought to doubt
 everything he could possibly doubt, aiming to arrive at something absolutely
certain. This process led him to the conclusion, "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I
think, therefore I am"), establishing self-awareness as the foundation of
knowledge.
 Descartes doubted everything; gives 3 arguments

Argument 1: Dream Argument

Descartes' dream argument, presented in his Meditations on First Philosophy,

questions the reliability of our senses by highlighting that dreams can often feel
just as real as waking experiences. He argues that if our senses can deceive us
while dreaming—making us perceive things that aren't actually there—then we
should also doubt the certainty of our perceptions when we are awake. This
skepticism about sensory experience challenges the foundation of knowledge,
prompting Descartes to seek what can be known with absolute certainty, ultimately
leading to his famous conclusion, "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am").

Argument 2: Evil Demon Argument

It suggests that suggests a powerful, malevolent being could be deceiving us about

everything we perceive, leading us to doubt all knowledge derived from our
senses. This radical skepticism raises the possibility that even our most
fundamental beliefs—about the external world, our own bodies, and mathematical
truths—could be illusions created by this deceiver.

Argument 3: Argument from perception

In Descartes' third argument, often called the argument from perception, he asserts
that the clarity and distinctness of our perceptions serve as a foundation for truth.
Descartes contends that if we have clear and distinct ideas, they must be true, as a
benevolent God would not deceive us. However, he recognizes that our senses can
sometimes mislead us, leading to doubt about their reliability. To resolve this, he
argues that the existence of a perfect, non-deceptive God guarantees that the
perceptions we clearly and distinctly grasp are accurate representations of reality.

 Pyrrhonian Skepticism: Pyrrhonian skepticism teaches that we should not

make firm judgments about beliefs because we can never be completely sure
about anything. Instead of insisting on what is true or false, it encourages us
to stay open-minded and avoid worrying about knowing everything.
Pyrrhonian skeptics point out that for every belief, there’s often another
opinion that disagrees, which shows that certainty is hard to reach.
Ultimately, they suggest we can live by common ideas while still
questioning their true validity.
 Death of Descartes: He had been invited to Sweden by Queen Christina,
who was interested in philosophy and wanted to learn from him. Descartes'
health was poor, and the cold climate was difficult for him, as he was
accustomed to a milder climate in France. His death is often attributed to
pneumonia.
 Books of Descartes: Meditations, Discourse on Method
 Imp quote: “Everything must be thoroughly overthrown for once in my life,
if I ever want to establish anything solid and permanent in the sciences.”
Descartes goes on to say: “Today I have freed my mind from all cares. I am
quite alone. At last, I shall have time to devote myself seriously and freely to
the destruction of all my former opinions.”

The method of mathematics: Intuition and Deduction

Book: Rules for the direction of the mind By Descartes

 1. Intuition: By intuition he means our understanding of self-evident
principles, such as the axioms of geometry (a straight line is the shortest
distance between two points; or, things equal to the same thing are equal to
each other) or such as an arithmetic equation (3 + 2 = 5). These statements
are self-evident in that they prove themselves to reason: To understand them
is to know that they are true; no rational mind can doubt them.
2. Deduction: By deduction he means orderly, logical reasoning or inference
from self-evident propositions, as all geometry is reasoned in strict order by
deduction from its self-evident axioms and postulates.

Descartes’s goal as a philosopher is to build a system of philosophy based upon

intuition and deduction which will remain as certain and as imperishable as
geometry.

Three requirements for this belief:

1. Its certainty must be such that it is impossible to doubt, it is self-evident to

reason, it is clear (in itself) and distinct (from every other belief).
2. Its certainty must be ultimate and not dependent upon the certainty of any
other belief.
3. It must be about something which exists (so that from it, beliefs about the
existence of other things may be deduced).

Skepticism: Skepticism is the name for the philosophic position of doubt

concerning the reliability of knowledge. Descartes’s type of skepticism is called
methodical, or methodological skepticism, defined as the use of doubt
methodically in order to arrive at true knowledge.

Descartes doubt on all his beliefs:

 1. Senses:
 What distant objects look like to the naked eye, for example, is now
denied by the telescope (Galileo had invented the telescope in 1609).
 What minute objects look like to the naked eye is now denied by the
microscope (which Kepler had designed in 1611).
 Optical illusions (pencil in water)
 What I perceive by the senses may be the deceptions of a dream
2. Material Things/Physical world:

These must be doubted because they are based upon sense perception, which has
been shown to be deceptive and therefore lacking in certainty.

