ALL REPORTERS PPT:

SUBMITTED BY:

MS. JEAN MARTINEZ LA SALA

BSED ENGLISH SESSION1/1ST YEAR

SUBMITTED TO:

MR. ROLANDO B. TERINGTERING

ENGLISH 104 INSTRUCTOR

 Principles and Theories of Acquisition and Learning

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Jay Balones & Brian Fraga ………………………………………………………………….1

Princess Aceil A. Pena & Lea C. Rangas………………………………………………….2

Khenia Shyn Verdeflor & Donna Pearl Veras……………………………………………..3

Jesriel Linao & Justin Jade Parro…………………………………………………………..4

Jean M. La Sala & Colleen Grace Lisbe……………………………………………………5

Gina M. Castañas …...………………………………………………………………………...6

Mariane V. Arañez & Julie an Ampis…………………………………………………….7

Althea Jean Bacus…………………………………………………………………………..8

Hermilyn Balbuena…………………………………………………………………………..9

Hannah S. Ybañez……………………………………………………………………………10

Realyn M. Carreon & Maribel T. Cariaga…………………………………………………11

Regine Dela Vega…………………………………………………………………………….12

Diana Dunan…………………………………………………………………………………..13

Jobelee Iligan & Cristy Pepino…………………………………………………………….14

Nonalyn Muring & Sweetie Heart Mullot…………………………………………………15

Courtney Baldomero………………………………………………………………………..16

Klinelle Ursua…………………………………………………………………………………17

Ivan Lester Badang…………………………………………………………………………..18

Maria Mae Budlao…………………………………………………………………………….19

Fredie Balingan……………………………………………………………………………….20

Daniela Viola…………………………………………………………………………………..21

Jessa Mae Ditablan…………………………………………………………………………..22

Niña Kareen Balbuena…………………………………………………………………….23

Tita Gultiano & Jeany Febra……………………………………………………………….24

1. Theories of Language: Behaviorist, Cognitive Faculties, & Appetitive Faculties

What is Theories of Language Development?

Language acquisition forms a critical stage in development of children an examination

of various theories that are used to explain language development among children
remain of great importance not only to teachers but also to parents and caretakers.

BEHAVIORIST

verbal behaviors

a set of verbal behaviors learned through operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is

a method of changing behavior so that a desired behavior is reinforced immediately
after it occurs.

aspects of human learning

This theory can be applied to many aspects of human learning including speech and
language. The theory centers around the idea that children are conditioned by their
environment and the reinforcement of their communication.

imitation

Behaviorists believe that language behaviors are learned by imitation, reinforcement,

and copying adult language behaviors.

Cognitive Faculties

Definition

a specific aspect or domain of mental function, such as language, object recognition,or

face perception.

5 Cognitive Faculties

his or her five senses, his memory, his imagination, instinct, as well as his intellect.

• Senses
able to see, hear, feel, taste -and smell whatever is to be learned
• Memory
able to retain, recall and recognize past mental acts
• Imagination
able to form representations of material objects which are not actually present to
the senses
• Instinct
ability of every person to respond to environmental stimuli such as danger signs
for survival
• Intellect
s/he can form concepts or ideas, makes judgment, and reason out.

Appetitive Faculties

His/her appetitive faculties are his/her feelings and emotions and rational will. Appetitive
Faculties consists of: Will, Ability, Aptitude and Interests. The learner wills what his/her
intellect presents as good and desirable, “will” is the also a factor that contribute to the
differences among learners.

Ability

dictates the prospects of success in any purposeful activity of every learner.

Aptitude

learner’s innate talent or gift and the capacity of every learner to learn certain skills.

Interest

makes learning no longer a task but instead serving pleasure to learn more.

2. THE GENETICS OF LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT; DUNN AND DUNN "LEARNING

STYLE MODEL"

DUNN AND DUNN LEARNING STYLE

Dunn and Dunn Learning Style – 1975 If the child is not learning the way you are
teaching, then you must teach in the way the child learns. ~Rita Dunn

Learning Styles

Learning styles refer to a range of theories that aim to account for differences in
individuals' learning.

*Many theories share the proposition that humans can be classified according to their
'style' of learning but differ in how the proposed styles should be defined, categorized,
and assessed

A common concept is that individuals differ in how they learn.

The idea of individualized learning styles became popular in the 1970s and has greatly
influenced education despite the criticism that the idea has received from some
researchers.

Dunn and Dunn Learning Style During the 1970s

➢ The New York State Department of Education began an initiative with the help of
Kenneth and Rita Dunn to discover methods of improvements in student
learning.
➢ Dunn and Dunn actively researched and developed their learning style based on
over twenty years of research.

Their model emphasizes the need to match an individual’s learning style with the
instructional methodology used to approach teaching experiences.

The matching of these two spectrums leads to higher motivation and a greater intake of
knowledge for the student.

Proponents recommend that teachers have to run a needs analysis to assess the
learning styles of their students and adapt their classroom methods to best fit each
student's learning style.

Although there is ample evidence that individuals express personal preferences for how
they prefer to receive information, few studies have found any validity in using learning
styles in education.

CRITIC

➢ there is no consistent evidence that identifying an individual student's learning style

and teaching for specific learning styles produces better student outcomes
➢ Since 2012, learning styles have often been referred to as a "neuromyth" in
education.
 ➢ There is evidence of empirical and pedagogical problems related to forcing learning
tasks to "correspond to differences in a one-to-one fashion

STUDIES

Studies contradict the widespread "meshing hypothesis" that a student will learn best if
taught in a method deemed appropriate for the student's learning style. However, a
2020 systematic review suggested that a majority (89%) of educators around the world
continue to believe that the meshing hypothesis is correct. Studies further show that
teachers cannot assess the learning style of their students accurately.

In one study, students were asked to take an inventory on their learning style. After
nearly 400 students completed the inventory, 70% didn't use study habits that matched
their preferred learning method.

Another piece of this study indicated that those students who used study methods that
did match their preferred learning style didn't perform any better on tests.

Rita Dunn

Rita Dunn is a Professor at St. John's University's Division of Administrative and

Instructional Leadership, and director of St. John's University's Center for the Study of
Learning and Teaching Styles, School of Education and Human Services, 8000 Utopia
Parkway, Jamaica, NY 11439.

Rita & Kenneth Dunn

Professors Rita and Kenneth Dunn have done years and years of research and writing
about their observations in the classroom, and the bulk of it showed up in the 1970s.
What they saw was that some students like learning alone, while others like having the
teacher floating nearby at all times.

Hypothesis

That environmental, emotional, sociological, and physical elements contribute to the

learning environment, and therefore to different students' individual ways of learning.
And for the Dunns, the takeaway was that teachers ought to provide a range of
strategies to address all those styles and make learning more efficient.

DUNN AND DUNN'S VAK LEARNING STYLE

Dunn and Dunn's VAK learning style model uses the three main sensory receivers:
Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic to determine the dominant learning style The model is
also known as VAKT (Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, & Tactile)

When the Dunn and Dunn learning styles inventory is used along with other learning
styles inventories, like the VAKT learning styles model, you can create a perfect
learning environment for your child.

The Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Inventory uses a comprehensive learning
style model

The inventory measures environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological, and

psychological preferences as they affect learning.

Dunn and Dunn is one of the best Learning Styles Inventories you can use to focus on
your child’s learning preferences.

