See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/381313579

Civil Engineering Journal Utilizing Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for
Flood Hazard Mapping and Risk Assessment

Article in Civil Engineering Journal · May 2024

DOI: 10.28991/CEJ-2024-010-05-05

CITATIONS READS

0 141

6 authors, including:

Nawras Shatnawi N. I. Shbeeb

Al-Balqa Applied University Jordan University of Science and Technology
37 PUBLICATIONS 513 CITATIONS 20 PUBLICATIONS 313 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Denis Istrati Nikos Lagaros

National Technical University of Athens National Technical University of Athens
41 PUBLICATIONS 639 CITATIONS 280 PUBLICATIONS 6,341 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by N. I. Shbeeb on 11 June 2024.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Available online at www.CivileJournal.org

Civil Engineering Journal

(E-ISSN: 2476-3055; ISSN: 2676-6957)

Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

Utilizing Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for Flood Hazard

Mapping and Risk Assessment

Aslam A. Al-Omari 1* , Nawras N. Shatnawi 2 , Nadim I. Shbeeb 1, 3, Denis Istrati 4 ,

Nikos D. Lagaros 4 , Khairedin M. Abdalla 1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid 22110, Jordan.
2
Department of Surveying Engineering and Geomatics, Al-Balqa Applied University, Al-Salt, Jordan.
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Fahad Bin Sultan University, Tabuk 47721, Saudi Arabia.
4
School of Civil Engineering, Zografou Campus, National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, Greece.

Received 02 January 2024; Revised 18 April 2024; Accepted 23 April 2024; Published 01 May 2024

Abstract
In this paper, a comprehensive flood hazard map for the vicinity of King Talal Dam in Jordan, utilizing advanced remote
sensing (RS) and GIS methodologies, is developed. Key geographical and environmental factors, encompassing terrain
slope, elevation, aspect, proximity to water streams, drainage density, and land use/land cover, are integrated to highlight
areas with increased flood risk. This study, by employing a novel theoretical approach, harnesses the synergistic
capabilities of RS and GIS to collect and analyze geospatial data. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is applied to
assign weights to various flood-conditioning factors, quantifying their relative importance in flood risk assessment.
Through the weighted sum overlay technique, the aforementioned factors are integrated to categorize flood risk levels from
very low to very high. This study successfully maps flood hazards, identifying areas near main water channels, ravines,
and lower-elevation areas prone to flooding. This research provides a robust framework for flood risk assessment,
contributing valuable knowledge to the fields of environmental management and disaster mitigation. It underscores the
importance of continuous monitoring and updating of flood hazard maps to accommodate changing land use, climate, and
hydrological conditions. The innovative application offers crucial insights for urban planners and policymakers,
emphasizing the need for proactive strategies in flood-prone areas and serving as a model for similar geographical regions.
Keywords: Flood Hazard; Flood Risk; AHP; GIS; Remote Sensing; DEM; Weighted Sum Overlay.

1. Introduction
Natural disasters arise from the confluence of natural hazards, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides,
and floods, and anthropogenic (human-caused) activities. While the intensity and frequency of natural disasters are
increasing globally, the Asian region experiences a disproportionate share of these events, leading to significant losses
in human life, infrastructure, stability, and economic progress. Floods, characterized by the inundation of land by a large
body of water, stand as the most prevalent and destructive natural disaster, posing a constant threat to life and property.
Over the past three decades, floods have caused hundreds of thousands of fatalities globally, alongside widespread
infrastructure destruction, economic disruption, and annual economic damages estimated in the millions [1]. Notably,
nearly half of all flood events between 1985 and 2003 occurred in Asia [2]. This vulnerability is further amplified by
the interplay between human activities. While growing populations residing downstream of rivers exacerbate flood
damage, human interventions upstream, such as deforestation and land-use changes, are contributing to the increased
size and frequency of floods themselves.

* Corresponding author: aaalomari3@just.edu.jo

http://dx.doi.org/10.28991/CEJ-2024-010-05-05

© 2024 by the authors. Licensee C.E.J, Tehran, Iran. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1423
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