3. Natural Sciences:

These, too, must be doubted because they are based upon objects known by sense
perception, which is now established to be untrustworthy.

4. Mathematical beliefs
 He has always regarded mathematics as the very model of certainty
 “For whether I am awake or whether I am asleep” Descartes says, “two and
three together will always make the number five and the square will never
have more than four sides”
 In an effort to push his methodological skepticism to its extreme, Descartes
invents one. Suppose, he says, there is an evil and powerful demon who
deceives me in all the things I think I know best.

Final Answer: Descartes says: Even if I am deceived in all my beliefs, I must exist
in order to be deceived. If I doubt all my beliefs, including those of mathematics,
there is one belief that cannot be doubted: Every time I doubt, I must exist to
doubt.
 cogito, ergo sum: I think, therefore I am

Thinking for Descartes includes any act of consciousness that we are immediately
aware of. Thinking includes doubting, understanding, affirming, denying, willing,
refusing, feeling. As conscious acts, all of these necessitate my existence. I think,
therefore I am.

[Just read not learn: But does the Cogito fulfill the three requirements Descartes
laid down for the first principle, the foundation of his philosophy? (1) Is it self-
evident to reason, indubitable? Descartes answers: Yes, you can’t escape the
Cogito by doubting it. Every time I doubt it, I affirm it. (2) Is it independent of any
more ultimate truth? Descartes answers: Yes, the Cogito is not inferred from the
more ultimate truth: All who think, exist; I think, therefore I exist. On the contrary,
I myself recognize as a self-evident truth that I exist whenever I think. (3) Does it
refer to the existing world? Descartes answers: Yes, the Cogito refers to me, who
exists as a thinking thing. Sum. I am. I exist.]

Subjectivism: Subjectivism is the idea that the only thing I can be completely sure
of is my own thoughts and feelings. It suggests that I can only know my own mind
for certain. Because of this, knowing about other people's minds or the physical
world can only be done by making guesses based on what I know for sure—my
own thoughts and consciousness.

Solipsism: Solipsism is the philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to
exist. According to solipsism, you can only be certain of your own thoughts and
experiences, while everything else—other people and the outside world—might
not actually exist outside of your own mind. In other words, you can't be
completely sure that anything beyond your own consciousness is real.

Classic Rationalistic Proofs of the Existence of God:

1. Ontological Argument: Proposed by Anselm of Canterbury, this argument
asserts that God, defined as the greatest conceivable being, must exist in
reality because existence is a perfection. If God only existed in the mind, a
greater being could be conceived—one that exists in reality.
2. Cosmological Argument: This argument suggests that everything that exists
has a cause. Since the universe exists, it must have a cause outside itself,
which is identified as God. Thomas Aquinas presented several versions of
this argument, including the "First Cause" argument.
3. Teleological Argument (Design Argument): This argument points to the
order and purpose in the universe as evidence of a designer. William Paley
famously compared the complexity of the universe to a watch, claiming that
just as a watch implies a watchmaker, the universe implies a divine creator.
4. Moral Argument: This argument posits that the existence of objective
moral values implies a moral lawgiver. If moral values exist independently
of human opinion, then God is necessary to ground these values.

 Descartes therefore must prove that God exists and that He is no deceiver.
 He cannot argue, as Saint Thomas did, from the existence of the world,
because Descartes has not yet proved that there is a world, and so is not
entitled to use the world in an argument.
 Descartes cannot use another of Saint Thomas’s proofs of God’s existence
(God exists, reasons the argument from design, as the necessary designer,
planner, and governor of the world) because he is yet to prove the existence
of the world.
  He can prove Gods existence only by reasoning from the only proposition he
has established as absolutely true—that I, Descartes, exist as a thinking
thing, a conscious substance, having ideas.

Theory of Knowledge:

 Idea: By “idea” Descartes means anything one is conscious of—feelings (of

joy or pain or empathy); sense perceptions (of the sun, or of a tree, or of
crowds of people on a city street); recollections or memories (of one’s
childhood, or of a recent war, or of a public scandal); thoughts of the
intellect or reason (scientific, mathematical, or philosophical statements).