Dunn and Dunn’s learning style model looks at five different preferences
including;
 ➢ Environmental Influences
➢ Emotional Influences
➢ Sociological Influences
➢ Physiological Influence
➢ Psychological Influences

Environmental

Environmental refers to the immediate instructional environment. Does the student

prefer to learn in quiet, with music or noise? How much light do they need? What
temperature is the environment and even the seating preference?

Emotional

Emotional attributes are related to the motivation, persistence and even the
responsibility of the student. Is the student willing to conform to the learning task or
more associated with non-conformity? What about patience and structure?

Sociological

Sociological influences impact the social preferences of the learning environment. Is the
student an independent or social learner? Do they prefer to learn in pairs with peers or
even in small groups? Students may even enjoy working in a variety of these options.

Physiological

This is all about how the body (in addition to the mind) responds to the learning task.
That means that some students are more alert at certain times of day based on whether
they had eggs or chocolate cereal for breakfast. It also draws from other learning styles
to ask whether the learner is visual, auditory, or kinesthetic to understand whether
things like music, art, or dancing all over the room will help this student get the lesson
down.

Psychological

Each learner will process information differently.

➢ Analytical
Some students can grasp concepts more effectively when they are presented in
a pattern of steps that lead up to a larger concept. Some students learn more
easily when the educator leads with the higher concept first and follows up with
the details.
➢ Impulse and
Reflection
When assigned a task, a child that favors an impulsive learning style will dive
right into the task, and learn while doing. A child that favors a reflective learning
style will take time and create a mental model before diving in.

SUMMARY

• The idea for applying the Dunn learning styles to the classroom is that you pay
attention to each of these elements and try to alter the environment to suit your
students.
• By analyzing a child’s needs in the five different domains in the Dunn and Dunn
model, you will build a better understanding of a child’s individual learning needs.

THE GENETIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT

Humans are characterized by the remarkable richness and complexity of their verbal
communication. Human communication is often divided into two aspects, speech and
language. Speech generally refers to the mechanical aspects of verbal communication.
It requires the proper use of articulation (making proper speech sounds), voice
(generated by the vocal folds of the larynx), and fluency (smooth flow of syllables and
words). Language is a higher-order function, based on accepted rules that govern what
words mean, how to make new words, how to put words together, and what word
combinations are appropriate in specific situations.

SPEECH DISORDERS

Speech disorders include articulation disorders, such as a lisp; fluency disorders, such
as stuttering; and dyspraxia, which is a failure to generate and properly sequence
speech sounds. In contrast, language disorders are deficits in encoding or decoding
information in phrases and sentences according to accepted rules, such as those of
grammar. Language disorders include specific language impairment (SLI) and dyslexia.
Most of these disorders have been the subject of genetic studies.

SPEECH LANGUAGE AND DISORDERS

Speech and language disorders can be classified as expressive, in which affected

individuals have difficulties expressing speech or language; as receptive, in which
individuals have problems understanding speech or language; or as mixed, in which
both comprehension and production are impaired. In many cases, discriminating a
speech disorder from a language disorder in a specific individual is difficult. This is
particularly true in individuals who have suffered a stroke or other trauma to the brain,
as such individuals may manifest both expressive and receptive speech and language
deficits. In otherwise normally developing children, several speech and language
disorders are commonly observed.

VOCAL COMMUNICATION

Although vocal communication is common in higher organisms, fully developed speech

and language are unique to humans. This uniqueness and the fact that many of these
disorders originate in the brain present significant challenges to research on speech and
language disorders.

However, many of these disorders run in families, raising the possibility that genetic
approaches might be used to better understand their genesis and treatment.

SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT (SLI)

Specific language impairment (SLI) is defined as an unexpected and persistent

impairment in language ability despite adequate opportunity and intelligence and in the
absence of any explanatory medical conditions. This condition is highly heritable and
affects between 5% and 8% of pre-school children. Over the past few years,
investigations have begun to uncover genetic factors that may contribute to
susceptibility to language impairment.

SLI is usually diagnosed through exclusionary criteria rather than on the basis of any
specific clinical test. SLI affects between 5% and 8% of English-speaking (primarily UK
and US) pre-school children, and is a lifelong disability with an increased risk of
behavioral disorders, social problems and literacy deficits. The disorder shows
significant overlap with associated developmental conditions, such as attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), speech sound disorder (SSD), dyslexia and autism

Over the past decade, researchers have begun to identify genetic factors that may have
roles in the etiology of language disorders. It is hoped that the study of these genes will
facilitate a better understanding of the cause of language impairments, leading to the
development of improved diagnostic and treatment strategies for affected individuals. In
turn, knowledge regarding the cause of such impairments may further our
understanding of the biological pathways that underpin normal language acquisition.

Developmental speech and language disorders cover a wide range of childhood

conditions with overlapping but heterogeneous phenotypes and underlying etiologies.
This characteristic heterogeneity hinders accurate diagnosis, can complicate treatment
strategies, and causes difficulties in the identification of causal factors. Nonetheless,
over the last decade, genetic variants have been identified that may predispose certain
individuals to different aspects of speech and language difficulties.

Furthermore, although the diagnostic criteria for SLI necessitates the absence of
explanatory medical conditions, studies have found that affected individuals are at an
increased risk of associated developmental delays, cognitive impairment, social
problems, literacy deficits, and behavioral difficulties

Deciphering the genetic basis of speech and language disorders

A significant number of individuals have unexplained difficulties with acquiring normal

speech and language, despite adequate intelligence and environmental stimulation.
Although developmental disorders of speech and language are heritable, the genetic
basis is likely to involve several, possibly many, different risk factors. Investigations of a
unique three-generation family showing monogenic inheritance of speech and language
deficits led to the isolation of the first such gene on chromosome 7, which encodes a
transcription factor known as FOXP2.

Disruption of this gene causes a rare severe speech and language disorder but does
not appear to be involved in more common forms of language impairment. Recent
genome-wide scans have identified at least four chromosomal regions that may harbor
genes influencing the latter, on chromosomes 2, 13, 16, and 19. The molecular genetic
approach has potential for dissecting neurological pathways underlying speech and
language disorders, but such investigations are only just beginning.

3. THE HUMAN BRAIN AND LANGUAGE BIOLOGICAL BASES DEVELOPMENT:

THE HUMAN VOCAL TRACT AND LANGUAGE

When the first human ancestors became bipedal—walking on two feet—six to seven
million years ago, the human structure that allowed the evolution of language evolved.
The majority of other mammals are quadrupedal, meaning they move around on four
feet.

This evolutionary adaptation freed up our predecessors’ forelimbs for other activities,
such as transporting stuff and doing increasingly sophisticated tasks with their hands. It
also triggered a series of anatomical changes. One adaptation was a shift in how the
skull was positioned on the spine. Because the head of quadrupedal animals is
propelled forward, the skull is linked to the spine at the back of the skull.

With pre-humans’ new upright bipedal position, the connection to the spine shifted to
the Center of the base of the skull. This skeletal alteration, in turn, influenced the shape
and position of the mouth and throat anatomy.

The human vocal tract is basically a tube with two flaps just above the lungs and its
diaphragm muscles, which pump out air. The vocal tract is much like a saxophone, with
the reed vibrating at the top of the tube.
We make consonants by squeezing the vocal tube in the back, the middle, or the front
of the tube. If we stop the flow of air completely, we make no sound at all. Other
languages shape the air flow in different ways, but the physics of sound production is
similar. Click languages have a very unusual set of skills for stopping the flow of air,
including the English sound that’s spelled “tsk, tsk, tsk.”

