SPEAKER 0

Welcome to the first of your many lectures for anatomy and physiology systems. One,
this is Montreal won the skeletal system, and in the first of these many lectures,
the first of four topics within Module one, we're going to explore bones, tissues
and development. Specifically, we're going to start looking at some orientation
around terminology, the use of the anatomical position as a universal reference
point for describing anatomical locations relative to one another. And we'll also
start to get a feel for that relationship between structure and its function.
Essentially, what is anatomy and the physiology of how it works? So the content
topics for Topic 1.1 a are an overview of terminology, orientation and the
anatomical position and bone development and growth and how it changes over time.
So in order to address these topics, we have three learning outcomes for this many
lecture number one to identify the four main types of tissue. Number two to
describe the functions of the skeletal system, and number three to identify
specific bone markings. So now let's get into the mini lecture the way we're going
to run these is that I'll introduce the mini lecture to you and then I will
disappear into the background. You'll continue to hear my voice, but you will have
the focus on the images and the text on the screen instead, um, for the rest of the
mini lecture duration. So let's have a look. First of all, at the overview of our
human body, a structural hierarchy exists that you need to understand in order to
appreciate the functioning of the human body as a whole. Tiny building blocks of
matter called atoms such as hydrogen, helium, oxygen and so on combined to form
molecules such as water and larger proteins. Molecules then associate to form
organelles, which are the basic components of microscopic cells. Mitochondria, the
nucleus and Lissa zones are all examples of organelles. Cells are the smallest
functional units of living things, and disordered or dysfunctional cells may cause
pathology in an organism. Tissues are groups of similar cells that have a common
function, and an organ is a discrete structure composed of at least two different
types of tissue types that perform a specific function for the body. For example,
the liver, the brain and the stomach are all very different organs with specific
functions but still composed of originally the same types of tissue found
throughout the whole body. At the level of the organ, extremely complex functions
can become possible in the next level of organisation. Many organs work together to
accomplish a common purpose and these make up an organ system. For example, the
heart and the blood vessels work together to create the cardiovascular system. The
highest level of organisation is the organism, the living human being, and this
represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us
alive. We said previously that tissues are groups of similar cells that have a
common function. The human body is made up of four basic types of tissue. Nervous
tissue, muscle tissue, epithelial tissue and connective tissue. Nervous tissue
transmits electrical impulses for rapid communication between the organ systems,
and you'll find nervous tissue specifically located within the brain, the spinal
cord and the peripheral nerves laid out throughout the body. Muscle tissue allows
movement to occur, although there are several different types of muscle skeletal,
smooth and cardiac. All of these provide movement epithelial tissue covers covers
the body surfaces and also lines the cavities, so you'll find epithelial tissue
lining the digestive tract organs, other hollow organs in glands and also on the
skin surface, such as in the epidermis and finally, connective tissue provides
support and protection for the body organs and is made of living cells within a non
living matrix. Examples of connective tissue can be found as bone tendons
ligaments, another padding tissue throughout the body. So first of all, we need to
establish some sort of terminology that will assist you in learning anatomy and
physiology this trimester. So to begin with, let's look at the anatomical position,
which is a standard body position used as a universal reference point. You can see
here the person on the slide in those three images is standing in the same
position, so the feet are placed slightly apart. They're standing tall and upright
with the arms slightly abducted, which means placed out to the side of the body
with palms facing forward. This standard position is used whenever anatomy ists are
describing directions and body parts relative to 11 to another, so this is called
the anatomical position. In anatomical studies, the body is often cut or sectioned
along a flat surface called a plane sectioning the body in different planes gives
us a very different view of the structures contained within the left of these three
images represents the view of the body taken through a sagittal plane, which
divides the body into left and right portions. This is one of the three main planes
of the body used to describe the location of body parts in relation to each other.