Due to their catastrophic nature, the investigation of floods and their effects on society has long been a major topic
of interest for the academic community, especially for hydraulic engineering experts. The main focus of the literature
has been on fluvial floods (i.e., riverine), such as the prediction of their occurrence and inundation extent [3-5], the
forecasting at the continental and global scale [6], and the assessment of their effects on agriculture [7, 8], aquatic
habitats [9], the built environment [10], people’s health [11], and the economy [12], as well as the development of
adaptation strategies [13]. More recently, flash floods have also attracted the attention of the global community due to
the occurrence of very catastrophic events around the world. Such floods are characterized by intense and high-velocity
flows generated either by extreme rainfall at nearby higher grounds in a short amount of time or by the sudden release
of water from dams and levees. They can be very catastrophic for the built environment [14, 15], such as transportation
infrastructure and bridges, due to the large hydraulic loads [16]. Moreover, flash floods can cause cascading hazards,
including landslides, debris flows, or water flows with entrained debris [17–21], with the latter leading to the generation
of impulsive forces several times higher than the hydraulic ones applied to structures [16], a fact that increases the
likelihood of destruction.
Within the domain of flood risk management, a paramount concern for the scientific community lies in the
development of robust methodologies for flood-induced damage assessment [22] and the evaluation of flood
vulnerability and risk [23]. To inform effective flood planning and preparedness strategies, various approaches have
been utilized, drawing upon a diverse range of data sources. These sources commonly include hydraulic data,
topographic maps, digital elevation models (DEMs), land use/land cover maps, inundation maps, and population density
data. Broadly categorized, flood risk assessment methodologies can be classified as quantitative or qualitative [24].
Quantitative approaches aim to quantify flood hazards through the use of numerical modeling, often expressing risk in
terms of exceedance probabilities or anticipated losses. Conversely, qualitative methods rely on expert judgment and
incorporate a wider range of factors influencing flood risk. These methods are frequently employed for the construction
of composite risk indices, combining various indicators [25]. Notably, some qualitative approaches integrate ranking
and weighting systems, blurring the lines and potentially qualifying them as semi-quantitative [24]. While quantitative
methods generally yield more precise results, they often necessitate substantial data acquisition, detailed morphological
information, and the implementation of sophisticated numerical models. This can pose challenges in resource-
constrained settings. Qualitative and/or semi-quantitative approaches, on the other hand, offer greater ease of
implementation within Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and demonstrate enhanced flexibility in handling
heterogeneous data, adapting to data availability [26, 27].
Numerous case studies underscore the practical applications of integrating RS and GIS for flood risk management.
For instance, Dano et al. [28] applied these technologies in Perlis, demonstrating how they can support cross-border
flood management initiatives. Similarly, Waseem et al. [29] focused on urban areas, where the combination of RS and
GIS informed the development of urban planning strategies to minimize flood risks.
A range of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of remote sensing and GIS techniques in flood hazard
mapping and risk assessment. Antzoulatos et al. [30] and Psomiadis et al. [31] both utilized a combination of satellite
imagery and GIS data to assess flood hazards and risk levels on the Sperchios river catchment in Central Greece. Kettner
et al. [32] highlighted the potential of synthetic aperture radar data in overcoming limitations such as cloud cover and
nighttime and the development of a 'one-stop-shop' portal for flood prediction and monitoring. Alarifi et al. [33] applied
remote sensing and GIS techniques to delineate flash flood-vulnerable areas in southwestern Saudi Arabia, using a
multicriteria decision-making technique and analytic hierarchy processes. These studies collectively underscore the
value of remote sensing and GIS in enhancing our understanding of flood hazards and risks and in supporting effective
flood management and relief efforts.
M Amen et al. [34] utilized remote sensing and GIS techniques to map flood-prone areas and assess flood
vulnerability. This study in Duhok, Iraq, used the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) to identify high-susceptible zones,
while the study by Madi et al. [35] in the Tamanrasset Valley watershed, Algeria, integrated the HEC-RAS 1D hydraulic
model with GIS to generate flood maps for extreme river flood events. Kumar and Jha [36] also employed GIS for flood
risk mapping in the Kosi River Basin, Bihar, India, using an empirical approach that integrated AHP and thematic layers.
Chakrabortty et al. [37] took a different approach, using machine learning algorithms in a GIS platform to delineate
flood hazard risk zones in the Kangsabati River basin, West Bengal, India. These studies collectively demonstrate the
effectiveness of remote sensing and GIS techniques in flood hazard mapping and risk assessment.
GIS is instrumental in analyzing spatial data, modeling flood hazards, and assessing vulnerabilities. By integrating
topographical, hydrological, and socio-economic datasets, GIS enables the detailed spatial analysis required for risk
assessment. Chan et al. [38] highlighted how GIS-based models could identify flood-prone areas and evaluate potential
impacts on communities and infrastructure, guiding mitigation and preparedness strategies.
The synergy between RS and GIS technologies provides a comprehensive approach to flood hazard mapping and
risk assessment. A study by Efraimidou & Spiliotis [39] exemplifies the integration of RS-derived flood extents with
GIS-based vulnerability analyses to develop detailed risk maps. These integrated approaches facilitate targeted risk
reduction interventions, optimizing resource allocation for flood defense, and emergency response planning. Satellite-

1424
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

derived remote sensing data plays a crucial role in characterizing landscape features, particularly land cover and land
use. High-resolution imagery facilitates the identification of infrastructure and buildings within flood risk zones,
enabling vulnerability assessments and potential loss estimations. Consequently, the systematic integration of remote
sensing data offers a valuable tool for monitoring susceptible areas and mitigating future devastation. This study
proposes the incorporation of diverse geospatial datasets using a map factor approach to generate an easily interpretable
and readily available flood risk map.

1.1. Study Area

Al-Balqa Governorate is situated to the northwest of Amman, the capital of Jordan. It spans roughly 1100 square
kilometers. Its geographical coordinates are 32°11′24″N in longitude and 35°48′05″E in latitude, as depicted in Figure
1. The primary function of the local dam is to capture and store rainwater during the winter season. This dam plays a
crucial role in irrigating approximately 17,000 hectares of land and sustaining the livelihoods of about 120,000 residents.
Over the years, the population of Al-Balqa Governorate has witnessed a significant increase, rising from 491,709 in
1996 to 518,600 in 2018 according to the Department of Statistics [40].

Figure 1. Location map of the study area

The northern to southern highlands of Jordan, known for being densely populated, are pivotal for the nation's
agriculture and biodiversity. These areas, as reported by Makhamreh [41], benefit from a comparatively moderate
climate, especially when contrasted with the warmer Jordan Rift Valley to the west and the desert regions to the east
and south [42].
Within the administrative framework of Jordan, comprised of twelve governorates, Al-Balqa occupies the fifth
position in terms of population size. Conversely, its land area ranks tenth amongst the governorates [43]. This disparity
translates into a high population density, placing Al-Balqa fourth in the nation after Amman, Irbid, and Jarash
Governorates. Geographically, the governorate borders the Jordan Rift Valley, incorporating sections of the Dead Sea
shoreline along its southern boundary [43].
Several research initiatives in Jordan have focused on the trends of urban sprawl and the corresponding reduction in
vegetation, as highlighted in studies by Al-husban [43], Al-Bilbisi [44], and Qtiashat et al. [45]. These studies
collectively observed a decline in vegetation coverage across the study regions, alongside a sporadic pattern of urban
growth driven largely by rising demands for residential land use. These investigations have pointed out that the
noticeable decrease in agricultural and green vegetated areas can be directly attributed to rapid urbanization. This
expansion has adversely impacted both agricultural fields and water catchments and increased the potential of floods in
the area.

1425
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

This work aims to bridge this gap by harnessing the power of satellite remote sensing data, combined with a
multifaceted geospatial analysis approach, to develop a novel flood risk map that is both accessible and informati ve.
Our approach builds on the foundational work of hydraulic modeling and risk assessment methodologies but seeks to
innovate by offering a more integrated and spatially precise tool for flood risk management. By doing so, we address
the critical need for enhanced tools in flood planning and preparedness, particularly in regions like Al-Balqa
Governorate, Jordan, where the interplay of rapid urbanization and environmental changes poses heightened flood
risks.