The vocal tract is a very creative organ, as you can tell when listening to a great singer
or storyteller.

The human vocal tract uses mechanisms inherited from ancestral species. The vocal
tract is a tube, with a source of tuned turbulence from the vocal cords, two flaps of
tissue in the larynx. The quality of vocal sounds results from resonance between
resonant spaces and surfaces throughout the head and torso. While consonants
squeeze or close the air tube, vowels are shaped by holding the tongue and lips to
make a musical note.

Difference vowels change resonant frequencies of the vocal tract. Vowels and
consonant-vowel syllables are used by all languages because of the physics of tubes
and air vibrations. Source: Standring, 2005. Sound vibrations echo through the head
and body, oscillating all the soft tissues and air cavities. By holding one’s nose, one can
change the quality of the voice. Those vibrating, air-filled body cavities also allow us to
tell the difference between voices.

Children’s voices sound higher than adults’ because they have smaller vibrating
cavities.

Singing is prolonged speaking: We stretch out the vowels and tune them to a specific
pitch. But even ordinary speech has a kind of melodic phrasing called intonation. In
English, a question intonation raises the pitch of the last syllables of a phrase. A vast
range of emotions are expressed by the intonations of speech.

Musical rhythm resembles spoken stress patterns, as in poetry and rap music, for
example. Therefore singing, speech, rhythm, and emotional expressions use the same
voice instrument. Cortical regions for speech are closely associated with audition (for
sensory input) and with mouth and vocal tract representation (on the output side).

Pathways between speaking and hearing. In the left hemisphere you can see the
classical axon bundle running between Broca's and Wernicke's areas. However, there is
signaling between the hemispheres as well (the right hemisphere can understand
spoken language), as well as links to specialized regions below the cortex, including the
thalamus, brainstem and cerebellum.

4. BILINGUAL FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION/2nd LANGUAGE CHILD HOOD

CODE SWITCHING

BFLA MEANING

A bilingualism someone who knows something about more than one language.

BFLA HUMAN DEVELOPMENT LANGUAGE

• SIMULTANEOUS BILINGUAL
Simultaneous acquires two languages at the same time, usually from birth.
• SEQUENTIAL BILINGUAL
Sequential acquires one language from birth and then acquires second
language, usually beginning between age 7yrs and 9yrs.
BFLA CHILD DEVELOPMENT LANGUAGE THERIOES

➢ Stimulation strategy and accommodation./motivating operation

➢ Zone of proximal development/actual learning
➢ Language cognition/phase

Conclusion

Humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language origin principles
theories

2nd language child hood code switching

code-switching, process of shifting from one linguistic code (a language or dialect) to

another, depending on the social context or conversational setting..” Sociolinguists,
social psychologists,

Code switching is a sociolinguistic concept that describes the use of more than one
language or grammatical system, usually by multilingual speakers or writers, in the
course of a single conversation or written text

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGIST code-switching involves adjusting one's style of speech,

appearance, behavior, and expression in ways that will optimize the comfort of others in
exchange for fair treatment, quality service, and employment opportunities.

Not only does code-switching mean modifying your speech to adapt to sociocultural
norms, it now commonly means changing your behavior to suit the setting and
circumstances

Examples:

1.Switches that occur within a clause or sentence: a Yoruba/English bilingual speaker

says: Won o arrest a single person (won o they did not).

2.Changes of language occur where each clause or sentence is in one language or the
other:

A Spanish/English bilingual speaker says: Sometimes I'll start a sentence in English, y

termino en español (and finish it in Spanish).

EXAMPLE:

When I grow up, quiero ser un

astronaut para ir a la moon

MEAN:

I want to be an astronaut so I can go to the moon

The plants needs water, sun, y tierra.

The plant needs water, sun, and dirt.

5. DIRECT/EXPOSITORY APPROACH INDIRECT/EXPOSITORY APPROACH PEER

TUTORING/PEER TEACHING COOPERATIVE LEARNING

1. Direct Instruction/Lecture Method

Direct Instruction is a teacher-directed teaching method.

In direct instruction the teachers give explicit, guided instructions to the students.

Example: Presenting a video or film to student

STEPS IN DIRECT INSTRUCTION

*Provide the Rationale

*demonstrate the skill

*provide guided practice until mastery

*check for understanding and provide feedback

*provide extended practice and transfer

*assess learning at the end

Instructional Characteristics

*The strategy is a teacher-directed.

*The emphasis is on the teaching of skill.

*Taught in a step-by-step fashion, it ensures the learning of the entire procedure with no
step missed.

*Lesson objectives include easily observed behaviors that can be measured accurately.

*This is a form of learning through imitation, sometimes termed “behavioral modeling”.

*This can also be used to teach facts, principles and laws.

• Give ample time for practice to our students

• They must be Included in the planning stage.
• Describe the testing situation and specify the level of performance expected.
• Divide complex skills and understanding into sub skills.
• Design our own strategy in teaching each skills.
• Rehearse all steps.

DEMONSTRATION METHOD

- The teacher or an assigned student or group shows how a process is done while the
students become observers.

- The demonstrator is knowledgeable in preparing the apparatus needed according to

the steps to be followed.

Guidelines for the effective use of this method:

Before: 1. The demonstrator/s must be well-selected. 2. When planning the activities

make sure that the materials are easily available. 3. get ready with the equipment and
tools to be used. 4. Arrange the observers around the demonstration area or at a
distance.

During: The place must be quiet in order to sustain the observer’s attention and interest
during the activity.

After: Allow some questions which bothered them during the demonstration. Follow the
observed data and all information of examination.

Advantages of Demonstration Method

 ▪ Follows a systematic procedure.
▪ Maximizes the use of expensive equipment and machines.
▪ Possible wastage of time, effort and resources will be avoided.
▪ Not a result to trial-and error learning.
▪ Reliable and accurate findings.
▪ Curiosity and keen observing ability are instilled among the observers.

INDIRECT/GUIDED/EXPLORATORY APPROACH

➢ This approach is best used when the learning process is inquiry-based, which
result to discovery approach.
➢ Under this approach are: Inquiry method Problem-solving method and project
method.

Inquiry Method

*student-centered learning approach with the concept of students who are actively
involved in the teaching and learning activity under the monitoring and supervision of
teachers.

Example

a math teacher can see how students work through problem-solving during inquiry
lessons. Teachers in math may demonstrate how to solve problems, but by watching
students come up with solutions, they're able to get a better understanding of the steps
it took to get there.

Instructional Characteristics

1. Investigative processes such as inferring, hypothesizing, measuring, predicting,

classifying, analyzing and experimenting, formulating conclusions and
generalizations are employed.
2. The procedure in gathering information is not prescribed by the teachers.
3. The children are highly motivated to search.
4. The answers arrived at are genuine products of their own efforts.
5. Focused questions before, during and after are critical ingredients that provide
direction and sustain action.

Outcomes of Inquiry Teaching

1. Processes of gathering and processing of information is given emphasis.

2. Dependence on first-hand experience with the objects and phenomena occurring.
3. It allows predominantly to some degree of freedom which develops initiative and
divergent thinking.
4. Sense of responsibility is developed when learners are left to manage their own
learning.
5. Facts and concepts that learners discover become stored as part of their
permanent learning.
6. It builds up the learners’ feeling of confidence.
7. Participation in inquiry activities strengthens learner’s intellectual capabilities.

PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD

➢ Is a teaching strategy that employs the scientific method in searching for

information.

Five Basic Steps of Scientific method

➢ Sensing and defining the problem.

 ➢ Formulating hypothesis.
➢ Testing the likely hypothesis
➢ Analysis, interpretation and evaluation of evidence.
➢ Formulating conclusion.

PROJECT METHOD

Project Method sometimes referred to as “self-directed study”

Is a teaching method that requires the students to present in concrete form the results
of information gathered about a concept, principles or innovation.

Advantages

1. Emphasizes “Learning by doing”

2. Constructing projects develops the students’ manipulative skill.
3. The planned design of the project tests the student’s originality in choosing the
materials to be used.
4. Employed among students who are weak in oral communications.
5. Completed project adds to one’s feeling of accomplishment and satisfaction.
6. Instills the values of initiative, industry and creativity.
7. Develop the spirit of cooperation.
8. Students become productive and enterprising

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

- Makes use of a classroom organization where students work in groups or teams to

help each other learn.

Characteristics Features of CL

1. It has two important components: -COOPERATIVE INCENTIVE STRUCTURE and

COOPERATIVE TASK STRUCTURE
2. Students work in teams to tackle academic tasks.
3. Reward systems are group-oriented rather than individually-oriented.
4. Interactions within the group is controlled by the members themselves.
5. Teams are made up of mixed abilities.
6. Each individual learner is accountable for his/her learning.
7. The group reflects on and evaluates the group process they underwent

Advantages of CL

1. Interdependent relationship is strengthened and reinforced when group

cooperation is rewarded.
2. Group work develops friendliness, willingness to assist and the more worthwhile
value of caring and sharing.
3. Promotes maximum generation and exchange of ideas.
4. Groups exhibit less competitively behavior compared to the whole-class teaching
classroom.
5. The group members gain skills of cooperation and collaborative through
experience.

PEER TUTORING/PEER TEACHING

- Employed when the teacher request the older, brighter and more cooperative member
of the class to tutor.

Tutoring Arrangement
 A. Instructional tutoring
B. Same age tutoring
C. Monitorial tutoring
D. Structural tutoring
E. Semi-structured tutoring

6. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHONOLOGICAL AND LEXICAL

DEVELOPMENT

What is Phonological Development?

Phonological development refers to how children learn to organize sounds into

meaning or language (phonology) and learn to speak during their stages of growth.

The physiological systems, which take part in this process, are the auditory and the
vocal systems. The auditory system includes the ears, ear canal and brain. The
vocal system includes the vocal chords, the throat, the mouth, teeth and tongue. The
jaw is included in the vocal system due to the necessary jaw movements needed to
create sounds, which make words.

The first phase of phonological development is called the pre-representational stage.

This stage of speech begins after a child has spent a year listening to others speak
and collecting his own interpretation of auditory input. A child will enter this stage at
around 14 months of age; as the child lacks the proper vocal system physiology to
speak properly, the sounds will be babbling and very simple consonant sounds. This
sounds are referred to as mimic expressions.

The second phase of phonological development is called the representational stage.

Children enter this stage around the 24th month. Vocal chords begin to strengthen
as children begin to learn how to place the tongue and teeth for proper sound
production. During this stage, children cannot pronounce a consonant against a
consonant, such as in the word spaghetti. Often, children will replace the “sp”
combination with a single consonant sound.

Target grammar is the third, and final, stage of phonological development. This
stage finds children knowing how to properly place the tongue against the teeth, as
well as discovering how to place a consonant next to a consonant in a word and
make the correct sounds to create the proper word.

What is Lexical Development?

Lexical development is the study of changes that occur in vocabulary knowledge

over childhood. It concerns children's first steps in building a vocabulary, how
children of different ages assign meanings to words, and how these meanings
change in response to various experiences.

Lexical development can be divided into three periods. The first period covers the
acquisition of the initial 50 words or so, during which children are learning what
words do. At this stage, some words appear to be tied to particular contexts and
serve primarily social or pragmatic purposes. Word learning during this initial phase
is relatively slow and uneven. The child’s vocabulary at this stage is dominated by
names for objects, including animals, people, toys, and familiar household things.

(e.g., “hi” and bye)

By the middle of the second year, there is a significant increase in the rate at which
children acquire new words. This new period is usually referred to as the vocabulary
 spurt, or naming explosion, and may be punctuated by many requests from children
for adults to label things in the world around them. Words are learned very quickly,
often after only a single exposure that may take place without any explicit instruction.
This process of rapid word learning is referred to as “fast mapping.”

e.g. An example would be presenting a young child with animal that is familiar which
is a dog.

By the time children reach their third birthday, they begin to develop a more
organized lexicon, in which the meaning relations among groups of words are
discovered. For example, at this time children begin to learn words from a semantic
domain, such as kinship, and they are able to organize the words according to their
similarities and differences on dimensions of meanings.

e.g. They know how to understand the relations of the words Golden retriever, Dog,
Animal.

What is the relationship between phonological and lexical development?

Lexical development leads phonological development: as the size of children’s

lexicons gets larger, they develop more precise phonology in order to distinguish
among the words.

7. Describing Speech Sounds; Phonetics, Phonemics, Phonetic Features

Phonetics

Is a scientific study of speech sound, that is described and categorizing human sounds,
understanding the creation of sounds, comparing and contrasting sounds diagonally
language.

Consonants Sounds

A speech sound where the airstream from the lungs is either completely blocked
(stopped) or partially blocked.

A. Voice and voiceless sounds- Voiced: sounds in which the vocal folds can
vibrate during the articulation. Example: Z or V. Voiceless: sounds in which the
vocal folds could not produced vibration during the Articulation. Example: S or F.
B. Places of Articulation- where in the mouth constriction is taking place.

1. Bilabial Sounds- produced when the lips are brought together.

Ex: are /p/ which is voiceless, as in pay or /b/ and/m/ which are voiced, as in bay,
may.

2. Labiodental Sounds- are made when the lower lip is raised towards the upper
teeth.

Example: are /f/ safe (voiceless) and/v/ save (voiced).

3. Dental Sounds- are produced by touching the upper front teeth with tip of the
tongue. The initial soun of thin and the final sound of bath are both dentals.
4. Alveolar Sounds- are made by raising the tip of the tongue towards the ridge
that is right behind the upper front teeth, called alveolar ridge.
 Ex: /t/,/s/ too, sue both voiceless and/d/,/z/,/n/,/l/,/r/, do zoo, nook, look, rook all
voiced.

5. Palatal Sounds- are very similar to palatoalveolar ones, they just produced
further back towards the velum. The only palatal sound in English is /j/ as in yes,
yellow, beauty, new and it is voiced.

6. Velar Sounds- are made by raising the back of the tongue towards the soft palate
called the velum.

Ex: /k/ back, voiceless, and /g/, /n/ both voiced, bag, bang. /w/ is a velar which
accompanied with rounding.

7. Glottal Sounds- are produced when the air passes through the glottis as it is
narrowed. /h/ as in high.

C. MANNERS OF ARTICULATION

1. Stops- block airflow, let it go abruptly.

2. Fricatives- almost block airflow, let it scape through a narrow gap.

3. Affricates- combines a brief stop with a fricative.

4. Nasals- lower the velum, let airflow out through nose.

5. Liquids- raise and curle tongue, let airflow escape round the sides.

6. Glides- move tongue to or from a vowel.

PHONEMICS

Is a used for the study of speech sounds as they are perceived by speakers of a
particular language. Phonemics in linguistic is the study of the phonemes and phonetic
symtem language.