Mid sagittal, or median, refers to the sagittal plane located directly in the
midline. This will provide an exact 50 50 split of the body into a left and right
side. The middle image represents a section made through the frontal or Corona
plane, which is a vertical plane that divides the body into an anterior, a front
and a posterior, a back section. A trans verse plane, which can also be called the
horizontal or axial plane, is an imaginary plane that divides the body into a
superior a top part and an inferior a bottom part portion. Have a look at the
magnetic resonance imaging scans at the bottom of this slide and see if you can
recognise which planes the sections are passing through. The first is a mid
sagittal section showing the vertebral column. The second is a frontal section
through the thoracic and abdominal cavities, and the third is a trans verse section
through the mid trunk looking from the feet up towards the head. Directional terms
allow us to explain how one structure in the body is located in relation to
another. Using far fewer terms. It's important that we can orientate ourselves with
the human body using directional terminology. That is language that describes the
position of body parts with reference to another body. Part practise using these
terms from today so that you can begin to own your own knowledge of anatomy.
Firstly, the term superior makes reference to a body part that is located above
another part, such as the head, is superior to the abdomen. Consequently, when we
describe the opposite direction, we refer to an inferior direction which is away
from the head towards a lower body part or structure. For example, the umbilicus is
inferior to the neck. Thirdly, we can use the term anterior to describe towards the
front of the body. The heart is anterior to the vertebral column, opposite to the
anterior direction. We have the posterior direction, which means towards the back
of the body or behind an object so the heart lies posterior to the sternum. In
humans, the term ventral can also be used interchangeably with anterior, and the
term dorsal can be used interchangeably with posterior. We use the term medial to
describe towards the midline of the body or on the inner side, so the heart is
medial to the arm. Conversely, we utilise the term lateral to describe body
components that are further away from the midline or on the outer side. The arms
are lateral to the chest. When we use the term, proximal were describing a body
part that is closer to the midline, or trunk of the body, so your elbow is proximal
to your wrist. Conversely, we use the term distal to describe a body part further
away from the midline or origin of the body part. At the trunk, for example, the
knee is distal to the thigh, superficial and deep relate to the surface of the body
or depth to the surface. A surface of the body. The skin is superficial to skeletal
muscle. The lungs are deep to the rib cage. When you were describing anybody part
with reference to another body part. Utilise these directional terms and become
really comfortable with the language of anatomy. Most anatomy and physiology
textbooks describe two sets of internal body cavities, the dorsal body cavity and
the ventral body cavity. These cavities are closed to the outside and provide
protection to the organs within them. The dorsal body cavity protects the nervous
system organs and has two subdivisions. The cranial cavity where the skull protects
the brain, and the vertebral cavity, which runs within the bony vertebral column
and encloses the spinal cord. The ventral body cavity is the more anterior and
larger of the two body cavities. It has two major subdivisions, the thoracic cavity
and the abdominal pelvic cavity. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the
heart. The abdominal pelvic cavity is separated from the thoracic cavity by the
diaphragm, the thin skeletal muscle that helps us breathe. The abdominal pelvic
cavity is then subdivided into two parts. The superior portion is the abdominal
cavity, which contains the stomach, intestines, the spleen, the liver and some
other digestive organs. The inferior portion, the pelvic cavity, contains the
urinary bladder, some reproductive organs and the rectum. Because the abdominal
pelvic cavity is so large and contains so many organs, it's often divided into four
quadrants. The right upper quadrant, the left upper quadrant, the right lower
quadrant and the left lower quadrant. These quadrants are made by dividing the
abdominal pelvic cavity into a sagittal section and a transverse section through
the umbilicus at right angles. Try and think through which organs fall into each of