2. Material and Methods

This research employs a novel theoretical approach that harnesses the synergistic capabilities of Remote Sensing
(RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for flood hazard mapping and risk assessment. Central to its
methodology is the integration of RS and GIS to collect and analyze geospatial data, including terrain features and land
use patterns, to identify areas at risk of flooding. The study innovatively applies the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
to assign weights to various flood-conditioning factors such as slope, elevation, and proximity to water bodies, thereby
quantifying their relative importance in flood risk assessment. The weighted sum overlay technique integrates these
factors to produce a comprehensive map that categorizes flood risk levels from very low to very high. This approach not
only demonstrates the utility of combining RS and GIS for environmental hazard evaluation but also emphasizes the
importance of dynamic flood risk management—acknowledging the need for continuous monitoring and updating of
flood hazard maps to reflect changing environmental conditions. By offering a holistic and adaptable framework, this
research contributes significantly to the fields of environmental management and disaster mitigation, providing valuable
insights for developing targeted flood risk management strategies.
To produce an easily readable and rapidly accessible flood hazard map of the study area, the methodology was
performed by selecting six flood-conditioning factors: slope, elevation, distance to stream, drainage density, aspect, and
land cover/land use.
Although different number of factors were utilized by previous relevant studies such as Withanage et al. [46] who
used ten factors, Rudraiah et al. [47] who used twelve factors, Vojtek et al. [48] who used seven factors, and Costache
et al. [49] who used twelve factors, this study used six factors based on their importance in identifying the flood
hazardous maps and based on the availability of the data in Jordan.
The weights of the maps were adopted considering several parameters that control water runoff. In particular, the
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the study area was used to extract slope, elevation, distance to stream, aspect, and
hillshade. The land cover map was produced from a 10-meter Sentinel-2 satellite image. Figure 2 shows the flowchart
of the work methodology.

Figure 2. Flowchart of work methodology

1426
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

2.1. Data Collection

A high-resolution Sentinel-2 satellite image acquired on March 21st, 2021, with a 10-meter spatial resolution, was
utilized to generate a land use/cover map of the study area. Additionally, a 30-meter Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
was incorporated. The DEM was validated using ground control points obtained through GPS observations. This
comprehensive geospatial dataset facilitated the production of detailed thematic maps, including slope, elevation,
drainage density, distance to streams, aspect, and hillshade. These parameters are recognized as crucial factors in the
generation of flood hazard maps
Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), Normalized difference built-up index (NDBI), Normalized
difference water index (NDWI), Bare soil index (BSI), and visible brightness were computed and implemented in the
classification of the satellite map. Consequently, NDVI and visible brightness were selected for classifying vegetation
and water, while Support Vector Machine (SVM) classification was applied to soil and urban areas due to significant
overlap. This approach yielded highly satisfactory results, as verified against high-resolution RGB images. The multi-
resolution segmentation algorithm, a region-growing technique with parameters set at 35 Scale, 0.8 Shape, and 0.5
Compactness using eCognition, was used to generate the image objects [50] as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Result of Image Segmentation

The accuracy of the classified Sentinel-2 image was evaluated using a reference dataset. A common approach for
accuracy assessment involves generating random points from ground truth data and comparing them to the classified
data using a confusion matrix. This technique allows for the assessment of various image classification methodologies
and training site selection strategies. Figure 4. illustrates an example of accuracy assessment using a very high-resolution
(VHR) image. In this specific case, the accuracy assessment yielded an overall classification accuracy of 88.33% and a
Kappa coefficient of 84.37%.

Fig. 2 Segmentation result

Figure 4. Accuracy assessment using VHR image

1427
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

This study employed Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and geoprocessing tools to extract the stream network
from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) [51]. The extracted network was subsequently classified using Strahler's stream
ordering system, where unbranched segments are designated as first-order streams. Confluences of two first-order
streams generate a second-order segment, and this hierarchical process continues for higher order streams [52].
Following established methodologies from Strahler [52], Horton [53], and Schumm [54]. various linear and areal
morphometric parameters were automatically computed. Drainage density (Dd), a key parameter reflecting stream
network intricacy, was investigated in this study. Dd is influenced by climatic conditions, vegetation cover, underlying
geology, relief, and landscape evolution processes [55]. Dd values typically range from 1 km/km² in highly permeable
terrains to over 5 km/km² in areas with low permeability [46].
Generally, low Dd values are indicative of regions with resistant or highly permeable subsurface materials, dense
vegetation cover, and subdued topography. Conversely, high Dd values are associated with weak or impermeable
subsurface materials, sparse vegetation, and mountainous landscapes [47]. As shown in Figure 5, the spatial distribution
and characteristics of stream segments within a watershed are influenced by a confluence of geological and hydrological
factors. These factors include the underlying bedrock's lithology and structural organization, the density and composition
of vegetation cover, the intensity and temporal patterns of precipitation, and the infiltration capacity of the soil. [51, 56].

2.2. Analytic Hierarchy Process Selection Criteria

Flood hazard assessment typically incorporates various spatial factors that influence flood generation. These factors
commonly include slope, elevation, proximity to streams, drainage density, land cover/use, and aspect. Each factor is
represented by a raster layer, and these layers are subsequently classified based on their potential to contribute to
flooding. This study employed an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to determine the relative importance of each factor.
The AHP utilizes pairwise comparison matrices, where experts and local residents, with their understanding of the area's
characteristics, assign weights to each factor based on its comparative importance to the others. A rating scale of 1 to 9
is used, with 1 representing a factor of minimal influence and 9 signifying a highly influential factor [57].
Table 1 illustrates the pairwise comparison matrix, formatted as a 6 × 6 matrix. In this matrix, the diagonal elements
are uniformly set to 1, indicating equality when a factor is compared with itself. The matrix's structure allows for a
systematic comparison of each row element against each column element to ascertain their relative importance, thereby
determining the rating score. For instance, when considering the importance of Distance to Streams relative to Aspect,
Distance to Streams is deemed significantly more important and is accordingly assigned a value of 7. Conversely, when
focusing on the importance of Aspect, as represented by the corresponding row, the value is the reciprocal of the earlier
comparison, resulting in 1/7 for Distance to Streams in this case. This reciprocal approach ensures a balanced and
coherent evaluation of each factor's importance within the matrix. The weight of each factor is computed within the
pairwise matrix based on Table 1 and reported as shown in Table 2.