THE CONTRAST BETWEEN PHONETICS AND PHONEMICS

• In Phonetics one studies all the details of all kinds of speech sounds.

• In Phonemics one takes these basic data and then determines which differences of a
sounds contrast in distinguishing meaning.

• By the use of Phonetics one undertake a detailed analysis of all the many varieties of
sounds which occur in any language.

• But by the means of Phonemics are determines the classes of sounds which function
as units in the language structure.

For example: The phonetician who studying English will beuch interested in the
varieties of t. For most of us, there is just one t-like sound, but the phonetician finds
many.

PHONETIC FEATURES

• Phonetic Features, the parts of sound that can each be independently controlled by
the articulator.

PHONETIC FEATURES CAN BE DIVIDED INTO FOUR BROAD GROUPS:

A. Major Class Features

B. Manner Features
C. Place Features

D. Laryngeal Features

A. Major of class features

1. Syllabic- A syllabic consonant is a consonant that replaces a vowel in a syllable.

2. Vocalic- A vowel sound or sequence in its function as the most sonorous part of a
syllable.

3. Approximant- Are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other
but not narrowly enough nor with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent
airflow.

4. Sonorant- In phonetics, any of the nasal, liquid and glide consonants that are marked
by a continuing resonant sound.

B. Manner Features

1. Continuant- is a speech sound produced without a complete closure in the oral cavity,
namely fricatives, approximants and vowels.

2. Nasal- are sounds whose production involves a lowered velum and open oral cavity,
with simultaneously nasal and oral airflow.

3. Strident- a consonant that occurs in the nucleus of a syllable, that is, in the position of
a syllable where you normally expect a vowel.

C. Place Features

1. Labial- are consonants in which one or both lips are the active articulator.

2. Coronal- are consonants articulated with the flexible front part of the tongue.

3. Dorsal- are consonant articulated with the back of the tongue.

D. Laryngeal Features

1. Voiced- require a vibration of the vocal cords, which are located in your throat.

2. Aspirated- aspiration is the strong burst of breath that accompanies either the release
or, in the case of pre aspiration, the closure of some obstruents.

SUMMARY

PHONEMICS

•is the study of phonemes of a language

•Phoneme is also called speech sounds and definite as the smallest part pf the spoken
language that makes a difference in meaning.

PHONETICS

- Phonetics refers to the articulation of the sounds that words and phrases are made up
of.

PHONOLOGY

- Phonology refers to the system of rules that describes when to pronounce different
versions of a given sound depending on what other sounds are around it.
If you want to pronounce Spanish accurately

•Pronounce of all sounds of the Spanish language.

•Internalize the rules that describe when to pronounce different variations of each sound
depending on the other sounds that surround in it a word or phrase.

44 Phonemes In English And Other Sound Blends

- In English, there are 44 Phonemes, or word sounds that make up the language.
They're divided into 19 consonants, 7 digraphs, 5 'r-controlled sounds, 5 long vowels, 5
short vowels, 2 'oo' sounds, 2 Dipthongs.

PHONOLOGY

- Phonology of English /t/ Rules that describe when to pronounce each of the different
versions of /t/.

Phonology of English Language

- All of the rules that describe how all the sounds of the language are pronounced in all
phonetic context.

If you want to pronounce English accurately

•Pronounce individual sounds correctly.

•Pronounce whole words correctly.

•Internalize English phonology

•Produce the correct variation of each sound in each of its phonetic context.

8. Theory of Language Development: Usage-Based

What is Language Development?

is the process by which children come to understand and communicate language during
early childhood.

Michael Tomasello (born January 18, 1950)

is an American developmental and comparative psychologist, as well as a linguist. He is

a professor of psychology at Duke University.

Earning many prizes and awards from the end of the 1990s onward, he is considered
one of today’s most authoritative developmental and comparative psychologists

He is “one of the few scientists worldwide who is acknowledged as an expert in multiple

disciplines”. His “pioneering research on the origins of social cognition has led to
revolutionary insights in both developmental psychology and primate cognition.”

introduced usage-based theory of language acquisition on 2003.

Usage-Based Theory

According to this theory, language structure emerges from language use, and children
build their language relying on their general cognitive skills; the core skills your brain
uses to think, read, learn, remember, reason, and pay attention. Working together, they
take incoming information and move it into the bank of knowledge you use every day at
school, at work, and in life. These skills help children to identify the intentions of adult
speakers as well as the distributional patterns of the language. After establishing and
entrenching patterns, young children generalize those patterns to form abstract
linguistic categories specific to their language.

Usage-Based main hypothesis:

1. UB approaches assume that all language knowledge, is“constructed” on the basis of

the input, and learning take place implicitly during meaning-focused input processesing.

2. The relationship between quantity and quality of input is important: Because the input
to which adult L2 learners are exposed to, is fundamentally different- in both quantity
and quality- from the L1 input which is typically available to young children.

Usage-Based main principles and theoretical basis:

The usage-based approach to linguistic communication may be summarized in the two

principles:

1. meaning is use- represents an approach to the functional or semantic dimension

of linguistic communication. In this approach we should focus on how people use
linguistic conventions to achieve social ends.
2. Structure emerges from use- represents an approach to the structural or
grammatical dimension of linguistic communication that focus on how meaning-
based grammatical constructions emerge from individual acts of language use.

Tomasello (2003), combining the two approaches, proposed a usage-based theory of

language acquisition. He stated that children acquire language equipped with two sets
of cognitive skills: Intention-reading and Pattern-finding

1. Intention-reading- is what children must do to determine the goals or intentions of

mature speakers when they use linguistic conventions to achieve social ends.

Ex. Can you open the door for me?

In this situation, the children must work out that the question is a request of help and not
a request into their door opening skills.

2. Pattern-finding- is what children must do in order to extract abstract linguistic

schemas or constructions from the individual utterances.
- In pattern-finding, a children realize the pattern in English which is noun- verb- noun
in an utterance such as: Jane kicks the ball.
- Jane is noun, kick is verb, and ball is noun. The children will be able to generate the
pattern on their own, and may adapt the pattern and create their own sentence.

Therefore, this theory has two main dimensions: functional and grammatical.

Main approaches of UB theory to SLA:

1. Exposure to input is necessary for SLA. A good deal of SLA happens incidentally,
Learners come to know more than what they have been exposed to in the input.
Learners’ output (speech) often follows predictable paths with predictable stages in
the acquisition of a given structure. SLA is variable across linguistic subsystems.

Notable points about UB theory of SLA:

First, one must always begin with communicative function. So even in early months of
age, human infants communicate in some fairly sophisticated ways. E.g. by pointing.

Second, when we turn to children’s early linguistic communication, the most basic unit
of linguistic experience, is not the word but the utterance.
Third, based on this theory a linguistic construction is prototypically a unit of language
that comprises multiple linguistic elements used together for a relatively coherent
communicative function.

Finally, the key theoretical point is that when we conceptualize children’s early
grammatical competence, we see that the SLA acquisition processes needed are not
so different from those we need, for Ll word learning.

