Anglo-Eastern Maritime Academy: Ship Construction

ANGLO-EASTERN MARITIME ACADEMY
SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Anglo Eastern Maritime Academy Page 1

SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Shipboard directions and locations

The front end of the ship is the bow.
When you move toward the bow, you are
going forward, when the vessel is moving
forward, it is going ahead. When facing
toward the bow, the front-right side is the
starboard bow and the front-left side is the
port bow. The central or middle area of a
ship is amidships. The right center side is
the starboard beam and the left center side
is the port beam. The rear of a vessel is
the stern. When you move in that direction
you are going aft, when the ship moves in that direction it is going astern. When looking forward, the
right-rear section is called the starboard quarter and the left-rear section is called the port quarter. The
entire right side of a vessel from bow to stern is the starboard side and the left side is the port side. A line
or anything else, running parallel to the longitudinal axis or centerline of the vessel is said to be fore and
aft and its counterpart, running from side to side, is athwartships. From the centerline of the ship toward
either port or starboard side is outboard and from either side toward the centerline is inboard.
The Hull
The hull is the main body of the ship below
the main outside deck. The hull consists of
an outside covering (or skin) and an inside
framework to which the skin is secured. The
skin and framework are usually made of
steel and secured by welding. The steel skin
may also be called shell plating. The main
centerline structural part of the hull is the
keel, which runs from the stem at the bow to
the sternpost at the stern. The keel is the
backbone of the ship. To the keel are
fastened the frames, which run athwartship.
These are the ribs of the ship and gives
shape and strength to the hull. Deck beams
and bulkheads support the decks and gives
added strength to resist the pressure of the
water on the sides of the hull.
Skin
The skin or shell plating, provides water-
tightness. The plates, the principal strength members of a ship, have various thickness. The heaviest
plates are put on amidships. The others are put on so that they taper toward both ends of the ship (from
the keel toward the bilge and from the bilge toward the upper row of plates). Using plates of various
thickness reduces the weight of the metal used and gives the vessel additional strength at its broadest
part. The plates, put on in rows from bow to stern, are called strakes. They are lettered consecutively,
beginning at the keel and going upward.

Strake Names
The bottom row of strakes on either side of the keel, are called garboard strakes. The strakes at the turn of
the hull, running in the bilge, are bilge strakes. The strakes running between the garboard and bilge
strakes are called bottom strakes and the topmost strakes of the hull are sheer strakes. The upper edge of
the sheer strake is the gunwale.
Bulkheads
The interior of the ship is divided by the
bulkheads and decks into watertight
compartments. Engine rooms must be large
enough to accommodate bulky machinery.
Cargo spaces must be large enough to hold
large equipment and containers.
Engine room
The engine room is a separate compartment
containing the propulsion machinery of the
vessel. Depending on the size and type of propulsion machinery, other vessel machinery may be located
there (such as generators, pumping systems, evaporators, and condensers for making fresh water). The
shaft that transmits power from the engine to the propeller leads from the aft end of the engine to the
propeller. The present days ships have the Engine Room situated in the aft section in most of the vessels.
Few Mega container ships have the Cargo Hold aft of Engine Room also. In such a case of aft cargo
holds, the Engine Propeller shaft is lead through a Shaft Tunnel.

External parts of the hull
The waterline is the water-level line on the
hull when afloat. The vertical distance from
the waterline to the edge of the lowest
outside deck is called the freeboard. The
vertical distance from the waterline to the
bottom of the keel is called the draft. The
waterline, draft, and freeboard will change
with the weight of the cargo and provisions carried by the ship. Numbered scales are painted on the side
of the ship at the bow and stern and midship.
The relationship between the drafts at the bow and stern is the trim. When a ship is properly balanced
fore and aft, she is in trim. When a ship is drawing more water forward than aft, she is down by the head.
If the stern is too far down in the water, she is down by the stern. If the vessel is out of balance laterally
or athwartship (leaning to one side) she has a list. She may be listing to starboard or listing to port. Both
trim and list can be adjusted by shifting the weight of the cargo or transferring the ship‟s fuel and water
from one tank to another in various parts of the hull. Trim is stated in centimeters or meters with
reference whether the aft is more of the forward trim is more. The List is specified in Degrees to port or
starboard. List and trim are critical in calculating the contents of a tank after having taken soundings.
The general area in the forward part of the ship is the forecastle. Along the edges of the weather deck
from bow to stern are removable stanchions and guardrails. Extensions of the shell plating above the deck
are called bulwarks. The small drains on the deck are scuppers. The uppermost deck running from the
bow to the stern is called the weather deck. The main deck area over the stern is called the poop deck.
The flat part of the bottom of the ship is called the bilge. The curved section where the bottom meets the
side is called the turn of the bilge.
Below the waterline are the propellers,
which drive the ship through the water.
The propellers are attached to and are
turned by the propeller shafts. A ship with
only one propeller is called a single-screw
ship. Ships with two propellers are called
twin-screw ships. The rudder is used to
steer the ship.
Names of decks
The decks aboard ship are the same as the floors in a house. The main deck is the first continuous
watertight deck that runs from the bow to the stern. In many instances, the weather deck and the main
deck may be one and the same. Any partial deck above the main deck is named according to its location
on the ship. At the bow it is called a forecastle deck, amidships it is an upper deck, and at the stern it is
called the poop deck. The term weather deck includes all parts of the forecastle, main, upper, and poop
decks exposed to the weather. Any structure built above the weather deck is called superstructure.

Types Of Ships
The broad category into which ship ttpes can be divided are as follows:
(1) General cargo ships
(2) Tankers
(3) Bulk carriers
(4) Container ships
(5) Roll-on roll-off ships
(6) Passenger ships.
Many other types and minor variations exist, but the above selection is considered to be representative of
the major part of the world‟s merchant fleet.
General cargo ships
The general cargo ship is the „maid of all work‟, operating a worldwide „go anywhere‟ service of cargo
transportation. It consists of as large a clear open cargo-carrying space as possible, together with the
facilities required for loading and unloading the cargo. Access to the cargo storage areas or holds is
provided by openings in the deck called hatches. Hatches are made as large as strength considerations
will allow to reduce horizontal movement of cargo within the ship. Hatch covers of steel are used to close
the hatch openings when the ship is at sea. The hatch covers are made watertight and lie upon coamings
around the hatch which are set some distance from the upper or weather deck to reduce the risk of
flooding in heavy seas.
One or more separate decks are fitted in the cargo holds and are known as tween decks. Greater
flexibility in loading and unloading, together with cargo segregation and improved stability, are possible
using the tween deck spaces. Various combinations of derricks, winches and deck cranes are used for the
handling of cargo. Many modern ships are fitted with deck cranes which reduce cargo-handling times and
manpower requirements. A special heavy lift derrick may also be fitted, covering one or two holds.
Since full cargoes cannot be guaranteed with this type of ship, ballast-carrying tanks must be fitted. In
this way the ship always has a sufficient draught for stability and total propeller immersion. Fore and aft
peak tanks are fitted which also assist in trimming the ship. A double bottom is fitted which extends the
length of the ship and is divided into separate tanks, some of which carry fuel oil and fresh water. The
remaining tanks are used for ballast when the ship is sailing empty or partly loaded. The accommodation
and machinery spaces are usually located with one hold between them and the aft peak bulkhead. This
arrangement improves the vessel‟s trim when it is partially loaded and reduces the lost cargo space for
shafting tunnels compared with the central machinery space arrangement. The current range of sizes for
general cargo ships is from 2000 to 15 000 displacement tonnes with speeds of 12-18 knots.
Refrigerated general cargo ship
The fitting of refrigeration plants for the cooling of cargo holds enables the carriage of perishable
foodstuffs by sea. Refrigerated ships vary little from general cargo ships. They may have more than one
tween deck, and all hold spaces will be insulated to reduce heat transfer. Cargo may be carried frozen or
chilled depending upon its nature. Refrigerated ships are usually faster than general cargo ships, often
having speeds up to 22 knots.
Tankers
The tanker is used to carry bulk liquid cargoes, the most common type being the oil tanker. Many other
liquids are carried in tankers and specially constructed vessels are used for chemicals, liquefied
petroleum gas, liquefied natural gas, etc. The oil tanker has the cargo carrying section of the vessel split
up into individual tanks by longitudinal and transverse bulkheads. The size and location of these cargo
tanks is dictated by the International Maritime Organisation Convention MARPOL 1973/78. This
convention and its protocol of 1978 also requires the use of segregated ballast tanks (SBT) and their
location such that they provide a barrier against accidental oil spillage. An oil tanker when on a ballast
voyage may only use its segregated ballast tanks in order to obtain a safe operating condition. No sea
water may be loaded into cargo tanks. The cargo is discharged by cargo pumps fitted in one or more
pumprooms, either at the ends of the tank section or, sometimes, in the middle. Each tank has its own
suction arrangement which connects to the pumps, and a network of piping discharges the cargo to the
deck from where it is pumped ashore. Fore and aft peak tanks are used for ballast with, often, a pair of
wing tanks situated just forward of midships. These wing tanks are ballast-only tanks and are empty
when the ship is fully loaded. Small slop tanks are fitted at the after end of the cargo section and are used
for the normal carriage of oil on loaded voyages. On ballast runs the slop tanks are used for storing the
contaminated residue from tank cleaning operations.
Large amounts of piping are to be seen on the deck running from the pumprooms to the discharge
manifolds positioned at midships, port and starboard. Hose handling derricks are fitted port and starboard
near the manifolds. The accommodation spaces and machinery spaces are located aft in modem tankers.
The range of sizes for oil tankers at present is enormous, from small to 700 000 deadweight tonnes.
Speeds range from 12 to 16 knots.