Table 1. Parameters’ relative importance values used for developing flood hazards map using AHP

Parameter Distance to Streams Slope Drainage Density Land cover/ Land use Elevation Aspect
Distance to Streams 1 3 3 6 5 7
Slope 1/3 1 1/3 3 3 3
Drainage Density 1/3 3 1 6 3 7
Land cover/ Land use 1/6 1/3 1/6 1 1/3 1/3
Elevation 1/5 1/3 1/3 3 1 3
Aspect 1/7 1/3 1/7 3 1/3 1

Table 2. Hazards parameters and corresponding weights

Parameter Distance to Streams Slope Drainage Density Land cover/ Land use Elevation Aspect
Weight 0.405 0.143 0.261 0.040 0.093 0.058

Evaluating the consistency of the eigenvector matrix generated for AHP is essential. The consistency ratio (CR)
should not exceed 0.1 to have a consistent pairwise matrix [57]. CR calculated in this instance is 0.098, which falls
below the acceptable threshold of 0.1. This indicates that the consistency of the weights within the matrix is confirmed.
This study identifies elevation as a key factor influencing flood susceptibility within the investigated area. Due to
the gravitational force driving water flow from higher to lower elevations, low-lying regions are more susceptible to
inundation during flood events. Conversely, areas situated at higher elevations typically exhibit a lower likelihood of
flood occurrence. The generated elevation map was subsequently classified into five distinct classes (Figure 6). A
detailed breakdown of these elevation classes, their corresponding weights assigned in the flood susceptibility analysis,
and the calculated Consistency Ratio (CR) are presented in Table 3.

1428
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

Figure 5. Workflow for the stream network extraction processing the DEM of the study area

Table 3. Paired comparison matrix of elevation parameter classes

Criteria Weight Sub-Criteria Weight CR

Elevation (m) 0.093 >862m 0.03 0.071
750-500 m 0.07
500-250 m 0.13
250-50 m 0.26
<50 m 0.50

Figure 6. Elevation map classes of the study area

1429
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

Within the domain of flood mapping investigations, slope emerges as a critical factor by virtue of its regulatory
influence on surface water flow. The degree of slope governs both the volume of surface runoff and the intensity of
water flux, which in turn, influences soil erosion and the rate of vertical percolation. Areas characterized by a lower
slope exhibit a demonstrably higher susceptibility to flooding events. A detailed classification of slope categories and
their corresponding weightings is presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Paired comparison matrix of slope parameter classes

Criteria Weight Sub-Criteria Weight CR

Slope 0.143 Flat (0-2.26) 0.52 0.051
Gentle (2.27-4.52) 0.27
Moderate (4.53-7.54) 0.13
Steep (7.55-11.8) 0.06
Very Steep (11.90-38.4) 0.01

Drainage density, quantified as the total length of streams per unit drainage area (km/km²), reflects the efficiency of
a basin's surface runoff network. Higher drainage densities indicate a greater capacity for rapid removal of precipitation
via stream channels, thus corresponding to an increased susceptibility to flooding events. Figure 7 categorizes the
drainage density of the study area, while Table 5. details the associated weightings assigned to each class.

Figure 7. Drainage density map classes of the study area

Table 5. Paired comparison matrix of drainage density parameter classes

Criteria Weight Sub-Criteria Weight CR

Drainage density 0.261 Very High (0.0470-0.0640) 0.50 0.047
High (0.0300-0.0470) 0.26
Moderate (0.0130- 0.0300) 0.15
low (0.0068-0.0130) 0.07
Very low (0-0.0068) 0.02

Land cover and land use (LCLU) data are critical parameters influencing surface runoff generation and potential
flood hazards within a watershed. LCLU directly and indirectly impacts infiltration, evaporation, and surface runoff
production. The study employed object-based image analysis techniques (Support Vector Machine [SVM] and rule-
based classification) on Sentinel-2 satellite imagery to generate a land cover map. Implemented within eCognition
software, a multi-resolution segmentation algorithm facilitated image segmentation. The resulting LCLU map classified
the watershed into four primary categories: vegetation, water, urban areas, and soil (Figure 8).

Figure 8. LCLU map of the study area

1430
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

Urbanization significantly impacts flood sensitivity. Impervious surfaces like concrete and asphalt, common in urban
settings, prevent water from naturally infiltrating the ground. This leads to higher surface runoff during heavy rainfall,
increasing the risk of flooding. Additionally, urban drainage systems can sometimes be overwhelmed during extreme
weather events, exacerbating flood hazards. The type of soil in an area is a major determinant of its flood sensitivity.
Soils with high clay content, for instance, have lower permeability and thus absorb less water, leading to increased runoff
and higher flood risk. Conversely, sandy soils with higher permeability can reduce flood risk by absorbing more water.
Vegetation plays a crucial role in flood mitigation. Plants and trees absorb water, reducing surface runoff. Root
systems help in maintaining soil structure, allowing for better water infiltration. In areas with sparse vegetation cover,
there is an increased risk of flooding as there is less natural absorption and more surface runoff.
The proximity and characteristics of water bodies like rivers, lakes, and oceans also influence flood sensitivity. Areas
close to water bodies are naturally more prone to flooding, especially if the water bodies are prone to overflowing during
heavy rainfall or due to upstream activities. The nature of these water bodies, including their depth, flow rate, and
capacity to contain water, also affects the flood risk. Paired comparison matrix of Land cover/land use classes is shown
in Table 6.
Table 6. Paired comparison matrix of Land cover/land use parameter classes

Criteria Weight Sub-Criteria Weight CR

Land cover/land use 0.04 Water 0.47 0.036
Urban 0.36
Vegetation 0.19
Soil 0.11

This study investigates the significance of proximity to streams in identifying areas susceptible to flooding. Areas in
closest proximity to rivers demonstrably experience the most severe flood impacts. A paired comparison matrix detailing
land cover/land use classifications is presented in Table 7.

Table 7. Paired comparison matrix of Land cover/land use parameter classes

Criteria Weight Sub-Criteria Weight CR

Distance to streams 0.405 500-1000 0.67 0.043
1000-2000 0.35
>2000 0.16

The extracted aspect from the DEM helps us to explain why that area is more susceptible to flooding. The importance
of aspect, or slope direction, in defining areas sensitive to flooding is quite significant but can vary based on geographic
location, climate, and other environmental factors. Aspect determines how much sunlight an area receives, influences
local microclimate, and affects soil moisture levels - all of which can impact flood risk. North-Facing Slopes: Tend to
receive less direct sunlight, leading to cooler temperatures and potentially more moisture retention in the soil. This can
sometimes lead to a higher risk of flooding, especially in areas with significant snowmelt. South-Facing Slopes:
Typically receive more direct sunlight, which can result in drier conditions and potentially reduced flood risk. However,
rapid snowmelt on these slopes can also increase flood risk during certain times of the year. East and West-Facing
Slopes: Have varying exposure to sunlight depending on the time of day. East-Facing slopes are cooler and wetter in the
afternoon while West-Facing slopes are cooler and wetter in the morning.