Common objections to UB theory:

The three most common objections are:

1. It cannot deal with more complex constructions, especially those involving two verbs
and syntactic embedding
2. It cannot specify how the generalization process is to be constrained, and
3. It does not deal with the so-called 'poverty of the stimulus'.

Conclusion

The usage-based theory of language acquisition makes the fundamental claim that
language structure emerges from language use. This applies at the level of individual
words, as their communicative function derives from their use, as well as at the level of
grammar, as structure emerges from patterns of use of multi-unit utterances.
Historically, the structure of a language emerges through processes of
grammaticalization. Ontogenetically, children hear individual utterances and then (re-)
construct the abstract constructions of a language. All of this is done with general
cognitive processes, and universals of linguistic structure derive from the fact that
people everywhere have the same set of general cognitive processes.

The usage-based theory of language acquisition argues that we may segregate these
general cognitive processes into the two overall headings of: (1) intention-reading,
comprising the species unique social cognitive skills responsible for symbol acquisition
and the functional dimensions of language, and (2) pattern-finding, the primate-wide
cognitive skills involved in the abstraction process. More specifically, these two kinds of
general cognitive abilities interact in specific acquisition tasks to yield four specific sets
of processes:

• Intention-Reading and Cultural Learning, which account for how children learn
conventional form–function pairings, including everything from words to complex
constructions;

Schematization and Analogy, which account for how children create abstract syntactic
constructions (and syntactic roles such as subject and direct object) out of the concrete
utterances they have heard;

• Entrenchment and Preemption, which account for how children constrain their
abstractions to just those that are conventional in their linguistic community; and

Functionally Based Distributional Analysis, which accounts for how children form
paradigmatic categories of various kinds of linguistic constituents (e.g. nouns and
verbs).

Together these processes account for how children construct a language, that is, a
structured inventory of linguistic constructions, from the language they hear being used
around them.

9. CONNECTIONIST APPROACHES
DEFINITION

Connectionism

based on Wikipedia, is a set of approaches in the fields of artificial intelligence, cognitive

psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience and philosophy of mind, that models
mental or behavioral phenomena as the emergent processes of interconnected
networks of simple units. There are many forms of connectionism, but the most
common forms use neural network models.

CHARACTERISTICS

Connectionist Approaches

Have much in common with Information Processing (IP)

Focus on increasing strength of association between:

Stimuli & Response

something that causes activities, development or interest.

But NOT something on the referred abstraction of “rules” or on restructuring.

3 APPROACHES OF CONNECTIONISM THEORY

1. THE PSYCHOLINGUISTIC APPROACH

The connectionism attempts to explain word recognition , reading , speech recognition ,

word meaning , speech production , language processing in dyslexic brains and
language acquisition.

2. THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

Connectionism shares some common features with other cognitive

theories(cook,1993).First of all it is based on the metaphor that the mind is the network
in which everything is connected , secondly the learning process goes from being
declarative , controlled and demanding attention to gradually becoming a procedural ,
automatic , and non attended process . Finally learning means to strengthen neurons
trough frequency of occurrence.

3. THE COMPUTATIONAL APPROACH

Connectionism deals with concept such as units , nodes , artificial neurons or neural
connections . A computer processes these units serially ; however , the brain is not as
fast as a computer and needs to process them in parallel.

PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING

This is a best-known connectionist approach within SLA.

Processing takes place in a network of nodes (or “units”) in the brain that are
connected.

Learners exposed to repeated patterns of units in inputs:

They extracted regularities in the patterns

Their probabilistic associations are formed and strengthened.

PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING (CONT.)

Connection between nodes are called “Connection strengths” or “Patterns of activation”.

• The strength of the associations changes with ;

– The frequency of input and,

– The nature of feedback.

Then, how is “Parallel Processing” being applied?

PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING (CONT.)

Parallel processing is being applied when task simultaneously tap entirely different
resources.

EXAMPLE:

talking on phone while riding a bicycle. !!!!..Obvious..!!!

simply reading when encoding of phonology syntactic structure, meaning occur

simultaneously!!!!!...Less Obvious...!!!

PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING (CONT.)

Many connections in the brain must be activated all at once to account for successful
production and interpretation of language, and NOT processed in sequence.

10. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE: Pragmatics

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

• was developed by Dell Hymes to describe, and account for, the knowledge that
speakers and listeners have in order to communicate appropriately in different social
contexts.

• means knowing what to say, how to say it, and when to say it.

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE CAN BE ACHIEVED IN FOUR ASPECTS:

Grammatical Competence

Discourse Competence

Socio-linguistic Competence

Strategic Competence

GRAMMATICAL COMPETENCE

It involves knowing the form of utterance to be used such as pronunciations and

grammar.

A grammatically competent person understands the meaning and function of

grammatical construction.

Examples:

Maria visited the poor victims.

While we live, let us live.

A grammatically person must also know Idiomatic expressions.

Examples:
He takes a bath once in a blue moon.

She is a fair weather.

You are a great pain in the neck!

A grammatically competent person must also know if a person is exaggerating or not

(hyperbole).

Examples:

My hand hurts so much, it’s going to drop off.

He’s skinny as a toothpick.

DISCOURSE COMPETENCE

Refers to the way ideas are linked across sentences(in written or spoken).

Different genres:

Narrative Texts

Procedural Texts

Expository Texts

Persuasive Texts

Descriptive Texts

• Narrative texts – any type of writing that are released a series of events and
includes both fiction such as novels or stories, poems and non-fiction such as
biographies, news, stories, etc.
• Procedural texts – instruct someone on how to complete a specific task. Common
examples of procedural texts are recipes, directions, manuals and science
experiments.
• Expository texts – these are text that gives information about the certain topic.
• Persuasive texts – these are texts that aim to convince someone to believe the
arguments provided by the director or the speaker.
• Descriptive texts – these are texts which says what a person or thing is like, it’s
purpose is to describe and rebuild a particular place, a particular person, things, etc.

SOCIO-LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE

Must be able to relate well with people through words and even actions.

Examples:

We are taught not to commit backbiting.

Be more sensitive communicating to people with different cultural background.

Use of Sir and Ma’am (Polite, Filipino Culture)

Use of Sir and Ma’am (Awkward, US and Canada).

A socio-cultural competent person also,

Must avoid unproductive comments

Avoid making general comments about people based on religion, status, gender, age,
and etc.

STRATEGIC COMPETENCE

The ability to recognize and repair communication breakdowns, before, during, or after
they occur.

Communicative Strategies:

Nomination – the topic must be identified or nominated.

Turn–Taking – occurs in a conversation when one person listens while the other person
speaks.

Restriction – limitation/limiting condition.

Topic Control – means the speaker should focus on the topic without straying into other
discussions.

Topic Shifting – changing from one topic to another.

Repair - refers to how speakers address the problems in speaking, listening, and
comprehending that they may encounter in a conversation.

Termination – how you will end the conversation properly.

Asking for clarification – asking them to say something in a different way or provide
more information so that you can understand them better.

Repetition – a speaker may repeat what he/she said if he/she feels that the listeners did
not fully understand what said.

Rephrasing – involves repeating the same message using different words or

expressions.

PRAGMATICS

The study of human interactions.

It refers to how words are used in a practical sense. Words can mean different things,
and often the same word can mean something different depending on the context in
which it is used. Words can also carry symbolic meaning and in practice, or practical
situations, we will apply our understanding of symbols as we read or listen to others.