Chemical tankers
A chemical tanker is a vessel constructed to carry
liquids cargoes other than crude oil and products, or
those requiring cooling or pressurised tanks. Chemical
tankers may carry chemicals or even such liquids as
wine, molasses or vegetable oils. Many of the
chemical cargoes carried create a wide range of
hazards from reactivity, corrosivity, toxicity and
flammability. Rules and regulations relating to their
construction consider the effects these hazards have
on the ship and its environment with respect to
materials, structure, cargo containment and handling
arrangements.
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has produced the „Code for the Construction and
Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk‟. This code provides a basis for all such
vessel designs, and the IMO Certificate of Fitness must be obtained from the flag state administration to
indicate compliance. Also, Annex II of the MARPOL 73/78 Convention and Protocol is now in force and
applies to hazardous liquid substances carried in chemical tankers.
Individual deepwell pumps are fitted in each cargo tank and also in the two slop tanks. Deadweight sizes
for chemical tankers range from small coastal vessels up to about 46 000 tonnes with speeds of about 14-
16 knots.
Liquefied gas tankers

Liquefied gas tankers are used to carry, usually at low temperature, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or
liquefied natural gas (LNG). A separate inner tank is usually employed to contain the liquid and this tank
is supported by the outer hull which has a double bottom. LNG tankers carry methane. The gas is carried
at atmospheric pressure and temperatures as low as -161°C in tanks of special materials, which can
accept the low temperature. The tanks used may be prismatic, cylindrical or spherical in shape and self-
supporting or of membrane construction. The containing tank is separated from the hull by insulation
which also acts as a secondary barrier in the event of leakage.
LPG tankers carry propane, butane, propylene, etc., which are extracted from natural gas. The gases are
carried either fully pressurised, part pressurised-part refrigerated, or fully refrigerated. The fully
pressurised tank operates at 18 bar and ambient temperature, the fully refrigerated tank at 0.25 bar and -
50°C. Separate containment tanks within the hull are used and are surrounded by insulation where low
temperatures are employed. Tank shapes are either prismatic, spherical or cylindrical. Low temperature
steels may be used on the hull where it acts as a secondary barrier.
Displacement sizes for gas carriers range up to 60 000 tonnes, with speeds of 12-16 knots.

Bulk carriers
Bulk carriers are single deck vessels which transport single commodity cargoes such as grain, sugar and
ores in bulk. The cargo carrying section of the ship is divided into holds or tanks which may have any
number of arrangements, depending on the range of cargoes to be carried. Combination carriers are bulk
carriers designed for flexibility of operation and able to transport any one of several bulk cargoes on any
one voyage, e.g. ore, or crude oil, or dry bulk cargo.The sizes vary as per the route and cargo
requirments. Smaller and medium sized bulk carriers are generally fitted with Deck Cargo Handling
gears that give it greater flexiblity for loading and unloading of cargo at ports. The present days Deck
machinary are powered by Electro Hydraulics or All electricals with high degree of Electronic controls.
There is also a class of Bulk Carriers named Self Unloaders that are fitted with Conveyor belts and chute
systems to discharge the vessels cargo directly to a shore conveyor allowing high discharge rates.
In a general purpose bulk carrier, usually the centre hold

section only is used for cargo. The partitioned tanks, which
surround it are used for ballast purposes. Some of the double-
bottom tanks may be used for fuel oil and fresh water. Large
hatchways are a feature of bulk carriers, since they reduce
cargo-handling time during loading and unloading.A large
proportion of bulk carriers named “Gearless Bulk Carriers” do
not carry cargo-handling equipment (or Gears), because they
trade between special terminals which have particular
equipment for loading and unloading bulk commodities. The
availability of cargo-handling gear does increase the flexibility
of a vessel and for this reason it is sometimes fitted.
Combination carriers handling oil cargoes have their own cargo
pumps, piping systems, etc., for discharging oil. Deadweight
capacities range from small to 150,000 tonnes depending upon
type of cargo, etc. Speeds are in the range 12-16 knots. The
Double Hulled Bulk Carriers are now being constructed in line
with IMO requirements.
During the Loading operation of cargo, the Ballast if onboard is

deballasted and reverse is carried out at the Cargo Discharging terminal.

Containerships
The containership is, as its name implies, designed for the carriage of containers. A container is a re-
usable box of 2435 mm
by 2345 mm section,
with lengths of 60.55,
9125 and 12 190 mm.
Containers are in use for
most general cargoes. In
addition, refrigerated
models are in use.
The cargo-carrying
section of the ship is
divided into several holds
which have hatch
openings the full width
and length of the hold.
The containers are racked
in special frameworks
and stacked one upon the
other within the hold
space. Cargo handling therefore consists only of vertical movement of the cargo in the hold. Containers
can also be stacked on the hatch covers when a low density cargo is carried. Special lashing arrangements
exist for this purpose.
Accommodation and machinery spaces are usually located aft to provide the maximum length of full-
bodied ship for container stowage. Cargo-handling gear is rarely fitted, as these ships travel between
specially equipped terminals for rapid loading and discharge. Container ship sizes vary considerably with
container-carrying capacities from 100 to 4000 or more. As specialist carriers they are designed for rapid
transits and are high powered, high speed vessels with speeds up to 30 knots. Some of the larger vessels
have triple-screw propulsion arrangements.
Roll-on Roll-off ships (ro/ro)
This design of vessel was originally intended for wheeled cargo in the form of trailers. Rapid loading and
unloading is possible by the use of bow or stem ramps. This type of vessels are adopted for its use as a
ferry with appropriate accommodation provided for passengers.
The cargo carrying section is a series of large open decks with vehicle hoists and ramps connecting them.
A bow visor and flap enables vehicles to leave or enter through the bow and a stem door provides similar
arrangements aft.
The passenger accommodation extends along the vessels length above the vehicle decks.
Sizes range considerably with about 16 000 deadweight tonnes being common. Speeds in the region of
18-22 knots are usual.
Passenger ships
The passenger liner, or its modem equivalent the cruise liner, exists to provide a means of luxurious
transport between interesting destinations, in pleasant climates, for its human cargo. The passenger
travelling in such a ship pays for, and expects a superior standard of accommodation and leisure
facilities. Large amounts of superstructure are therefore an interesting feature of passenger ships. Several
tiers of decks are fitted with large open lounges, ballrooms, swimming pools and promenade areas.
Large passenger liners are rare, the moderate-sized cruise liner of 12000 tonnes displacement now being
the more prevalent. Passenger-carrying capacity is around 600, with speed in the region of 22 knots.