Identifies 3 main features of ideas:

1. where they come from: there are those ideas which he claims are born with
everyone, and which he calls innate, there are those ideas which appear to
be invented by human imagination, and which he calls factitious, those
ideas which appear to come from outside us, which nature seems to suggest
to us, and which come despite our will. These ideas he calls adventitious
2. what kind of reality they have: ideas are present in our minds, they exist
actually in our minds and have what he calls actual or formal reality.
3. what they refer to: This feature of ideas Descartes calls their objective
reality. The objective reality of ideas consists in their referring to objects,
their being about objects—as the idea of God refers to God, the idea of an
oak tree refers to an oak tree, the idea of my army refers to an army.

The idea of God:

 All of these ideas, he says, could possibly be factitious, my inventions,

“made up” or caused by me, except for the Idea of God
  Descartes adds, God is infinite perfect being. He has in Himself any infinite
perfection for good that is not limited by some imperfection.
 Descartes presents the Idea of God: “By the name God I understand a
substance which is infinite, independent, all-knowing, all-powerful, and by
which I myself and everything else that does exist, have been created.”

Descartes’s argument will be that we can think this Idea of God only because
a real God exists who is the cause of this idea.

First Proof of God (Third Meditation)

(what is the cause of my idea of a perfect being, God?)

Ideas and Causes: First of all, he says, we have a clear and distinct Idea of God.
But all ideas are the effects of causes. Then there must be some cause of our Idea
of God.

Three self evident propositions about Causes:

 There must be as much reality in the cause as in its effect.

 Something cannot proceed from nothing.
 What is more perfect cannot proceed from the less perfect.

I could not, however, have caused the Idea of God because I am only a finite,
imperfect being, whereas the Idea of God is of a perfect, and infinite, being.

So something else, greater than me must have caused my Idea of God.

Therefore, the cause of my Idea of God, since it must be as great as the effect,
can only be an infinite, perfect being, namely God Himself. Therefore, God
exists as the only possible cause of my idea of Him.

Doctrine of innate ideas:

  Descartes claims that my Idea of God is innate in me, native to my mind.
 God is the cause of this idea in us. He has caused this idea to be innate in all
human beings.
 We can know that they are absolutely certain truths since God has been
proven to exist, and God would not deceive us in what is self-evident to the
reason He has given us.

Criticism:

 The critics disagreed that God is the only possible cause of my Idea of Him.
They argued that an individual person could cause the idea of an infinite
being, since it is merely a negative idea, a negation of our limitations or
finiteness.
 Descartes argued that the idea of the infinite is not merely the negation of
the finite. Finitude, imperfection in knowledge or power of goodness,
requires a standard of perfection. How would I know that I am imperfect,
how would I know that something is lacking to me unless I had within me
for comparison and as a standard the idea of a perfect being?

Second Proof of God (Fifth meditation)

(what is the cause of my existence as a conscious being having this Idea of

God?)

Descartes says: “I asked,” he says, “whether I, who have the idea of an infinite
and perfect being, can exist if this being does not exist?”

 this proof is based on the Cogito, on my existence as a conscious being

having ideas.
  What then are the possible causes of my existence? Myself, my parents, or
God?
 Not myself. I cannot have caused myself to exist because if I were the author
of my own being and independent of everything else, nothing would be
lacking to me, I would doubt nothing and desire nothing
 Not my parents or any other cause less perfect than God. My parents have
caused me to exist, but one must then ask who caused them to exist, and
then one falls into an infinite series of causes
 Therefore God exists as the only possible cause of my existence as a
thinking thing.

Third Proof of God (Fifth meditation)

 Bases his argument on the Cogito

 Descartes focuses upon his Idea of God as a clear and distinct idea.
 all the properties I clearly and distinctly conceive God to have, truly belong
to Him, just as the properties of a triangle that I clearly and distinctly
perceive (for example, that the sum of its internal angles is 180 degrees)
belong to the triangle.
 To exist, he argues, belongs to the nature of God as a perfect being. If God
lacked existence, He would be less than perfect.
 Descartes is here offering what is called the ontological proof of God

The Cartesian Circle

The Cartesian Circle is a philosophical issue in René Descartes' reasoning, where
he claims that clear and distinct perceptions are true only if a benevolent God
exists to prevent deception. He argues for God's existence based on these
perceptions, but he also relies on God to trust those perceptions as reliable. This
creates a circular reasoning problem: Descartes needs God to validate his
perceptions while simultaneously using those perceptions to prove God's existence,
making it unclear how he can establish the truth of either without assuming the
other.