PRAGMATICS (YULE, 1996):

The study of speaker meaning

The study of contextual meaning

The study of how more gets communicated than is said

The study of the expression of relative distance

WHY PRAGMATICS IS IMPORTANT?

1. Pragmatics helps build social relationship.

2. Pragmatics helps avoid miscommunication/misunderstanding because of cultural
difference.
3. Pragmatics helps make interactions brief but relevant.
 4. Pragmatics guide us to interpret ambiguous utterances.

ELEMENTS OF PRAGMATICS

The speaker

The context

The speaker’s intention

Regularity

The speaker:

WHO is talking and to WHOM

The context:

Linguistic context – what preceded a particular utterance

Situational context – what happens surrounding the utterances

Social context – information about relationship between speakers of people involved

(Dawson and Phelan, 2016).

The speaker’s intention:

The intended or hidden meaning

Regularity:

The fact that most people within a linguistic community have similar basic experiences
of the world and share a lot of non-linguistic knowledge.

Examples of Pragmatics:

1.Will you crack open the door? I am getting hot.

Pragmatically, the speaker means to open the door just a little to let some air

2. I heart you!

Pragmatically, heart in the sentence means “love” – hearts are commonly used as
symbol for love, and “heart” someone has come to mean that you love someone.

Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics concerned with the use of language in social

contexts and the ways people produce and comprehend meanings through language.
The term pragmatics was coined in the 1930s by psychologist and philosopher Charles
Morris.

Homonym: In linguistics, homonyms as words that are simultaneously homographs and

homophones – that is to say they have identical spelling and pronunciation, whilst
maintaining different meanings.

11. Major Issues in the Field of Language Development

Some Signs of Receptive Language Problem

•Having trouble following oral directions

•Needing oral directions repeated or rephrased

•Problems understanding questions

•Difficulty concentrating verbal sittings, but not in other settings

•Delayed in acquiring decoding skills

•Poor reading comprehension past the 4th grade in spite of having a good sight
vocabulary

•Trouble learning a foreign language

Some Signs of Expressive Language Problems

• Being non-verbal (doesn’t talk much)

• Excessive use of simple, declarative sentences or incomplete sentences

• Hesitant or slow speech

• Excessive use of pause words such as ummm, you know, like, etc.

• Poor use of words that tie things together such as first, next, then, but, and finally

• Lack of verbal participation in conversations and classroom discussions

• Poor written expression

• Brief answers and failure to elaborate

• Redundancy (using same words over and over) of vocabulary or ideas

• Avoiding pronouns

Problems with Phonics and Phonemic Awareness

When the teacher says, “Just sound it out”, a student who has problems with phonics
and/or phoneme awareness may find thathard to do. The student who has problems
with phonics has trouble associating a particular sound with a particular letter or letters.
A student who has trouble with phoneme awareness has difficulty understanding how
speech can be segmented, or broken into small sounds, and also how these sounds
can be put together.

Problems with Auditory Discrimination

• A student may not be able to easily hear the difference between similar sounds. A
person may have a hard time, for example, hearing the difference between words such
as bill and bell.

• A person may frequently mispronounce words because she mishears them. Her
pronunciations may be “close but no cigar.” For example, she may say “morpid” instead
of “morbid” and “siduation” instead of “situation.” She may miss the meaning of a
sentence because she mishears a word. For example, she hears “crab” instead of
“cram,” which changes the meaning of the sentence — “I need to cram” is different from
“I need to crab!’

Problems with Morphology and Syntax

• A person may have a lot of trouble with prefixes and suffixes. For example, he have
difficulty understanding what preamble, preview, and prepare have in common. He may
have no trouble understanding the meaning of the word work, but he struggles with the
word unworkable, which is made up of three morphemes (un/work/able).

Problems with Semantics

• A person may have trouble with the flood of technical words that he has to use in
math, science, or English, like isosceles, cilia, precipitation, or nominative. Sometimes it
is hard for him to remember what all these words mean and even harder to know how to
use them correctly. He might do well with memorizing the definition of the word, but he
cannot use them correctly in a sentence. It may also be difficult for him to conjugate
verbs in English class from present to past to future tense, much less from present
perfect, to past perfect and to future perfect.

Problems with Discourse

• In developing discourse, a student will be asked to take his language skills beyond
sentence building and put his sentences together to form paragraphs and then stories
or essays. Of course, it is not enough to put them together; she must also do it in such a
way that the information is sensibly connected! She have good ideas for stories, but she
just doesn’t seem to be able to get the ideas in the right order in a paragraph, story or
essay. Sometimes her teachers ask her to read a long passage and then summarize
what she has read. This is also a problem for her.

Problems with Pragmatics

• Pragmatics includes the art of social language. How a person says things can indicate
whether he is angry, sympathetic, or friendly. A person with weak language pragmatics
misses these clues and sometimes responds in inappropriate ways. He can also miss
the times when his friends are trying to be funny, but he thinks that they are being
serious.

Problems with Metalinguistic Awareness

• Metalinguistic awareness refers to a person’s knowledge of the intricacies of language

and how it works. If a person is weak in this area, he may not know what is and is not
good English. He may also miss out on puns, metaphors, multiple meaning words, and
analogies.

12. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Brain Lateralization Language is highly localized in the left hemisphere

THE MOTOR THEORY OF LATERALIZATION

Left Hemisphere controls fine movements such as those required to produce speech

There are two regions that are critical for language these are;

• BROCA’S AREA – also known as the motor speech area.

• WERNICKE’S AREA – region of the brain that contains motor neurons involved
in the comprehension of speech.
• Aphasia - A language disorder produced by brain damage
• Major types –Broca’s aphasia –Wernike’s aphasia
• Broca’s aphasia (Expressive aphasia) Symptoms –Unable to express themselves
by more than a single word at a time –Content words are ok; function words are
not

Example;
–“Yes… ah… Monday… er… Dad and Peter H… and Dad…. Er… hospital…

and ah… Wednesday… Wednesday, nine o’clock… and oh… Thursday…

ten o’clock, ah doctors… two… an’ doctors… and er… teeth… yah’”

• Wernike’s aphasia Symptoms –Fluent speech with no informational value –

Comprehension is impaired.

Example;

“I called my mother on the television and did not understand the door. It

was too breakfast, but they came from far to near. My mother is not too

old for me to be young.”

Broca vs. Wernicke Broca’s aphasia

Broca’s aphasia –Prevents a person from producing speech –Person can

understand language –Words are not properly formed –Speech is slow and

slurred.

• Wernicke’s aphasia – Loss of the ability to understand language –Person can

speak clearly but the words that are put together make no sense. The Broca’s
area and Wernicke’s area highlights the features of language that are lateralized,
though there are functions of the opposing hemisphere that are also relevant,
which allow us to interpret the non-verbal components of language, such as body
language, gestures and any kind of tone or quality that would signify the
emotional content of what is heard

During Conversation,

According to the Wernicke's-Gesch wind Model when youare listening to someone talk,
their voice is converted into signals that are sent to the primary auditory cortex, and
then conducted to Wernicke’s area. This is where we can imagine that the words are
actually comprehended as this is where the neural representation of the thought
underlying the reply is generated, which is then sent via the arcuate fasciculus over to
Broca’s area, from their information is sent to the primary motor cortex which controls
the muscles in your mouth so that you may respond.