Fast Ferries
The Fast Ferry, or high speed passenger vessel, has progressed so rapidly in recent years that their size
and numbers are intruding into areas once reserved for conventional vessels such as passenger ships and
roll on roll off vessels. Modern, mainly catamaran, designs are currently available up to 127 metres in
length which can carry 1600 passengers and 375 cars at over 40 knots.
Hydrofoils were one of the earliest types of fast ferries, where fixed or removable blades or foils were
used to enable the vessel to lift out of the water and with reduced resistance, travel at speeds up to 40
knots. Hovercraft use a cushion of air to lift the vessel out of the water and designs are in use which carry
over 400 passengers and 60 cars at speeds of up to 60 knots.
The catamaran is, however, taking over with its ability to carry large numbers of passengers and cargo at
relatively high speeds. The catamaran currently accounts for more than 50 per cent of all fast ferries
built, and about 40 per cent of the active fast ferry fleet.
Ships Stresses
The ship at sea or lying in still water is constantly being subjected to a wide varietyof stresses and strains,
which result from the action of forces from outside andwithin the ship. Forces within the ship result from
structural weight, cargo, machinery weight and the effects of operating machinery. Exterior forces
include the hydrostatic pressure of the water on the hull and the action of the wind and waves. The ship
must at all times be able to resist and withstand these stresses and strains throughout its structure. It must
therefore be constructed in a manner, and of such materials, that will provide the necessary strength. The
ship must also be ableto function efficiently as a cargo-carrying vessel.
The forces may be classified as static and dynamic. Static forces are dueto the differences in weight and
buoyancy which occur at various points along thelength of the ship. Dynamic forces result from the
ship‟s motion in the sea and theaction of the wind and waves.
These static and dynamic forces create longitudinal, transverse and local stressesin the ship‟s structure.
Longitudinal stresses are greatest in magnitude and result inbending of the ship along its length.
Longitudinal stresses
Static loading
Consider a ship floating in still water. Two different forces will
be acting upon it along its length. The weight of the ship and its
contents will be acting vertically downwards. Thebuoyancy or
vertical component of hydrostatic pressure will be acting
upwards. In total, the two forces exactly equal and balance one
another such that the ship floats at some particular draught. The
centre of the buoyancy force and the centre of the weight will
be vertically in line. However, at various points along the ship‟s
length there may be an excess of buoyancy or an excess of
weight.Consider the curve of buoyancy, which represents the
upward force at various points along the length of the ship. The
buoyancy forces increase fromzero at the ends of the ship‟s
waterline to a constant value over the parallel middle body
section. The area within the curve represents the total upthrust
or buoyancy exerted by the water.
The total weight of the ship is made up of the steel structure,
items of machinery,cargo. etc. The actual weight at various
points along the length of the ship is unevenly distributed and is
represented by a weight curve.The weight curve actually starts
and finishes at the extremes of the ship‟s structure.
At different points along the ship‟s length the weight may
exceed the buoyancy, or vice versa. Where a difference occurs this results in a load at that point. The load
diagram,, is used to illustrate the loads at various points.
This loading of the ship‟s structure results in forces which act up or down andcreate shearing forces. The
shear force at any point is the vertical force acting. It canalso be considered as the total load acting on
either side of the point or sectionconsidered. The actual shearing force at any section is, in effect, the area
of the loaddiagram to the point considered. A shear force diagram can thus be drawn for theship.
The loading of the ship‟s structure will also tend to bend it. The bendingmoment at any point is the sum
of the various moments to one side or the other. The bending
moment at a section is also represented by the area of the shear
forcediagram to the point considered. It can be seen from the
bending moment diagram that the maximum bending moment
occurs when theshear force is zero.
Since a bending moment acts on the ship then it will tend to
bend along its length. This still water bending moment
(SWBM) condition will cause the ship totake up one of two
possible extreme conditions.
If the buoyancy forces in the regionof midships are greater
than the weight then the ship will curve upwards or „hog‟,. If
the weight amidships is greater than the buoyancy forces then
theship will curve downwards or „sag‟.
Dynamic loading
If the ship is now considered to be moving
among waves, the distribution of weightis the
same. The distribution of buoyancy, however,
will vary as a result of the waves. The
movement of the ship will also introduce
dynamic forces.
If the wave crest is considered at midships then
the buoyancy in this region willbe increased.
With the wave trough positioned at the ends of
the ship, the buoyancyhere will be reduced.
This loading condition will result in a
significantly increasedbending moment which
will cause the ship to hog. This will be anextreme condition giving the maximum bending moment that
can occur in the ship‟sstructure for this condition.
If the wave trough is now considered at midships then the buoyancy in thisregion will be reduced. With
the wave crests positioned at the ends of the ship, thebuoyancy here will be increased. This loading
condition will result in a bendingmoment which will cause the ship to sag. Since the ship in its stillwater
condition is considered to hog, then this change to a sagging condition hasrequired a bending moment to
overcome the initial hogging bending moment inaddition to
creating sagging. The actual bending moment in this condition
istherefore considerable and, again, it is an extreme condition.
If actual loading conditions for the ship which will make the
above conditionsworse are considered, i.e. heavy loads amidships
when the wave trough is amidships,then the maximum bending
moments in normal operating service can be found.The ship‟s
structure will thus be subjected to constantly fluctuating
stressesresulting from these shear forces and bending moments as
waves move along theship‟s length.

Transverse stresses
Static loading
A transverse section of a ship is subjected to static pressure from the surrounding water in addition to the
loading resulting from the weight of the structure, cargo, etc. Although transverse stresses are of lesser
magnitude than longitudinal stresses,considerable distortion of the structure could occur, in the absence
of adequate stiffening.The parts of the structure which resist transverse stresses are transversebulkheads,
floors in the double bottom (where fitted), deck beams, side frames andthe brackets between them and
adjacent structure such as tank top flooring ormargin plates.
Dynamic stresses
When a ship is rolling it is accelerated and
decelerated, resulting in forces in thestructure
tending to distort it. This condition is known as
racking and its greatesteffect is felt when the ship is
in the light or ballast condition. Thebrackets and
beam knees joining horizontal and vertical items of
structure are usedto resist this distortion.
Localised stresses
The movement of a ship in a seaway results in
forces being generated which arelargely of a local
nature. These forces are, however, liable to cause the structure tovibrate and thus transmit stresses to
other parts of the structure.
Slamming or pounding
In heavy weather, when the ship is heaving and
pitching, the forward end leaves andre-enters the
water with a slamming effect. This slamming down
of theforward region on to the water is known as
pounding. Additional stiffening must befitted in the
pounding region to reduce the possibility of damage
to the structure. This will be discussed later.
Panting
The movement of waves along a ship causes
fluctuations in water pressure on theplating. This
tends to create an in-and-out movement of the shell
plating, known aspanting. The effect is particularly evident at the bows as the ship pushes its waythrough
the water.
The pitching motion of the ship produces additional variations
in water pressure,particularly at the bow and stern, which also
cause panting of the plating. Additionalstiffening is provided
in the form of panting beams and stringers. This will be
discussed later.
Localised loading
Heavy weights, such as equipment in the machinery spaces or
particular items ofgeneral cargo, can give rise to localised
distortion of the transverse section. Arrangements for
spreading the load, additional stiffening and thicker platingare
methods used in dealing with this problem.

Hull Steel
Mild steel and higher tensile steel is used for hull construction because of their excellence such as high
strength, sufficient ductility and low price.
Grades of Steel
Ships hull steel is categorized as A, B, D and E in accordance with notch toughness. AH grade steels are
higher tensile steels. AH is suffixed by yield strength of steel in kg/mm 2. Grade A is widely used.
Rimmed steel is allowed to be used upto 12.5 mm thickness, otherwise killed or semi-killed steels should
be used. There is no requirement for impact test for Grade A steel. Grade B steel is killed or semi-killed
steel. It has higher notch toughness than grade A steel. Grade D steel is also killed or semi-killed steel
upto 25 mm thickness. Grade D steel has much toughness as defined by impact tests. Grade E steel is
used as crack arrestor, hence it is highest grade. It is killed steel.
Mechanical strength of steel:
Tensile strength Impact test
Yield Absorbed Energy J
Grade Tensile stress Elongation Temperature
stress
N/mm2 % 0
C Longitudinal Transverse
N/mm2
A - - -
B 0
235 400-520 22
D -10 27 20
E -40
AH32 0
DH32 315 440-590 22 -20 31 22
EH32 -40
AH36 0
DH36 355 490-620 21 -20 34 24
EH36 -40
AH46 0
DH46 450 590-650 20 -20 47 34
EH46 -40

Chemical properties of steel
Chemical composition is defined by % of C, Si, Mn, P, S, etc. The larger the percent of carbon, stronger
it becomes. But ductility, toughness and weldibility becomes worse. Hence percent of carbon is
restricted to within 0.2% and Si and Mn added in lieu of it. P and S are limited to 0.04% each. In order to
prevent welding cracks, Carbon equivalent is defined by following equation:
𝑀𝑛 𝐶𝑟+𝑀𝑜 +𝑉 𝑁𝑖+𝐶𝑢
Ceq = 𝐶 + + + (%)
6 5 15
Grade Deoxidation C Si Mn P S Cu Cr Ni Mo Al Nb V
max max min max max
A Rimmed
Semi-killed 0.23 0.35 Cx2.5 0.04 0.04
Killed
B Semi-killed
0.21 0.35 0.80 0.04 0.04 Ceq ≤ 0.4
Killed
D Semi-killed
0.21 0.35 0.60 0.04 0.04
Killed
E Killed 0.18 0.35 0.70 0.04 0.04
AH32
DH32
EH32
0.50 0.35 0.2 0.4 0.08 0.015 0.05 0.1
AH36
0.90 -
DH36 Killed 0.18 0.04 0.04
1.60
EH36
AH46
DH46 0.55 Ceq ≤ 0.45
EH46

Keel and bottom construction
The bottom shell construction consists of the central keel of the ship, with the flooring structure and side
shell plating on either side. Almost all vessels built today are fitted with a double bottom. This is an
internal skin fitted about 1 m above the outer shell plating and supported by the flooring structure.
Keel
The keel runs along the centreline of the
bottom plating of the ship and for the
majority of merchant ships is of a flat plate
construction. At right-angles to the flat
plate keel, running along the ship‟s
centreline from the fore peak to the aft
peak bulkhead, is a watertight longitudinal
division known as the centre girder or
vertical keel. Where a double-bottom
construction is employed, the centreline
strake of tank top plating results in the
formation of an I-section keel.
This provides considerable strength to the structure and resistance to bending. The flat plate keel or
„middle line strake of plating‟ is increased in thickness for strength purposes and for a corrosion
allowance, because of the difficulty in maintaining paint protection systems in way of the docking blocks
during the vessel‟s life.
Duct keel
Some double bottoms have a duct keel fitted
along the centreline. This is an internal
passage of watertight construction running
some distance along the length of the ship,
often from the forepeak to the forward
machinery space bulkhead. Use is made of
this passage to carry the pipework along the
length of the ship to the various holds or
tanks. An entrance is usually provided at the
forward end of the machinery space via a
watertight manhole. No duct keel is necessary in the machinery space or aft of it, since pipework will run
above the engine room double bottom and along the shaft tunnel, where one is fitted.
The construction of the duct keel uses two longitudinal girders spaced not more than 2.0 m apart. This
restriction is to ensure that the longitudinal girders rest on the docking blocks when the ship is in
drydock. Stiffeners are fitted to shell and bottom plating at alternate frame spaces and are bracketed to the
longitudinal girders. The keel plate and the tank top above the duct keel must have their scantlings
increased to compensate for the reduced strength of the transverse floors.
Double-bottom structure
Where a double bottom or inner shell is fitted it is watertight up to the bilges, thus providing complete
watertight integrity should the outer shell be pierced in way of the double bottom. The minimum depth is
determined by rule requirements for the size of vessel but the actual depth is sometimes increased in
places to suit double-bottorn tank capacities.
The structure is made up of vertical floors which may be watertight, solid or of bracket construction. The
floor structure is continuous from the centre girder to the side shell and supports the inner bottom shell.
Side girders are fitted in the longitudinal direction, their number depending on the width of the ship.
These side girders are broken either side of the floors and are therefore called intercostal girders.
Watertight or oiltight floors are fitted beneath the main bulkheads and are also used to subdivide the
double-bottom space into tanks for various liquids. Solid plate floors of non-watertight construction,
usually lightened by manholes, are positioned in other places as required to stiffen the structure. Between
solid plate floors. bracket floors are fitted. Bracket floors consist of plate brackets attached to the centre
girder and the side shell with bulb plate stiffeners running between. The stiffeners are supported by angle
bar struts at intervals and any side girders which are present in the structure. The arrangement of flooring
will be determined by the type of framing system adopted, which may be either transverse or
longitudinal.
Transversely framed double bottom
When transversely framed, the