these quadrants. Okay, now that we have had an
overview of anatomical terminology and the basic tissue types found within the
human body, let's begin our study of the skeletal system. The skeleton itself is
made up of bones and cartilage. What type of tissue do you think this is? Bones and
cartilage are actually both types of connective tissue. They're living cells in a
non living matrix. As humans, we have an endo skeleton which is found on the inside
of our bodies. However, some animals have an exoskeleton, which is found on the
outside of their body and useful for protection from predators. But very limiting
in terms of mobility. For us as humans and endo skeleton is far more practical and
allows us agility and speed of movement. The skeleton not only provides protection
of the organs within the body's cavities and support for the muscles to attach to,
but it's also a storage site for minerals such as calcium and phosphate and also
fat storage in the yellow bone marrow. The red bone marrow is the site of
production of red blood cells, in a process called him Ope Oasis. The 206 bones of
the adult human skeleton are divided, usually into two main groups. The axle and
the appendix colour skeletons. The classification of bones located in either the
axle or the appendix. Useless skeletons is not based on their size, but rather
their shape in the appendix. This skeleton, which consists of bones of the upper
limb and the lower limb, and the pelvic and pectoral girdles, we primarily find
long bones, such as the humorous or the femur in the thigh. These help us to
manipulate our environment and provide a site for mineral storage or attachment
points for muscles in the axial skeleton, which contains the bones of the skull,
the vertebral column and the rib cage, the bones generally protect and support
other body parts and these are primarily known as flat bones. There are also bones
that have an irregular shape, such as the vertebral bones and those that are
described as short, such as some of the bones in the foot like the Taylors or the
small bones in the wrist called the carpools. In the following slides will
concentrate on the structure of long and flat bones and see how they develop. All
bones contain a layer of spongy bone. This spongy bone is surrounded by compact
bone. Spongy bone is not at all soft but contains a honey comb mesh of bony spikes
called tribeca Lee. Filled with red bone marrow, the outside layer of bone compact
bone is smooth and solid and built for protection, so all long bones have the same
general structure shaft to bone ends and some membranes. The shaft of the long bone
is known as the diagnosis, which is composed of thick, compact bone surrounding a
central medullary cavity containing yellow bone marrow. The Epiphany sees are the
bone ends, Epiphany sees is the blue plural term epiphany. Isis is a singular end.
These contain an outer shell of compact bone and an interior of spongy bone. A thin
layer of articular cartilage covers the joint surface of each app if Asus to
cushion the ends of the bone during movement. There are also specialist membranes
that cover the bony surfaces. The end Osti um, is a delicate connective tissue
covering of the internal bone surface. The endoscopy, um lines canals passing
through the compact bone and covers the Tribeca lee of the spongy bone. Endo means
inside the Perry Osti, um, is a dense connective tissue covering of the external
bone surface except the joint surface itself. And this outer Perry Osti. A layer is
continuous, with tendons providing a very strong bond between the muscle and the
bone itself. The inner layer of the periodicity, um, is richly innovated with
nerves and blood vessels, and that prefix Perry means around flat bones as well as
most irregular and short bones have a simple design. They consist of a layer of
spongy bone, sometimes called deploy, covered by two thin layers of compact bone,
much like a sandwich, really little bony sandwich. This compact bone is covered on
the outside and inside by the same connective tissue membranes we've just
discussed. The Perry Osti Um on the outside and the end. Osti um on the inside.
Although they don't have a marrow cavity, they do contain red bone marrow, which
lies within the Tribeca Lee in the spongy bone. Note the question here to start you
thinking, How does the structure of a long bone and a flat bone reflect their
function? Flat bone, such as those found in the cranium stern and scapula and ribs,
is designed for protection, whereas long bones such as those found in the limbs
designed more for movement or locomotion as the result of the muscle attachments.