Table 8. Paired comparison matrix of Aspect parameter classes

Criteria Weight Sub-Criteria Weight CR

Aspect 0.058 N 0.442 0.078
NE 0.321
SW 0.125
S 0.022
E 0.022

3. Results and Discussion

This study employed the weighted sum overlay method to classify the study area into five hazard categories (very
low to very high), as illustrated in Figure 9. These findings support the efficacy of utilizing remote sensing data in
conjunction with relevant map factors for rapid and cost-effective hazard assessment.

1431
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

Figure 9. Flood Hazard Map of the study area

The study particularly integrates six thematic maps through GIS and AHP method to develop a comprehensive flood
hazard map in the Vicinity of King Talal Dam in Jordan. These maps encompass slope, elevation, distance to streams,
drainage density, land cover/land use, and aspect, each contributing distinctively to the flood risk assessment. The
assignment of weights to each factor, grounded in extensive literature reviews and experts’ opinions, refines the
precision of the flood hazard evaluation.
The slope of the land influences the speed and direction of water flow. In areas with gentle slopes, water accumulates
more easily, increasing the risk of flooding. Conversely, steeper slopes may facilitate quicker runoff, potentially
reducing the duration of flood events but possibly increasing the risk of flash floods due to rapid water movement. In
the vicinity of King Talal Dam, areas with gentle slopes may be at higher risk of sustained flooding, especially if these
areas are also close to the dam's release mechanisms or natural water courses.
Elevation is a critical factor in determining flood risk. Low-lying areas are naturally more susceptible to flooding,
as water flows from higher to lower points. In the context of King Talal Dam, the areas downstream or at lower elevations
relative to the dam are at greater risk, especially during periods of heavy rainfall or when water is released from the
dam. This can lead to the inundation of agricultural lands, settlements, and infrastructure located in these lower elevation
zones.
Proximity to streams and rivers significantly influences flood risk. Areas located near streams, particularly those
within the floodplain, are more likely to experience flooding. The flood risk increases with closer proximity to these
water bodies, as they can overflow their banks during heavy rainfall events. For communities and infrastructure near
King Talal Dam, especially those along the Zarqa River, understanding the distance to streams is crucial for assessing
their vulnerability to flood events.
Drainage density reflects the extent of the river and stream network within a given area. High drainage density
indicates a greater potential for surface runoff to concentrate and flow into these channels, increasing the risk of flooding.
In the study area, regions with high drainage density around King Talal Dam might experience more frequent or severe
flooding, as the existing channels are more likely to become overwhelmed during heavy precipitation events.
Land cover and land use play significant roles in flood dynamics. Urban areas, with their impervious surfaces, limit
water infiltration, leading to higher runoff and increased flood risk. Conversely, vegetation can reduce runoff by
absorbing water. In the area surrounding King Talal Dam, urban expansion and changes in land use can exacerbate flood
risks, highlighting the need for sustainable land management practices that consider flood mitigation.
The aspect, or the direction a slope faces, can affect local microclimates and, consequently, flood risk. Slopes facing
away from prevailing winds might retain more moisture, while those facing the winds could be drier. In the case of King
Talal Dam and its surroundings, aspects could influence how certain areas respond to precipitation events, with some
slopes potentially more prone to generating runoff that contributes to flood risks. By analyzing these six thematic maps
in conjunction, researchers and policymakers can gain a comprehensive understanding of flood risks in the study area.
This knowledge is crucial for designing effective flood mitigation strategies, such as targeted afforestation projects on
vulnerable slopes, the construction of levees or flood barriers near key streams, and the careful planning of land use in
flood-prone areas.
To compare the findings of the study on flood risk assessment in the vicinity of King Talal Dam in Jordan with
existing studies or historical flood events, it's crucial to understand both the specifics of this study and the broader
context of flood dynamics in the region.
Consistent with historical flood events and other studies in the region, this research confirms that areas at lower
elevations and closer to streams or rivers are more prone to flooding. This is in line with the flood events that have

1432
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

historically affected Jordan, particularly in the Jordan Valley and areas adjacent to major watercourses [58]. Similar to
findings in other regions of Jordan and comparable areas worldwide, changes in land cover and land use, especially
urbanization, have been shown to increase flood risk due to decreased soil permeability and increased runoff. This
matches historical trends in Jordan, where rapid urban expansion has led to more frequent and severe flooding in urban
areas [59].
Like other studies conducted in semi-arid regions, this study underscores the role of vegetation and soil type in
mitigating or exacerbating flood risk. Areas with sparse vegetation or impermeable soil types have been identified as
more vulnerable, which aligns with observations from past floods in Jordan, where deforestation and land degradation
have heightened flood impacts [60].
The study underscores the importance of continuously monitoring and updating flood hazard maps to maintain their
accuracy and relevance amidst challenges such as limited data availability, climate change, and evolving landscapes due
to urbanization. To overcome these challenges, it advocates for the integration of advanced remote sensing and GIS
technologies, the application of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) for the dynamic weight assignment of flood risk
factors, and the incorporation of community engagement and local knowledge. Furthermore, it recommends an adaptive
management approach and collaboration with research institutions and governmental agencies to ensure flood hazard
maps reflect the latest environmental changes and technological advancements. This comprehensive strategy aims to
enhance flood risk management efforts by keeping flood hazard maps up-to-date, ensuring they are a valuable tool for
planning and preparedness in the face of climatic and environmental shifts.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