double-bottom structure consists of
solid plate floors and bracket floors
with transverse frames. The bracket
floor is fitted between the widely
spaced solid floors. It consists of
transverse bulb angle sections
stiffening the shell and inner bottom
plating. Vertical support is provided
by brackets at the side shell and
centre girder, any side girders and
intermediate struts. The number
ofintercostal side girders fitted is
determined by classification society
rules. For a transversely framed
vessel, solid floors are shown at the
top and bracket floors are shown at bottom of the underneath figure.

Longitudinally framed double bottom
This is the system favoured as a result of tests and it provides adequate resistance to
distortion on ships of 120 m in length or greater. Offset bulb plates are used as longitudinal stiffeners on
the shell and inner bottom plating, at intervals of about 1m. Solid floors provide support at transverse
bulkheads and at intervals not exceeding
3.8 m along the length of the ship. Brackets are fitted at the centre girder and side shell at intermediate
frame spaces between solid floors. These brackets are flanged at the free edge and extend to the first
longitudinal. Channel bar or angle bar struts are provided to give support at intervals of not more than 2.5
m where solid floors are widely spaced. Intercostal side girders are again fitted, their number depending
upon classification society rules. For a longitudinally framed vessel, solid floors are shown at top and
bracket floors are shown at bottom of the above figure.

The double bottom may have a sloping margin leading
to the bilge radiused plating or a continuous double
bottom extending to the side shell. The sloping margin
construction requires the use of margin plates to
connect up with the side framing and provides a
collecting bay or well for bilge water. The continuous
tank top or flat margin must have bilge water collecting
points „or drain „hats‟ fitted into it. The flat margin is
connected to the side framing by a flanged bracket.
The flat margin type of construction is much used in
modern construction.
Machinery space double bottom
The construction of the double bottom in the
machinery space regardless of the framing
system, has solid plate floors at every frame
space under the main engine. Additional side
girders are fitted outboard of the main engine
seating, as required. The double-bottom height
is usually increased to provide fuel oil,
lubricating oil and fresh water tanks of suitable
capacities. Shaft alignment also requires an
increase in the double-bottom height or a raised
seating, the former method usually being adopted. Continuity of strength is ensured and maintained by
gradually sloping the tank top height and internal structure to the required position. Additional support
and stiffening is necessary for the main engines, boilers, etc., to provide a vibration-resistant solid
platform capable of supporting the concentrated loads. On slow-speed diesel-engined ships, the tank top
plating is increased to 40 mm thickness or thereabouts in way of the engine bedplate. This is achieved by
using a special insert plate which is the length of the engine including the thrust block in size. Additional
heavy girders are also fitted under this plate and in other positions under heavy machinery as required.
Plating and girder material in the machinery spaces is of increased scantlings in the order of 10 per cent.
Access to Double Bottom Tanks
Access to the double-bottom tanks is usually by
manholes cut in the tank top. These manholes are
suitably jointed and bolted to be completely
watertight when not in use. Docking plugs are
fitted in all double-bottom tanks and are a means
of completely draining these tanks for inspection
in drydock. Air pipes are fitted to all double-
bottom tanks to release the air when filling, Sounding pipes are also fitted to enable the tanks to be
sounded and their capacity determined. All double-bottom tanks are tested on completion by the
maximum service pressure head of water or an equivalent air test.
Structure to resist pounding
Pounding or slamming results from the ship heaving or pitching, thus causing the forward region to
„slam‟ down on to the water. Additional structural strength must be provided from the forward
perpendicular aft for 25-30 per cent of the ship‟s length. The shell plating either side of the keel is
increased in thickness, depending upon the ship‟s minimum draught. The frame spacing is reduced, full-
and half height intercostal side girders are fitted and solid floors are installed at every frame space. With

longitudinal framing the longitudinal spacing is reduced, intercostal side girders are fitted and transverse
floors are installed at alternate frames.
Shell plating, framing systems and decks

Shell plating
The side and bottom shell plating provides the watertight skin of the ship. The shell plating also makes
the greatest contribution to the longitudinal strength of the ship‟s structure. As a result of its huge area the
shell plating is composed of many strakes or plates arranged in a fore and aft direction and welded
together. The horizontal welds are termed „seams‟ and the vertical welds are termed „butts‟. Several
strakes of plating are usually joined together as part of a unit. A shell expansion drawing shows details
like welding seam and butt, thickness, and framing of all plates forming the shell plating of a hull. The
final structure must be capable of withstanding the many dynamic and static loads upon the hull.
The strake of side plating nearest to the
deck is known as the „sheerstrake‟. The
region where the sheerstrake meets the
deck plating is known as the gunwale.
Two particular arrangements in this region
are used.
Towards the ends of the ship, as the cross-
section reduces, the various strakes of
plating will taper in width. Where these
plate widths become small, a stealer plate or strake is
fitted.
All openings in shell plating must have rounded edges to
avoid stress concentrations and usually some form of
compensation to avoid a discontinuity of strength.
Side Shell Framing systems
The side plating are framed, i.e. stiffened along their
length against the compressing forces of the sea. Two
different types of framing, or a combination of the two,
are employed.
Transverse Side
Shell framing
Transverse framing of the shell plating consists of vertical
stiffeners, either of bulb plate or deep-flanged web frames, which
are attached by brackets to the deck beams and the flooring
structure. The scantlings of the frames are to some extent
dependent upon their depth and also on the nature of their end
connections. Particular locations, such as at the ends of hatches,
require frames of increased scantlings. Very deep web frames are
often fitted in the machinery space. Frame spacing is generally not
more than 1000 mm but is always reduced in the pounding region
and at the fore and aft ends in the peak tank regions.
Longitudinal side shell framing

Longitudinal framing of the side shell employs horizontal offset bulb plates with increased scantlings
towards the lower side shell. Transverse webs are used to support the longitudinal frames, their spacing
being dependent upon the type of ship and the section modulus of the longitudinals.
Bilge keel
With a flat keel construction there is little resistance to
rolling of the ship. A bilge keel is fitted along the bilge
radius on both side of the ship to damp any tendency the
ship has to roll. The bilge keel is fitted at right-angles to the
bilge radiused plating but does not extend beyond the
extreme breadth line. It runs the extent of the midship
section of the ship and is positioned, after model tests, to
ensure the minimum resistance to forward motion of the
ship. Construction is of steel plate with a stiffened free edge
or a section such as a bulb plate. A means of fastening to
the hull is employed which will break off the bilge keel
without damage to the hull in the event of fouling or collision. The ends are fastened to a doubling plate
on the shell.

Decks
The deck of a ship is the horizontal platform which completes the enclosure of the hull. It must provide a
solid working platform capable of supporting any loads resting upon it, and also a watertight top cover to
the hull structure. The deck with its various forms of stiffening and its plating provides considerable
contribution to the strength of the ship. Where the deck is pierced by hatches, special coamings to the
openings must be provided to offset their effect on the structural strength of the ship.
Deck plating
The deck plating is made up of longitudinal strakes of plating across its width. The plates or strakes
nearest to the deck edges are termed „stringer plates‟. The large openings in the deck for hatchways,
engine casing, pump room entrances, etc., require compensation to maintain the section modulus of the
material. The deck plating abreast of such openings is therefore increased in thickness. The plating
between the hatches of a cargo ship is thinner than the rest of the deck plating and contributes little to
longitudinal strength.
The plating of the weather decks is cambered towards the ship‟s side to assist drainage of any water
falling on the deck. This camber is usually of the order of one-fiftieth of the breadth of the ship at
midships.
Deck stiffening
The deck plating is supported from below in a manner determined by the framing system of the ship.
With longitudinal framing, a series of closely spaced longitudinals are used in addition to deep web
transverses. With transverse framing, transverse deck beams are used at every frame space. Where
hatches are fitted to a ship, continuous longitudinal girders are fitted over the length of the ship running
alongside the hatches. .
Deck beams and transverses
Deck beams are fitted across the width of the ship and are joined to the side frames by brackets known as
„beam knees‟. Continuous longitudinal girders which run alongside the hatchways are fitted on the ship,
and the beams are bracketed to these girders. In this way the unsupported span is reduced. Deck beams
are usually offset bulb plates. For the length of the open hatch space the beams are broken and bracketed
to the longitudinal girder or hatch side coaming. The beams are likewise broken and bracketed to the
longitudinal girders in way of the engine casing. A beam broken in this manner is known as a „half-
beam‟.
Deck transverses support the longitudinally framed deck. These are deep plate webs with a facing flat or
a flanged edge. They are bracketed to the side frames by beam knees. Small tripping brackets are fitted
between alternate longitudinals and the transverse