Before we can understand how bone is formed and grows and then re models, we need
to take a look at the four different types of bones cell. First of all, we have the
osteo genic, or stem cell, which is the cell found in bone marrow that
differentiates into an osteo blast. Osteoblasts are cells responsible for bone
growth. The Bone Builders, An osteo site, is a mature bone cell that monitors and
maintains the mineralised bone matrix and in osteoclasts is the cell that's
responsible for bone reception or removal. In the following slides, we will revisit
these bone cells and the importance of their function in bone growth and
development. Let's look a little closely at the structure of compact bone, the
layer of bone found on the outside of both long bones and flat bones. It is highly
structured to take support in the long axis of the bone. However, although it looks
solid, a microscope shows that compact bone is riddled with passageways that act as
conduits for nerves and blood vessels. Hollow central canals are filled with
neurovascular bundles that is the nerves and the blood vessels that pass through
the compact bone. A la mela is the layer of bony matrix that surrounds each central
canal. All collagen fibres of each Lamela run in a particular direction. However,
the collagen in the neighbouring Lamelas run at a different angle, thereby creating
stronger bone capable of resisting tortious or twisting forces. An Austrian is a
group of circumferential Lamela's, and this is the structural unit of compact bone.
Functionally, the Austrian is like a little tiny weight bearing pillar, and
finally, a perforating canal joins one central canal with another. These lie at
right angles to the long axis of the bone and connect the blood and nerve supply of
the medullary cavity to the central canals. Remember that bonus connective tissue
and connective tissue is made up of living cells in a non living matrix. The osteo
sites are the living cells hidden in these little islands or spaces called lacuna.
At the junction of the lamb L. A. The Laocoon are joined together by little tiny
canals called Can Alec Ally. The Osteo Sites job is to monitor and maintain the
bony matrix and act as stress and strain sensors responding to mechanical loading
of the bone. These osteo sites are really important for regulation of bone mass and
remodelling over life. On this last slide, I'd like to talk about development of
our skeleton in utero. Why is it important to talk about skeletal development?
Because many of the answers to questions about structure, function and dysfunction
of the human body are found during embryonic development. Ossification occurs
according to a relatively predictable timetable, allowing fertile age to be
determined by ultrasound investigation. The bony skeleton starts to form in utero
that is in the womb. The connective tissue layer arises from the Miz Ardern layer
in the embryo, the meso derm layer produces the embryonic mesenchymal cells, which
produce the membranes, and the cartilage is that produced the embryonic skeleton
before Week eight of foetal development. The embryonic skeleton is made of highline
cartilage and fibrous membranes. Then, at eight weeks of foetal age, primary
ossification centres are formed and bones start to office. If I Most long bones
have well defined primary ossification centres by 12 weeks of foetal age, as can be
seen by the red shading in the image on the right hand side of your screen at
birth, most long bones are well ossified, except for the epiphany sees where length
development continues long after birth, post natally or after birth. Bones continue
to grow in length and size and then remodel secondary ossification centres appear
around the time of birth and develop in a predictable sequence At the EPA official
growth plate. They provide for long bone growth throughout childhood and
adolescence by 25 years of age. Nearly all growth plates are completely ossified
and skeletal growth ceases. So now we've come to the end of our very first mini
lecture in anatomy and physiology systems one. So here's a summary slide of the
bony concepts for topic 1.1 A for you. So the skeletal system is made up of bone,
cartilage and ligaments that form a strong, flexible framework for the rest of the
human body. Bone development occurs in utero and during childhood, and there are
four cells involved in bone formation. We have the stem cell or the osteo genic
cell. We have osteoblasts, the bone builders. We have osteo sites, those special
osteoblasts that are chosen to become the monitors of the matrix of the bone. And
then we have the osteoclasts, the bone cells that or resort bone cells. Compact
bone is the smooth, solid bone found on the outside of bones, and the spongy bone
filled with Project Trebek. Yoli is found on the inside. And finally, we've learned
that bone classification is due to shape, not the size of bone. We talked about
long bones, flat bones, irregular bones and short bones. So we've covered our first
mini lecture. It's time for you to work on your worksheets for your tutorials and
to utilise some of this information going forward to your laboratories later in the
week as well. And I will see you for Topic 1.1 B in your next mini lecture.