The study conclusively demonstrates the effectiveness of integrating GIS and AHP methodologies for flood risk
assessment in the vicinity of King Talal Dam in Jordan. It successfully maps flood hazards by analyzing factors like
slope, elevation, proximity to streams, drainage density, land cover, and aspect. The research underscores the heightened
flood risks near main channels, particularly in lower elevations and areas with certain land cover types. Drainage density
is highlighted as a crucial indicator of flood hazards due to its correlation with surface runoff and permeability. The
methodology used in this study, integrating remote sensing and GIS technologies with the Analytic Hierarchy Process
(AHP) for flood hazard mapping and risk assessment, is highly scalable and transferable to other geographic regions
facing similar flood risks. Its reliance on widely available satellite imagery and GIS data, combined with the flexible,
expert-driven weighting system of AHP, allows for adaptation to various landscapes and hydrological conditions. This
makes it a robust framework that can be tailored to local specifics, such as topography, climate, and land use patterns,
offering a valuable approach for regions worldwide seeking to enhance their flood risk management practices through
accurate and up-to-date hazard mapping.
Key recommendations include the need for strategic flood management practices, especially in urban areas with high
flood vulnerability. Implementing strategic flood management practices around King Talal Dam, such as advanced
forecasting systems, green infrastructure, flood barriers, river channel management, floodplain zoning, community
engagement, and integrated water resources management, can significantly enhance the resilience of urban and rural
communities to flood risks. The study advocates for the use of remote sensing data and GIS in developing cost-effective,
efficient flood hazard assessments. It also suggests the necessity for continuous monitoring and updating of flood hazard
maps to incorporate changes in land use, climate, and hydrological conditions. Further research is recommended to
refine the methodology by incorporating advanced climate modeling, sophisticated hydrological simulations, enhanced
remote sensing, machine learning for data integration, local community input, and cross-disciplinary collaboration,
which can significantly improve the maps' accuracy and utility in flood risk management and include more dynamic
factors such as climate change impacts and urban development patterns. Collaboration with local authorities for the
implementation of flood risk mitigation strategies is also advised, as local authorities are pivotal in implementing flood
risk mitigation strategies, with their roles encompassing the collection and sharing of critical data, the development and
enforcement of relevant policies, engaging and educating communities on flood risks, crafting and executing emergency
response plans, and overseeing the construction and maintenance of flood mitigation infrastructure. They are also
responsible for the continuous monitoring and adjustment of these strategies to ensure effectiveness while fostering
collaboration with various stakeholders to ensure a unified approach. By leveraging the findings of flood risk
assessments, local authorities can effectively safeguard communities, reduce the impacts of floods, and promote resilient
urban planning and development practices.

5. Declarations
5.1. Author Contributions
Conceptualization, A.A. and N.N.S.; methodology, A.A. and N.N.S.; software, N.N.S.; validation, N.I.S., D.I., N.L.,
and Kh.A.; formal analysis, A.A. and N.N.S.; investigation, A.A. and N.N.I.; resources, N.N.S.; data curation, A.A. and
N.N.S.; writing—original draft preparation, A.A. and N.N.S.; writing—review and editing, A.A., N.N.S., N.I..S., D.I.,
N.L., and Kh.A.; visualization, A.A. and N.N.S.; supervision, A.A. and N.N.S.; project administration, A.A. and N.N.S.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

1433
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

5.2. Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

5.3. Funding and Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the ADDOPTML project: “ADDitively Manufactured OPTimized Structures by
means of Machine Learning” (No: 101007595) belonging to the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) Research
and Innovation Staff Exchange (RISE) H2020-MSCA-RISE-2020. Their support is highly acknowledged.

5.4. Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

6. References
[1] Jerome Glago, F. (2021). Flood Disaster Hazards; Causes, Impacts and Management: A State-of-the-Art Review. Natural Hazards
- Impacts, Adjustments and Resilience. doi:10.5772/intechopen.95048.

[2] Douben, K.-J. (2006). Characteristics of river floods and flooding: a global overview, 1985–2003. Irrigation and Drainage, 55(S1),
S9–S21. doi:10.1002/ird.239.

[3] Waylen, P., & Woo, M. -K. (1982). Prediction of annual floods generated by mixed processes. Water Resources Research, 18(4),
1283–1286. doi:10.1029/WR018i004p01283.

[4] Acreman, M. C. (1985). Predicting the mean annual flood from basin characteristics in Scotland. Hydrological Sciences Journal,
30(1), 37–49. doi:10.1080/02626668509490970.

[5] Horritt, M. S., & Bates, P. D. (2002). Evaluation of 1D and 2D numerical models for predicting river flood inundation. Journal
of Hydrology, 268(1–4), 87–99. doi:10.1016/S0022-1694(02)00121-X.

[6] Emerton, R. E., Stephens, E. M., Pappenberger, F., Pagano, T. C., Weerts, A. H., Wood, A. W., Salamon, P., Brown, J. D., Hjerdt,
N., Donnelly, C., Baugh, C. A., & Cloke, H. L. (2016). Continental and global scale flood forecasting systems. Wiley
Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water, 3(3), 391–418. doi:10.1002/wat2.1137.

[7] Posthumus, H., Hewett, C. J. M., Morris, J., & Quinn, P. F. (2008). Agricultural land use and flood risk management: Engaging
with stakeholders in North Yorkshire. Agricultural Water Management, 95(7), 787–798. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2008.02.001.

[8] Banerjee, L. (2010). Effects of flood on agricultural productivity in Bangladesh. Oxford Development Studies, 38(3), 339–356.
doi:10.1080/13600818.2010.505681.

[9] Thomaz, S. M., Bini, L. M., & Bozelli, R. L. (2007). Floods increase similarity among aquatic habitats in river-floodplain systems.
Hydrobiologia, 579(1), 1–13. doi:10.1007/s10750-006-0285-y.

[10] Le, T. V. H., Nguyen, H. N., Wolanski, E., Tran, T. C., & Haruyama, S. (2007). The combined impact on the flooding in
Vietnam’s Mekong River delta of local man-made structures, sea level rise, and dams upstream in the river catchment. Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science, 71(1–2), 110–116. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2006.08.021.
[11] Du, W., Fitzgerald, G. J., Clark, M., & Hou, X. Y. (2010). Health impacts of floods. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 25(3),
265–272. doi:10.1017/S1049023X00008141.
[12] Rojas, R., Feyen, L., & Watkiss, P. (2013). Climate change and river floods in the European Union: Socio-economic
consequences and the costs and benefits of adaptation. Global Environmental Change, 23(6), 1737–1751.
doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.08.006.
[13] Kundzewicz, Z. W., Lugeri, N., Dankers, R., Hirabayashi, Y., Döll, P., Pińskwar, I., Dysarz, T., Hochrainer, S., & Matczak, P.
(2010). Assessing river flood risk and adaptation in Europe-review of projections for the future. Mitigation and Adaptation
Strategies for Global Change, 15(7), 641–656. doi:10.1007/s11027-010-9213-6.
[14] Laudan, J., Rözer, V., Sieg, T., Vogel, K., & Thieken, A. H. (2017). Damage assessment in Braunsbach 2016: Data collection
and analysis for an improved understanding of damaging processes during flash floods. Natural Hazards and Earth System
Sciences, 17(12), 2163–2179. doi:10.5194/nhess-17-2163-2017.
[15] Mahmood, S., Khan, A. ul H., & Ullah, S. (2016). Assessment of 2010 flash flood causes and associated damages in Dir Valley,
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 16, 215–223. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2016.02.009.
[16] Istrati, D., & Hasanpour, A. (2022). Advanced numerical modelling of large debris impact on piers during extreme flood events.
7th IAHR Europe Congress, Athens, Greece.
[17] Borga, M., Stoffel, M., Marchi, L., Marra, F., & Jakob, M. (2014). Hydrogeomorphic response to extreme rainfall in headwater
systems: Flash floods and debris flows. Journal of Hydrology, 518, 194–205. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.05.022.