Deck girders
Deck girders exist in a number of forms, depending upon their location. A flanged girder with tripping
brackets will often be used as part of a hatch coaming. Such a flanged girder is referred to as
unsymmetrical and must have tripping brackets fitted at alternate frame spaces. The symmetrical girder is
often used, particularly as a centreline girder. Brackets join the girder to the deck beams and are fitted at
ever) fourth frame space. At hatch comers these girders must be additionally supported either by pillars
or transverse girders. The combination of longitudinal girders with transverse beams is much in use in
modem ships. The deck longitudinal girders extend as far as possible along the full length of the ship on
the outside of the hatches. This continuous longitudinal material permits a reduction in deck plate
thickness, in terms of classification society requirements.
The deck between the hatches must be supported by longitudinal or transverse beams. Where side girders
join transverse beams, particularly beneath hatch openings, gusset
plates are fitted.
Discontinuities
A discontinuity, as discussed here, refers to any break or change in
section, thickness or amount of plating material. Great care
must be taken to compensate for any discontinuities in shell or deck
plating resulting from doors, hatchways, etc. Where the loss
of longitudinal material results, this compensation is of particular
importance. Where changes in the amount of plating material
occur, such as at bulwarks, the change should be gradual and well
radiused.
Well-radiused corners must be used and sometimes the fitting of doubling plates or thicker insert plates,
at the corners of all openings. Any sharp comer can produce a notch which, after stressing, could result in
a crack. The figure here, shows an insert plate fitted at the comer of a hatch opening.
Hatch coamings
The edges of all hatch openings are framed by hatch coamings. On the weather deck the coamings must
be at a minimum height of 600 mm according to the load line regulations. This is to reduce the risk of
water entry to the holds.

Hatch covers
A number of patent steel covers, such as those manufactured

by MacGregor Group AB and TTS Marine ASA, are
available, which will comply with the requirements outlined
by the International Conference on Load Lines 1966 and are
in accordance with the requirements of the classification
societies. The means of securing the hatches and maintaining their weathertightness is tested initially and
at periodic surveys. These patent
covers vary in type the principal ones being fore and aft single pull, folding, piggy back, pontoon and
side rolling.
Single pull covers may be opened or closed by built in electric motors in the leading cover panel (first out
of stowage) which drive chain wheels, one on each outboard side of the panel. Each panel wheel is
permanently engaged on a fixed chain located along each hatch side coaming. In operation the leading
panel pushes the others into stowage and pulls them into the closed position. Alternatively single pull
covers are opened or closed by hydraulic or electric motors situated on the hatch end coaming at the ships
centre line driving endless chains running along the full length of the hatch side coaming port and
starboard and connected to the leading panel. Vertical stowage of panels is at one end of the hatch and
covers may have a nesting characteristic if space is at a premium, also on large hatches opening may be
to both ends with vertical stowage at each end. Folding covers may be of direct pull type where suitable
lifting gear is carried onboard or can be opened or closed by externally mounted hydraulic cylinders
actuating the leading panels. Piggy back covers permit horizontal stowage of panels avoiding fouling of
lifting devices particularly in way of very large openings such as on bulk carriers and container ships
where the hatch need only be partially open for working. The covers consist of a dumb panel which is
raised by high lift cylinders and a motorised panel which is rolled underneath the dumb panel. Both
panels can then be moved „piggy back‟ style to the fully opened hatch position port or starboard or
partially opened position fore and aft. Pontoon covers are commonly used on container ships being lifted
by the ships or shore cranes with the container spreader. They are closed weathertight in a similar manner
to the other patent covers. Side rolling are very common on large bulk carriers and can operate on similar
principles to the single pull cover except that they remain in the horizontal stowed position when the
hatch is open. To obtain weathertightness the patent covers have mating boundaries fitted with rubber
gaskets; likewise at the hatch coamings, gaskets are fitted and hand or automatically operated cleats are
provided to close the covers. The gasket and cleat arrangements will vary with the type of cover.

Bulwarks
Bulwarks are barriers fitted to the deck edge to protect passengers and
crew and avoid the loss of items overboard should the ship roll
excessively. Bulwarks are considered solid or open-the solid type
being constructed principally of plate, the open type being railings.
Open bulwarks consist of rails and stanchions supported by stays
which again are set back from the deck edge. The lower rail spacing
must be a maximum of 230 mm, whereas the rails above may have a
maximum spacing of 380 mm.
The bulwark makes no contribution to longitudinal strength and as

such, in the solid form, is of relatively thin plate supported by stays
from the deck. The stays are set back from the deck edge and are not
be welded to the sheerstrake. This avoids the high stresses, particularly at
the midships section, being transmitted to the bulwarks and possible
cracking occurring. Where the solid bulwark meets the deck, freeing
ports must be fitted to allow the rapid drainage of any water shipped,
which could seriously affect the stability of the ship. sometimes a
„floating‟ type of construction is used to provide a continuous freeing
port area. Bulwarks of both types are usually 1 m in height. Bulwark
plating, particular in the forecastle region, is increased in thickness
where it is penetrated by mooring fittings.
Bulkheads
The vertical divisions arranged in the ship‟s structure are known as
bulkheads. Three basic types are found, namely watertight, non-
watertight and oiltight or tank bulkheads. Oiltight or tank bulkheads are
watertight in their construction but are subjected to more rigorous testing
than a simply watertight bulkhead.
The transverse watertight bulkheads subdivide the ship into a number of watertight compartments and
their number is dictated by classification society regulations. Oiltight bulkheads form the boundaries of
tanks used for the carriage of liquid cargoes or fuels. Non-watertight bulkheads are any other bulkheads
such the engine casing, accommodation partitions or stores compartments.

Watertight bulkheads
In addition to subdividing the ship, transverse bulkheads also provide considerable structural strength as
support for the decks and to resist deformation caused by broadside waves (racking). The spacing of
watertight bulkheads, which is known the watertight subdivision of the ship, is governed by rules
dependent upon ship type, size, etc. All ships must have:
(1) A collision or fore peak bulkhead, which is to be positioned not less than 0.05 x length of the ship,
nor more than 0.08 x length of the ship, from the forward end of the load waterline.
(2) An after peak bulkhead which encloses the sterntube and rudder trunk in a watertight compartment.
(3)A bulkhead at each end of the machinery space; the after bulkhead may, for an aft engine room, be the
after peak bulkhead.
Additional bulkheads are to be fitted according to the vessel‟s length, e.g. a ship between 145 m and 165
m long must have 8 bulkheads with machinerymidships and 7 bulkheads with machinery aft.
Watertight bulkheads must extend to the freeboard deck but may rise to the uppermost continuous deck.
The aft peak bulkhead may extend only to the next deck above the load waterline, where the construction
aft of this deck is fully watertight to the shell.
The purpose of watertight subdivision and the spacing of the bulkheads is to provide an arrangement such
that if one compartment is flooded between bulkheads, the ship‟s waterline will not rise above the margin
line. The margin line is a line drawn parallel to and 76 mm below the upper surface of the bulkhead deck
at the ship‟s side. The subdivision of passenger ships is regulated by statutory requirements which are in
excess of classification society rules for cargo ships, but the objects of confining flooding and avoiding
sinking are the same.
Watertight bulkheads, because of their large area, are formed of several strakes of plating. They are
welded to the shell, deck and tank top. The plating strakes are horizontal and the stiffening is vertical.
Since water pressure in a tank increases with depth and the watertight bulkhead must withstand such
loading, the bulkhead must have increasingly greater strength towards the base. This is achieved by
increasing the thickness of the horizontal strakes of plating towards the bottom. The collision bulkhead
must have plating some 12 per cent thicker than other watertight bulkheads. Also, plating in the aft peak
bulkhead around the sterntube must be doubled or increased in thickness to reduce vibration. The
bulkhead is stiffened by vertical bulb plates or toe-welded angle bar stiffeners spaced about 760 mm
apart. This spacing is reduced to 610 mm for collision and oiltight bulkheads. The ends of the stiffeners
are bracketed to the tanktop and the deck beams. In tween decks, where the loading is less, the stiffeners
may have no end connections.
Corrugated watertight bulkheads
The use of corrugations or swedges in a plate instead of
welded stiffeners produces a strong a structure with a reduction
in weight. The troughs are vertical on transverse bulkheads but
on longitudinal bulkheads they must be horizontal in order to
add to the longitudinal strength of the ship.
The corrugations or swedges are made in the plating strakes
prior to fabrication of the complete bulkhead. As a
consequence, the strakes run vertically and the plating must be
of uniform thickness and adequate to support the greater loads
at the bottom of the bulkhead. This greater thickness of plate
offsets to some extent the saving in weight through not adding
stiffeners to the bulkhead. The edges of the corrugated bulkhead which join to the shell plating may have
stiffened flat plate fitted to increase transverse strength and simplify fitting the bulkhead to the shell. On
high bulkheads with vertical corrugations, diaphragm plates are fitted across the troughs. This prevents

any possible collapse of the corrugations. (a) is a section through corrugation; (b) is the elevation of
bulkhead and (c) is the plan view of corrugations.
A watertight floor is fitted in the double bottom directly below every main transverse bulkhead. Where a
watertight bulkhead is penetrated, e.g. by pipework, a watertight closure around the penetration must be
ensured by a collar fully welded to the pipe and the bulkhead.
Testing of watertight bulkheads

The main fore and aft peak bulkheads must be tested by filling with water to the load waterline.
Subdividing watertight bulkheads are tested by hosing down. Oiltight and tank bulkheads must be tested
by a head of water not less than 2.45 m above the highest point of the tank.
Non-watertight bulkheads
Any bulkheads other than those used as main subdivisions and tank boundaries may be non-watertight.
Examples of these are engine room casing bulkheads, accommodation partitions, store room division, etc.
Wash bulkheads fitted in deep tanks or in the fore end of a ship are also examples of non-watertight
bulkheads. Where a non-watertight bulkhead performs the supporting function similar to a pillar, its
stiffeners must be adequate for the load carried. In all other situations the non-watertight bulkhead is
stiffened by bulb plates or simply flat plates welded edge on. Corrugated and swedged bulkheads can also
be used for non-watertight bulkheads.
Pillars
Pillars provide a means of transferring loads between
decks and fastening together the structure in a
vertical direction. The pillars which transfer loads, as
in the cargo holds or beneath items of machinery, are
largely in compression and require little or no
bracketing to the surrounding structure. Pillars which
tie structure together and are subjected to tensile
forces are adequately bracketed at the head or top and
the heel or bottom.
Hold pillars are usually large in section and few in

number to reduce interference with cargo stowage to
a minimum. Pillars are provided to reduce the need
for heavy webs to support the hatch girders or end beams. The
use of pillars also enables a reduction in size of the hatch
girders and beams, since their unsupported span is reduced.
Where pillars are fitted between a number of vertical decks
they should be in line below one another to efficiently transfer
the loads.
Hold pillar sections are usually a hollow fabricated shape
manufactured from steel plate. Typical sections are round,
square and sometimes octagonal. Machinery space pillars are
usually fabricated from sections and, while smaller in
dimensions than hold pillars, a greater number are fitted.
Additional structural material must be provided at the head and
heel of pillars to evenly distribute the load. At the head a plate
is used, often with tripping brackets to the surrounding

structure. At the heel an insert plate or doubling plate is used, with or without brackets depending upon
the type of loading.
Solid pillars may be fitted in accommodation spaces or under points of concentrated loading. Solid round
bar up to about 100 mm diameter is fitted, again with head and heel plates to spread the load.
Fore end construction

The forward end of a ship refers to the structure forward of the collision bulkhead. The forward end is
designed to provide a smooth entry to the water and a streamlined flow along the ship. As a result,
resistance to motion is reduced to a minimum. The stem is the most forward part of the ship and runs
down to the keel. It is constructed in two parts-a bar stem from the keel to the load waterline and a plate
stem up to the deck. The plate stem usually rakes well forward providing pleasing lines to the ship, an
increased deck area and a readily collapsible region in the event of a collision. The side shell plating is
flared out to further increase the deck area.
This arrangement also serves to deflect sea water and spray away from the ship in heavy weather. The
forward deck area or forecastle houses the windlasses and winches required for anchor and mooring
duties. The anchor chain is housed in a chain locker beneath the forecastle. A bulbous bow may be fitted,
i.e. a protrusion below the waterline designed to reduce the ship‟s resistance to motion.
Stem
The stem is the terminating point of the forward shell plating. It is made up of a stem bar from the keel to
the load waterline and a stiffened plate structure up to the forecastle deck. The stem bar is a solid round
bar which is welded to the inside of the keep plate at the lower end. At its upper end the bar joins the
stem plate. The shell plating is welded to either side of the stem bar.
The stem plate construction of curved plates is stiffened at intervals by breasthooks which are small
flange plates fitted horizontally. A continuous bulb or flat bar stiffener may be fitted where the stem plate
radius is considerable. Heavier than usual shell plating may be fitted at the stem plate region.
Panting structure

Panting is an in-and-out movement of
the shell plating resulting from the
variation of water pressure as waves
pass along the hull and when the vessel
pitches. Special structural
arrangements are necessary in the
forward region of the ship to
strengthen the ship‟s plating against
this action. The structure mustbe
strengthened for 15-20 per cent of the
ship‟s length from forward to the stem.
This stiffening is made up of horizontal
side stringers, known as „panting
stringers‟, fitted at about 2 m interval
below the lowest deck. Panting beams
are fitted across the ship at alternate
frame spaces and are bracketed to the
panting stringer. The intermediate
frames are connected to the panting
stringer by brackets. A partial wash
bulkhead or a series of pillars is fitted
on the centreline to further support the
structure. Perforated flats may be fitted
instead of beams but these must not be more 2.5 m apart. Perforations of at least 10 per cent of the plate
area are required in order to reduce water pressure on the flats.
Bulbous bow
The bulbous bow is fitted in an attempt to reduce the
ship‟s resistance. Arrangements vary from a casting plated
into the forward end to a fully radiused plated structure, or
in some cases a cylindrical shape plated into the forward
end The effectiveness of the arrangement is the subject of
much discussion but improved buoyancy forward is
provided which will reduce the pitching of the ship.
It consists of a vertical plate web which stiffens the free
edge of the breasthooks fitted right forward in the bulb.
Deep
frames with panting beams are fitted at every frame space
with a wash bulkhead on the centreline. The panting
stringers consist of perforated plates running the full width
and length of the bulb. Another vertical plate web joins
the bulb to the fore end structure. A small stem casting
connects the top of the bulb to the plate stem above the
load waterline. The numerous manholes cut into the
structure permit access to all parts of the bulb. The anchor
and cable arrangements must ensure that the bulb is not
fouled during any part of the operation.

Anchors and cables
The forecastle deck houses the windlass or windlasses which raise
and lower the anchor and cable. Various items of mooring
equipment, such as bollards, fairleads, etc. are also arranged
around the deck edge. The anchors are housed against the forward
side shell, sometimes in specially recessed pockets. The anchor
cable passes through the shell via the hawse pipe on to the
forecastle deck. It travels over the cable stopper and on to the
windlass cable lifter drum. From the cable lifter it drops vertically
down into the chain locker below.
The main or bower anchors are usually of the stockless design in
order to enable the shank to be drawn fully into the hawse pipe.
The entire head is able to pivot about the end of the shank. Thus when the anchor strikes the sea bed the
tripping palm chafes and causes the arms to rotate and the flukes to dig in. If the recess in the head
becomes choked with sea bed material, the anchor may fail to trip and grip. It should, therefore, be
washed and checked after use.
The chain cable is made up of links of either forged mild steel or special quality forged steel. The cable
size is measured by the diameter of bar used for the links. Studs are fitted across the centre of the links to
prevent longitudinal stretching and also prevent kinking of the chain. Cable is manufactured in lengths of
27.5 metres called shackles and the various lengths are normally joined by
a lugless shackle. The lugless shackle is manufactured of nickel steel and
is in four parts. The assembly is secured by a spile pin driven through the
sides of the link and the centre stud. The minimum diameter of the bar
used is 1.25D, where D is the size of the chain cable.
Hawse pipe
The hawse pipe is fitted to enable a smooth run of the anchor cable to the
windlass and to maintain the
watertight integrity of the
forecastle. It should be of
ample size to pass the cable without snagging when raising or
lowering the anchor. Construction is usually of thick plating
which is attached to a doubling plate at the forecastle deck
and a reinforced strake of plating at the side shell. A rubbing or
chaffing ring is also fitted at the outside shell. A sliding plate
cover is shaped to fit over the cable and close the opening when
the ship is at
sea.
Cable stopper
The chain,
cable or bow
stopper is
fitted on the
forecastle deck
in line with the run of the anchor cable. It
is used to hold the anchor cable in place
while the ship is riding at anchor or the
anchor is fully housed. In this way the
windlass is freed and isolated from any

shocks or vibrations from the cable. The chain stopper is not designed to stop the moving cable, but only
hold it in place. It consists of a fabricated structure of heavy plate with a roller which the cable passes
over. A hinged bar is designed to fall between two vertical links and hold the cable in place. The chain
stopper is welded or bolted on to a heavy insert plate in the deck and is additionally stiffened by brackets.
Windlass
The windlass is the lifting device for the anchor cables or chains and is also used for mooring and
winching duties. Various drums or barrels can be „clutched in‟ to perform the different duties. For raising
the anchor, the cable lifting drum is engaged. This is a barrel with specially shaped „snugs‟ which the
cable links fit into and pass round before dropping into the chain locker via the spurling pipe. The anchor
cable is allowed to lower under its own weight with the lifting drum declutched, while the brake band
around it is used to control the speed of descent.
Chain locker
The chain locker is normally fitted forward of the collision
bulkhead. It is of dimensions adequate to house all the
anchor cable and still leave a considerable empty space
above. Two lockers or a centrally divided single locker will
be fitted for x port and starboard anchor cables. The chain
locker should be as low as practicable to reduce the height
of the centre of gravity of the considerable mass of the
cables. A perforated false floor or grating is fitted at the
bottom to provide a drainage well and keep the cable out of
mud and water.
The chain locker consists of a plate structure with vertical
stiffeners around the outside. Plate webs which form part of
the ship‟s internal structure are also utilised for stiffening. A raised perforated false floor is fitted and
supported by solid floors. The well thus formed is connected to the bilge system and should be emptied
every time the anchor is raised. The forecastle deck forms the top of the locker with the spurling pipe at
the centre. The spurling pipe is manufactured of heavy plate with a solid round bar as a chaffing ring on
the lower edge. Brackets radiate from the spurling pipe to the chain locker sides to strengthen the
forecastle deck and the spurling pipe. A U-section plate welded to the side with footholes cut in provides
access to the bottom of the chain locker from a watertight door at the upper deck. Provision is also made
for securing the final link of the anchor cable. The chain locker illustrated is one of a pair fitted port and
starboard beneath their respective windlasses.
Cable Clench assembly
The final link of the anchor cable is secured to the ship‟s structure
by a clench pin. On most modern ships this pin is positioned on the
outside of the chain locker and can be released easily and quickly.
A situation may arise where the safety of the ship does not allow
time to raise the anchor. By releasing the clench pin all the cable
can quickly pass out of the chain locker, leaving the ship free to
proceed out of danger. An insert heavy plate pocket is fitted into the
chain locker side with a vertical pin holding the final link of anchor
cable. A hand-wheel assembly on deck is used to raise the pin and
release the link.