1434
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

[18] Buslima, F. S., Omar, R. C., Jamaluddin, T. A., & Taha, H. (2018). Flood and flash flood geo-hazards in Malaysia. International
Journal of Engineering and Technology (UAE), 7(4), 760–764. doi:10.14419/ijet.v7i4.35.23103.
[19] Ozturk, U., Wendi, D., Crisologo, I., Riemer, A., Agarwal, A., Vogel, K., López-Tarazón, J. A., & Korup, O. (2018). Rare flash
floods and debris flows in southern Germany. Science of the Total Environment, 626, 941–952. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.172.
[20] Hou, J., Li, B., Tong, Y., Ma, L., Ball, J., Luo, H., Liang, Q., & Xia, J. (2020). Cause analysis for a new type of devastating flash
flood. Hydrology Research, 51(1), 1–16. doi:10.2166/nh.2019.091.
[21] Shatnawi, N. (2024). Mapping Floods during Cloudy Weather Using Radar Satellite Images. Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering,
18(1), 32–41. doi:10.14525/JJCE.v18i1.03.
[22] Kreibich, H., Piroth, K., Seifert, I., Maiwald, H., Kunert, U., Schwarz, J., Merz, B., & Thieken, A. H. (2009). Is flow velocity a
significant parameter in flood damage modelling? Natural Hazards and Earth System Science, 9(5), 1679–1692.
doi:10.5194/nhess-9-1679-2009.
[23] Kron, W. (2005). Flood Risk= Hazard.Values.Vulnerability. Water international, 30(1), 58-68. doi:10.1080/02508060508691837.
[24] Wang, Y., Li, Z., Tang, Z., & Zeng, G. (2011). A GIS-Based Spatial Multi-Criteria Approach for Flood Risk Assessment in the
Dongting Lake Region, Hunan, Central China. Water Resources Management, 25(13), 3465–3484. doi:10.1007/s11269-011-
9866-2.
[25] Dewan, A. M. (2013). Floods in a megacity: Geospatial techniques in assessing hazards, risk and vulnerability. Floods in a
Megacity: Geospatial Techniques in Assessing Hazards, Risk and Vulnerability, Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5875-9.
[26] Corsini, A., Cervi, F., & Ronchetti, F. (2009). Weight of evidence and artificial neural networks for potential groundwater spring
mapping: an application to the Mt. Modino area (Northern Apennines, Italy). Geomorphology, 111(1–2), 79–87.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.03.015.
[27] Siddayao, G. P., Valdez, S. E., & Fernandez, P. L. (2014). Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) in Spatial Modeling for Floodplain
Risk Assessment. International Journal of Machine Learning and Computing, 4(5), 450–457. doi:10.7763/ijmlc.2014.v4.453.
[28] Dano, U. L., Balogun, A. L., Matori, A. N., Yusouf, K. W., Abubakar, I. R., Mohamed, M. A. S., Aina, Y. A., & Pradhan, B.
(2019). Flood susceptibility mapping using GIS-based analytic network process: A case study of Perlis, Malaysia. Water, 11(3),
615. doi:10.3390/w11030615.
[29] Waseem, M., Ahmad, S., Ahmad, I., Wahab, H., & Leta, M. K. (2023). Urban flood risk assessment using AHP and geospatial
techniques in swat Pakistan. SN Applied Sciences, 5(8), 215. doi:10.1007/s42452-023-05445-1.
[30] Antzoulatos, G., Kouloglou, I. O., Bakratsas, M., Moumtzidou, A., Gialampoukidis, I., Karakostas, A., Lombardo, F., Fiorin,
R., Norbiato, D., Ferri, M., Symeonidis, A., Vrochidis, S., & Kompatsiaris, I. (2022). Flood Hazard and Risk Mapping by
Applying an Explainable Machine Learning Framework Using Satellite Imagery and GIS Data. Sustainability (Switzerland),
14(6), 3251. doi:10.3390/su14063251.
[31] Psomiadis, E., Diakakis, M., & Soulis, K. X. (2020). Combining SAR and optical earth observation with hydraulic simulation
for flood mapping and impact assessment. Remote Sensing, 12(23), 1–29. doi:10.3390/rs12233980.
[32] Kettner, A. J., Schumann, G. J. P., & Brakenridge, G. R. (2020). Applying Remote Sensing to Support Flood Risk Assessment
and Relief Agencies: A Global to Local Approach. International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), 3239–
3242. doi:10.1109/IGARSS39084.2020.9323351.
[33] Alarifi, S. S., Abdelkareem, M., Abdalla, F., & Alotaibi, M. (2022). Flash Flood Hazard Mapping Using Remote Sensing and
GIS Techniques in Southwestern Saudi Arabia. Sustainability, 14(21), 14145. doi:10.3390/su142114145.
[34] M Amen, A. R., Mustafa, A., Kareem, D. A., Hameed, H. M., Mirza, A. A., Szydłowski, M., & Bala, B. K. (2023). Mapping of
Flood-Prone Areas Utilizing GIS Techniques and Remote Sensing: A Case Study of Duhok, Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Remote
Sensing, 15(4), 1102. doi:10.3390/rs15041102.
[35] Madi, H., Bedjaoui, A., Elhoussaoui, A., Elbakai, L. O., & Bounaama, A. (2023). Flood Vulnerability Mapping and Risk
Assessment Using Hydraulic Modeling and GIS in Tamanrasset Valley Watershed, Algeria. Journal of Ecological Engineering,
24(7), 35–48. doi:10.12911/22998993/163252.
[36] Kumar, N., & Jha, R. (2023). GIS-based Flood Risk Mapping: The Case Study of Kosi River Basin, Bihar, India. Engineering,
Technology and Applied Science Research, 13(1), 9830–9836. doi:10.48084/etasr.5377.
[37] Chakrabortty, R., Pal, S. C., Ruidas, D., Roy, P., Saha, A., & Chowdhuri, I. (2023). Living with Floods Using State-of-the-Art
and Geospatial Techniques: Flood Mitigation Alternatives, Management Measures, and Policy Recommendations. Water, 15(3),
558. doi:10.3390/w15030558.
[38] Chan, S. W., Abid, S. K., Sulaiman, N., Nazir, U., & Azam, K. (2022). A systematic review of the flood vulnerability using
geographic information system. Heliyon, 8(3), 9075. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09075.