Aft End Construction
The aft end of a ship terminates the structure
and is designed to provide a smooth water
flow into and away from the propeller. The
propeller and rudder are also positioned and
supported at the after end and require certain
structural arrangements inorder to operate
satisfactorily. The after end construction
involves an amount of overhangingstructure to
accept the steering gear below deck and
mooring equipment higher up on the weather
deck. This arrangement leads to large slamming
forces in this after region, and an adequately
stiffened structure is therefore required.
Two main types of stern construction are used -
the cruiser stern and the transom stern. The
cruiser stern is rarely used in modem
construction but it is still to be seen in a large
proportion of the ships at sea. The transom
stern, with its straight line form, lends itself
well to current manufacturing techniques. It
also provides a greater deck area aft and is
currently much used for a variety of ship types.
Cruiser stern
The construction of the cruiser stern ensures
adequate resistance to any pounding stresses
which may occur. Solid plate floors are fitted at every frame space and a heavy centreline girder is fitted
below each of the decks in the stern. A centreline web as a continuation of the centreline girder is fitted at
the after end shell plate and runs down to the centreline girder in the flooring region. Special frame-
areradiused around the after end and are known as „cant frames‟, since they are set at an angle to the
centreline of the ship. These cant frames join cant beams which support the deck at the radiused after end.
Horizontal stringers may also be fitted to stiffen up the
structure by connecting it to the transverse frames
further forward.
Transom stern
Deep solid-plate floors are also a feature of the transom
stern construction, together with
a centreline girder. The flat plate of the transom stern
construction, however, allows use of vertical stiffeners
around the shell plating. The vertical stiffeners are
bracketed to the floor and to the deck beams which run
transversely across the stern. A deep horizontal stringer
can provide additionstiffening to the shell plating if
required. A deep centre girder runs beneath each of the
decks at the stern and is bracketed to the deep web at
the centreline of the after shellplating. This web is
likewise bracketed to the various floors in the stern and
finally to the solid-plate floor construction below.

Rudder trunk
The rudder trunk is an open section which is left in the stern for the entry of therudder stock into the
steering flat. A horizontal platform is sometimefitted midway up the trunk to fit a watertight gland. The
trunking above is then constructed to be watertight and access to this upper section and the gland
inprovided by a manhole.
Sternframe
The shell plating at the after end is terminated by the sternframe. This is usually a casting, but
fabrications and forgings are sometimes used. In single-screw ships the sternframe has a boss on the
centreline for the tailshaft to pass through and an adequate aperture is provided for the propeller to
operate in. If sufficient clearance at the blade tips were not allowed then serious vibrations would be set
up in the after end of the ship. The lower part of the sternframe may provide a support for the rudder post
or an overhanging section may provide gudgeons for the rudder pintles. Various sections of the
sternframe, particularly above the arch, provide connecting points to the individual floors of the after end
construction. The transom post and vibrationpost are two particular connections. Sound connections at
these pairensure that propeller-induced vibrations are kept to a minimum.
Sterntubes
The propeller shaft enters the ship through the sterntube which acts as the final bearing and a watertight
seal to the sea. Traditional practice saw the use of lignum-vitaeand certain synthetic materials as bearing
surfaces within the sterntube and these were lubricated by sea water. The increased loadings, as a result
of slowspeedshaftsand heavier propellers on more modem ships, has led to the widespread use ofoil-
lubricated whitemetal bearings. With this arrangement wear down in service is much reduced but there is
a need for more accurate alignment and for seal at each end of the sterntube.
Rudders
The rudder is used to steer the ship. The turning action is largely dependent on the area of the rudder,
which is usually of the order of one-sixtieth to one-seventieth ofthe length x depth of the ship. The ratio
of the depth to width of a rudder is known as the aspect ratio and is usually in the region of 2.
Streamlined rudders of a double-plate construction are fitted to all modemand are further described by the
arrangement about their axis. A rudder with all of its area aft of the turning axis is known as
„unbalanced‟. A rudder with a small part of its area forward of the turning axis is known as „semi-

balanced‟. When more than 25 per cent of the rudder area is forward of the turning axis there is no torque
on the rudder stock at certain angles and such an arrangement is therefore known as a „balanced rudder‟.
Modem rudders are constructed with steel plate sides welded to an internalwebbed framework. Integral
with the internal framework may be heavy forging which form the gudgeons or bearing housings of the
rudder.
The upper face of therudder is formed into a, usually,
horizontal flat palm which acts as the couplingpoint
for the rudder stock. A lifting hole is provided in the
rudder to enable avertical in-line lift of the rudder
when it is being fitted or removed. A special
liftingbar with eye plates is used to lift the rudder. A
fashion or eddy plate can be seen atthe forward edge
on the unbalanced and semi-balanced rudders.
This is welded in place after the rudder is fitted to
provide a streamlined water flow into the rudder.
After manufacture, every rudder is air tested to a
pressure equivalent to a head of 2.45 m above the top
of the rudder in order to ensure its watertight
integrity. The internal surfaces are usually coated
with bitumen, or some similar coating, to protect the
metal should the plating leak. A drain hole is
provided at the bottom of the rudder to check for
water entry when the ship is examined in drydock.
Rudder pintles and bearings
The rudder, depending on its type and

arrangement, will turn on either pintles or
bearings.The balanced rudder has a rudder
axle fitted at its turning axis. Upper and lower
bearings are fitted in the rudder. The bearing
consists of a stainless steel bush in the rudder
and a stainless steel liner on the axle. The
stainless steel bush is spirally grooved to
permit lubrication. Other materialsare in use, such as gunmetal for the liner and lignum vitae or tufnol for
the bush. The upper and lower pair of tapered bearing rings are fitted between therudder and the
sternframe. These are fitted with a small clearance but may support the weight of the rudder should the
carrier fail.
The semi-balanced rudder turns on pintles. Arrangements vary but the pintle consists of a bearing length
of constant diameter and a taperedlength which is drawn into a similarly tapered hole on the rudder or
sternframegudgeon. The pintle is drawn in by a large nut pulling on the threaded portion of thepintle. The
pintle nut is securely locked in place after tightening. A locking pintlehas a shoulder of increased
diameter at its lower end which prevents excessive lift ofthe rudder. A bearing or heel pintle has a
bearing surface at its lower edge whichrests on a hard steel disc. This bearing pintle is only required to

support the weight of the rudder in the event of the rudder carrier failing. Liners of brass or sometimes
stainless steel are fitted tothe pintle bearing surface. The bearing material is held in a cage in the gudeon
and is usually tufnol or some hard-wearing synthetic material. Lubrication is provided by sea water
which is free to circulate around the bearing surfaces of both pintles.
Rudder stock and carrier
The stock passes through a gland and a rudder carrier before entering the steering compartment. The
gland and carrier may be combined or separate items of equipment.
The rudder carrier consists of two halves which provide an upper and lower bearing surface. The upper
part of the rudder carrier is keyed to thestock so that they turn together. The major part of the rudder‟s
weight is transferred to the rudder carrier by either a shoulder, as part of the stock forging, or a collar
fitted between the tiller and the carrier. The rudder weight is thus transferred to the lower bearing surface
of the carrier which is grease lubricated. A flat or conical bearing surface may be used depending on the
particular design. The lower half of the carrier is bolted into a heavy insert plate in the deck of the
steering flat and is chockedagainst fore and aft and athwartships movement.
A separate watertight gland is often fitted where the stock enters the ruddertrunk. This arrangement
provides access to a greater length of the rudder stock, removes the need for a watertight construction of
the carrier bearing and reduces the unsupported length of the stock.
It is essential for ease of operation of the rudder that the pintles and rudder stock turning axes are in the
same vertical line. Great care is taken duringinstallation to ensure this correct alignment.

Ships Dimensions
The hull form of a ship may be defined by a number of dimensions andterms. Anexplanation of the
principal terms is given below:
After Perpendicular (AP): A perpendicular drawn to the waterline at the pointwhere the aft side of the
rudder post meets the summer load line. Where norudder post is fitted it is taken as the centre line of the
rudder stock.
Forward Perpendicular (FP): A perpendicular drawn to the waterline at thepoint where the foreside of
the stem meets the summer load line.
Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP) : The length between the forward and aftperpendiculars
measured along the summer load line.
Amidships: A point midway between the after and forward perpendiculars.
Length Overall (LOA): Length of vessel taken over all extremities.
Register Length is the length of ship measured from the fore-side of thehead of the stem to the aft side of
the head of the stern post or, in the caseof a ship not having a stern post, to the fore-side of the rudder
stock. If theship does not have a stern post or a rudder stock, the after terminal is takento the aftermost
part of the transom or stern of the ship. This length is theofficial length in the register of ships maintained
by the flag state andappears on official documents relating to ownership and other mattersconcerning the
business of the ship.
Moulded dimensions are often referred to; these are taken to the insideof plating on a metal ship.
Base Line: A horizontal line drawn at the top of the keel plate. All verticalmoulded dimensions are
measured relative to this line.
Moulded Beam: Measured at the midship section is the maximum mouldedbreadth of the ship.
Moulded Draft: Measured from the base line to the summer load line at themidship section.
Moulded Depth: Measured from the base line to the heel of the upper deckbeam at the ship‟s side
amidships.
Extreme Beam: The maximum beam taken over all extremities.
Extreme Draft: Taken from the lowest point of keel to the summer load line.Draft marks represent
extreme drafts.
Extreme Depth: Depth of vessel at ship‟s side from upper deck to lowestpoint of keel.
Half Breadth: Since a ship‟s hull is symmetrical about the longitudinal centreline, often only the half
beam or half breadth at any section is given.

Freeboard: The vertical distance measured at the ship‟s side between thesummer load line (or service
draft) and the freeboard deck. The freeboarddeck is normally the uppermost complete deck exposed to
weather and seawhich has permanent means of closing all openings, and below which allopenings in the
ship‟s side have watertight closings.
Sheer: Curvature of decks in the longitudinal direction, Measured as theheight of deck at side at any
point above the height of deck at side amid-ships.
Camber (or Round ofBeam): Curvature of decks in the transverse direction.Measured as the height of
deck at centre above the height of deck at side.
Rise of Floor (or Deadrise): The rise of the bottom shell plating line abovethe base line. This rise is
measured at the line of moulded beam.
Half Siding of Keel: The horizontal flat portion of the bottom shell measuredto port or starboard of the
ship‟s longitudinal centre line. This is a usefuldimension to know when dry-docking.
Tumblehome: The inward curvature of the side shell above the summerload line.
Flare: The outward curvature of the side shell above the waterline. It promotesdryness and is therefore
associated with the fore end of ship.
Stem Rake: Inclination of the stem line from the vertical.
Keel Rake: Inclination of the keel line from the horizontal. Trawlers andtugs often have keels raked aft to
give greater depth aft where the propellerdiameter is proportionately larger in this type of vessel. Small
craft occasionallyhave forward rake of keel to bring propellers above the line of keel.
Tween Deck Height: Vertical distance between adjacent decks measured fromthe tops of deck beams at
ships side.
Parallel Middle Body: The length over which the midship section remainsconstant in area and shape.
Entrance: The immersed body of the vessel forward of the parallel middle body.
Run: The immersed body of the vessel aft of the parallel middle body.
Displacement: The weight of the ship and its contents measured in tonnes. The value will vary according
to ship‟s draught.
Lightweight: The weight of the ship, in tonnes, complete and ready for sea but without crew, passengers,
stores, fuel or cargo on board.
Deadweight: The difference between displacement and lightweight at any given draught, again measured
in tones. Deadweight is the weight of cargo, fuel, stores, etc. that a ship can carry.
TEUand FEU: Indicate the cargo carrying capacity of container ships. TEU(twenty foot equivalent unit)
indicates the number of standard shippingcontainers that may be carried On some shipping routes
container shipsmay carry standard containers that are 40 feet in length. FEU is forty footequivalent unit.
Tonnage: Earliertonnagewas a measure of the ship‟s internal capacity, where 1 ton represented 100 ft 3
and two values were used. The gross tonnage was the total internal capacity and the net tonnage was the
revenue earning capacity. The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships (1969)
created an universal tonnage measurement.
As per above convention, gross tonnage and net tonnage is determined by formula as follows:

Load line markings
The maximum summer draught is indicated by a load linemark. This
consists of a ring of 300 mm outside diameter and 25 mm
wide,intersected by a horizontal line 450 mm long and 25 mm wide.
The upper edge ofthis line passes through the centre of the ring. The
ring is positioned at midships andat a distance below the upper edge of
the deck line which corresponds to theassigned minimum summer
freeboard. This value may not be less than 50 mm.
A series of load lines are situated forward of the load line mark and
these denotethe minimum freeboards within certain geographical zones
or in fresh water. Thesummer load line is level with the centre of the
ring and marked S. The tropical, T,and winter, W, load lines are found
by deducting and adding, respectively, l/48 ofthe summer moulded
draught. For a ship of 100 m length or less a Winter NorthAtlantic (WNA) zone load line is permitted.
This line is positioned at the winterfreeboard plus 50 mm. The fresh water freeboards F and TF are found
by deductingfrom the summer or tropical freeboard the value:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
millimetres
4 𝑥 𝑇𝑃𝐶
where TPC is the tonnes per centimetre immersion in salt water at the summer loadwaterline. In all cases,
measurements are to the upper edge of the line.
Classification Societies
Classification societies are organizations that establish and apply technical standards in relation to the
design, construction and survey of marine related facilities including ships and offshore structures. The
vast majority of ships are built and surveyed to the standards laid down by classification societies. These
standards are issued by the classification society as published rules. A vessel that has been designed and
built to the appropriate rules of a society may apply for a certificate of classification from that society.
The society issues this certificate upon completion of relevant classification surveys. More than 50
organizations worldwide define their activities as providing marine classification. Ten of those
organizations form the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS). It is estimated that
these ten societies, together with the additional society that has been accorded associate status by IACS,
collectively class about 94 percent of all commercialtonnage involved in international trade worldwide.
Assignment, maintenance, suspension and withdrawal of class

Class is assigned to a ship upon the completion of satisfactory surveys, undertaken in order to check
compliance with the rules of the society, at the time of newbuilding. Classed ships are subject to surveys
to continue in class. These surveys include the class renewal (also called “special survey”), intermediate
survey, annual survey, and bottom/docking surveys of the hull. They also include tailshaft survey, boiler
survey, machinery surveys and, where applicable, surveys of items associated with the maintenance of
additional class notations.
The surveys are to be carried out in accordance with the relevant class requirements in order to confirm
that the condition of the hull, machinery, equipment and appliances is in compliance with the applicable
rules.
Classification surveys
A classification survey is a visual examination that normally consists of:
• an overall examination of the items for survey,
• detailed checks of selected parts,
• witnessing tests, measurements and trials where applicable.
Each classed vessel is subject to a specified program of periodic surveys after delivery. These are based
on a five-year cycle and consist of annual surveys, an intermediate survey and a class renewal/special
survey (held every 5 years). The rigour of each specified survey increases with the age of the vessel.
The class renewal surveys/special surveys include extensive in-water and out-of-water examinations to
verify that the structure, main and essential auxiliary machinery, systems and equipment of the ship
remain in a condition which satisfies the rules. The examination of the hull is supplemented, when
specified, by ultrasonic thickness measurements and the witnessing of tests as specified in the rules and
as deemed necessary by the attending surveyor. The survey is intended to assess whether the structural
integrity remains effective and to identify areas that exhibit substantial corrosion, significant
deformation, fractures, damages or other structural deterioration.Depending upon the age, size, type and
condition of the vessel, the renewal/special survey may take several weeks to complete.
The intermediate survey (held approximately half way between special surveys) includes examinations
and checks as specified in the rules to determine whether the ship remains in a general condition which
satisfies the rule requirements. According to the type and age of the ship, drydocking may be required
and the examinations of the hull may be supplemented by ultrasonic thickness measurements as specified
in the rules and where deemed necessary by the attending surveyor.
At the time of annual surveys, the ship is generally examined. The survey includes an external, general
inspection of the hull, equipment and machinery of the ship and some witnessing of tests, so far as is
necessary and practical in order to determine whether the ship remains in a general condition which
satisfies the rule requirements. Older ships of certain types may also be subject to a general examination
of some specified internal areas of the hull. Depending upon the age, size, type and condition of the
vessel, an annual survey may take from several hours to a few days to complete.
Damage Repair
When a vessel requires repairs to damaged equipment or to the hull, it is necessary for the work to be
carried out to the satisfaction of the Classification Society surveyor. In order that the ship maintain its
class, approval of repairs undertaken must be obtained from the surveyors either at the time of the repair
or at the earliest opportunity.

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ANGLO-EASTERN MARITIME ACADEMY

Anglo Eastern Maritime Academy Page 1

Shipboard directions and locations

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Liquefied gas tankers

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In a general purpose bulk carrier, usually the centre hold

During the Loading operation of cargo, the Ballast if onboard is

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When transversely framed, the

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Shell plating, framing systems and decks

Longitudinal side shell framing

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A number of patent steel covers, such as those manufactured

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The bulwark makes no contribution to longitudinal strength and as

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Testing of watertight bulkheads

Hold pillars are usually large in section and few in

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Fore end construction

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The rudder, depending on its type and

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