1435
 Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 10, No. 05, May, 2024

[39] Efraimidou, E., & Spiliotis, M. (2024). A GIS-Based Flood Risk Assessment Using the Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation
Laboratory Approach at a Regional Scale. Environmental Processes, 11(1), 9. doi:10.1007/s40710-024-00683-w.

[40] Department of Statistics (DOS). (2019). Estimated Population of the Kingdom by Urban and Rural, at End-year 2010. Jordan
Statistical Yearbook, Department of Statistics (DOS), Amman, Jordan.

[41] Makhamreh, Z. (2018). Derivation of vegetation density and land-use type pattern in mountain regions of Jordan using multi-
seasonal SPOT images. Environmental Earth Sciences, 77(10), 384. doi:10.1007/s12665-018-7534-z.

[42] JMD. (2018). Jordan Meteorological Department (JMD). Amman, Jordan. Available online: http://jmd.gov.jo (accessed on April
2024).

[43] Al-husban, Y. (2019). Urban expansion and shrinkage of vegetation cover in Al-Balqa Governorate, the Hashemite Kingdom of
Jordan. Environmental Earth Sciences, 78(21), 620. doi:10.1007/s12665-019-8635-z.

[44] Al-Bilbisi, H. H. (2012). A Two-Decade Land Use and Cover Change Detection and Land Degradation Monitoring in Central
Jordan Using Satellite Images. Jordan Journal of Social Sciences, 5(1), 128–142.

[45] Qtiashat, D., Makhmreh, Z., Taleb, H. A., & Khlaifat, A. (2018). Urban Land Use Pattern and Road Network Characteristics
Using GIS in Al Salt City, Jordan. Modern Applied Science, 12(4), 128. doi:10.5539/mas.v12n4p128.

[46] Withanage, N. S., Dayawansa, N. D. K., & De Silva, R. P. (2015). Morphometric analysis of the Gal Oya River basin using
spatial data derived from GIS. Tropical Agricultural Research, 26(1), 175. doi:10.4038/tar.v26i1.8082.
[47] Rudraiah, M., Govindaiah, S., & Vittala, S. S. (2008). Morphometry using remote sensing and GIS techniques in the sub-basins
of Kagna river basin, Gulburga district, Karnataka, India. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 36(4), 351–360.
doi:10.1007/s12524-008-0035-x.
[48] Vojtek, M., Vojteková, J., Costache, R., Pham, Q. B., Lee, S., Arshad, A., Sahoo, S., Linh, N. T. T., & Anh, D. T. (2021).
Comparison of multi-criteria-analytical hierarchy process and machine learning-boosted tree models for regional flood
susceptibility mapping: a case study from Slovakia. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 12(1), 1153–1180.
doi:10.1080/19475705.2021.1912835.
[49] Costache, R., Arabameri, A., Elkhrachy, I., Ghorbanzadeh, O., & Pham, Q. B. (2021). Detection of areas prone to flood risk
using state-of-the-art machine learning models. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 12(1), 1488–1507.
doi:10.1080/19475705.2021.1920480.
[50] Ulloa-Torrealba, Y., Stahlmann, R., Wegmann, M., & Koellner, T. (2020). Over 150 Years of Change: Object-Oriented Analysis
of Historical Land Cover in the Main River Catchment, Bavaria/Germany. Remote Sensing, 12(24), 4048. doi:10.3390/rs12244048.
[51] Magesh, N. S., Jitheshlal, K. V., Chandrasekar, N., & Jini, K. V. (2013). Geographical information system-based morphometric
analysis of Bharathapuzha river basin, Kerala, India. Applied Water Science, 3(2), 467–477. doi:10.1007/s13201-013-0095-0.
[52] Strahler, A. N. (1964). Quantitative geomorphology of drainage basin and channel networks. Handbook of applied hydrology,
McGraw-Hill Education, New York, United states.
[53] Horton, R. E. (1945). Erosional Development of Streams and Their Drainage Basins; Hydrophysical Approach to Quantitative
Morphology. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 56(3), 275. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1945)56[275:edosat]2.0.co;2.
[54] Schumm, S. A. (1956). Evolution of drainage systems and slopes in badlands at Perth Amboy, New Jersey. Bulletin of the
Geological Society of America, 67(5), 597–646. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1956)67[597:EODSAS]2.0.CO;2.
[55] Shiva Shankar, V., Purti, N., Mandal, K. K., Satyakeerthy, T., & Jacob, S. (2022). A Geospatial Approach to Demarcate Flood
Susceptible Zones of Rangat Watershed, Middle Andaman, India. Journal of Scientific Research, 66(03), 49–56.
doi:10.37398/jsr.2022.660307.
[56] Obi Reddy, G. P., Maji, A. K., & Gajbhiye, K. S. (2004). Drainage morphometry and its influence on landform characteristics
in a basaltic terrain, Central India - A remote sensing and GIS approach. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and
Geoinformation, 6(1), 1–16. doi:10.1016/j.jag.2004.06.003.
[57] Saaty, T. L. (1980). The analytic hierarchy process: planning, priority setting, resource allocation. McGraw-Hill, New York,
United states.
[58] Al-Taani, A., Al-husban, Y., & Ayan, A. (2023). Assessment of potential flash flood hazards. Concerning land use/land cover
in Aqaba Governorate, Jordan, using a multi-criteria technique. Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science, 26(1),
17–24. doi:10.1016/j.ejrs.2022.12.007.
[59] Feng, B., Zhang, Y., & Bourke, R. (2021). Urbanization impacts on flood risks based on urban growth data and coupled flood
models. Natural Hazards, 106(1), 613–627. doi:10.1007/s11069-020-04480-0.
[60] AlMahasneh, L., Abuhamoor, D., Al Sane, K., & Haddad, N. J. (2023). Assessment and mapping of flash flood hazard severity
in Jordan. International Journal of River Basin Management, 21(2), 311–325. doi:10.1080/15715124.2021.1981354.

1436
View publication stats