• Signal is sent to primary auditory cortex

• Sent to Wernicke’s area for comprehension
• Sent via arcuate fasciculus to Broca’s area
• Primary motor cortex to generate resoponse

When reading aloud, the visual information of the written words is sent to the primary
visual cortex, and this information is transmitted to angular gyrus, which translate the
written word into the corresponding auditory signal and sends that to Wernicke’s area
for comprehension and the rest followed the same path already outlined Information is
sent to primary visual cortex

• Sent to angular gyrus for auditory signals

• Sent to Wernicke’s area for comprehension
• Broca’s area and
 • Primary motor cortex

13. SOCIAL COMMUNICATION

What is Social communication?

Social communication refers to the emergence of verbal and nonverbal skills, social
interaction, and social cognition. It is often viewed as a form of communication that is
‘unwritten’ and that people seem to ‘just know.’ Social and communicative foundations
of language development.

Communication in this area includes interaction with peers, family members, providers,
and educators. Social communication behaviours include understanding and using
appropriate facial expressions, eye contact, and body language.

What Is Communication and Language Development?

Children grow and develop rapidly in their first five years across the four main areas of
development. These areas are motor (physical), communication and language,
cognitive, and social and emotional.

Motor development is the physical growth and strengthening of a child’s bones,

muscles and ability to move and touch his/her surroundings. A child’s motor
development falls into two categories: fine motor and gross motor.

Physical development is one of the many domains of infant and toddler development.
It relates to the growth and skill development of the body, including the brain, muscles,
and senses.

For example,

babies learn about the world as they develop their physical senses of sight, touch,
smell, sound, and taste.

Communication and language development

It means all the different ways a child understands and communicates, only part of
which are spoken words. Communication and language development is important,
because speaking is an indicator of fine motor skill development and a reflection of
cognitive development.

Cognitive Development

Cognition is the thought processes of a person, and developmental psychology classes

study how people's thoughts develop, which is called cognitive development.

Social emotional development

Social emotional development represents a specific domain of child development. It is a

gradual, integrative process through which children acquire the capacity to understand,
experience, express, and manage emotions and to develop meaningful relationships
with others.

READING

Reading is one of the best ways to encourage communication and language

development. As an infant, hearing words and seeing pictures helps a child understand
the two are connected. This lays a foundation for speech, which begins around nine
months and typically increases as a child grows.

Parents and caregivers play a big role in a child’s communication and language
development. Here are some suggestions for how to encourage this development:

➢ Answer when your baby makes sounds. This will help him/her learn to use
language.
➢ Read to your baby. This will help him/her develop and understand language and
sounds.
➢ Help to develop your toddler’s language by talking with him/her and adding
words. For example, if your toddler says "baba, ” you can respond, "Yes, you are
right – that is a bottle."
➢ Encourage your child to tell you his/her name and age.
➢ Teach your child simple songs like “Itsy Bitsy Spider,” or other cultural childhood
rhymes.
➢ Help your child develop good language skills by speaking in complete sentences
and using "grown-up" words. Help your child to use the correct words and
phrases.

Communication is anything that a child does to elicit a response from another person.

This response could be tangible (such as receiving an object) or social (such as a smile
or laugh).

Communication includes spoken language, as well as non-verbal cues, such as

vocalizations, eye contact, gestures, body language, and facial expressions, which are
necessary to accurately convey a message when interacting with others.

An example of communication might be a child pointing at a favorite toy or smiling in

response to a favorite song.

Foundational communication skills include joint attention, initiation, engagement, use of

gestures, and social reciprocity. These are all important precursors for language and
cognitive development. This blog will explain the foundations of communication and
their importance for language development.

Foundation of Language

Language acquisition in children process involves biological, cognitive, and social

aspect. The development of human language is unique, how those aspect affecting the
acquisition and development. To discuss more, we have to understand the foundation of
language first.

Therefore it will be deal with do animals has language, what is biological basis of
language, and mechanisms are necessary, cognitive and social basis of language
development, and the relation of language and thought.

14. Phonological Development:

➢ Behaviourist Theory
➢ Universalist Approaches
➢ Biologically-Based Theories
 ➢ Usage-Based Phonology

Phonological Development

• Phonological Development refers to how children learn to organize sounds into

meaning or language (phonology) during their stages of growth.
• Phonology is a branch of Phonetics which investigates sounds of speech, as
units which serve people for communicative purposes. Unlike Phonetics which
studies sounds as articulatory and acoustic units.
• Acquiring sensitivity to prosodic cues, developing internal representations of the
native language’s phonemes, and producing vowels and consonants intelligibly

Aspects of Language

Use Pragmatics

Semantic
Content
• Syntax
Form
• Morphology

• Phonology

Prosodic Cues

Stress Patterns

• Address vs address
• In Chinese "Ma" can mean four different words based on the accent: mother,
linen, horse, and scolding.

Recognizing pauses as boundaries between clauses and phrases.

Knowing prosodic cues supports syntactic development as well.

Phonemes

Phoneme means a minimal sound unit of speech that, when contrasted with another
phoneme, affects the meaning of words in a language.

Ex: Man = /m/ + /a/ + /n/

Phonotactic Cues

Recognize that some sounds occur together in a language.

➢ /g/ + /z/ eggs, dogs

➢ /m/ + /p/ stamp, limp
• can you think of a word that begins with /z/ + /g/?
• Can you think of a word ending with /n/ + /p/?

Developing a Phonetic Inventory

• Vowels develop before consonants in the first year.

• Sufficiently well-developed by 3 to 4 years of age to provide for fully intelligible
speech.
Phonological Awareness

The ability to detect, manipulate, and use the sound structure of spoken language
independent of meaning.

➢ Identify rhyming words

➢ Identify the first sound in a word
➢ Count the number of phonemes in a word

Phonemic awareness: focus on the phonemic units of words.

Phonics

• teaches children the relationships between letters and sounds

• Children who are "phonologically aware" are better able to profit from phonics
instruction than children who are unaware.

6 Tasks for each level of Phonological Awareness

➢ Counting
➢ Identification
➢ Blending
➢ Segmenting
➢ Deletion
➢ Substitution

Counting

is like, how many syllables in dinosaur?

Identification

task is like, what is the beginning sound of bear?

Blending

is, what, where, did or not.

Segmenting

involves identifying the individual sounds (phonemes) in a word. Students should

practice segmenting initial sounds, onset-rime, and individual sounds in a word.
Segmenting tasks take place orally without the written word.

Deletion

involves having students manipulate spoken words by deleting specific phonemes. if

this task is difficult initially, you can begin by having students delete syllables in
compound words. Deletion tasks take place orally without the written word.

Substitution involves having students manipulate spoken words by substituting certain

phonemes for others. Substitution tasks take place orally without the written word.

Analyzing Phonological Development

➢ Pay attention to each phoneme in all words that the child speaks.
➢ Determine which phonemes are always correctly pronounced.
➢ Determine which phonemes are always incorrectly pronounced.
 ➢ Find any phonemes that are sometimes correctly and other times incorrectly
pronounced. Detect patterns (e.g., /t ᶴ/ is correct if used at the end of a word,
whereas /t ᶴ/ is incorrect if used at the beginning of a word).
➢ Determine which phonemes are omitted. (assimilated)

BEHAVIORIST THEORY

Behaviorism also known as behavioral psychology is a jury of learning based on the

idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through
interaction with the environment.

TWO TYPES OF CONDITIONING

➢ CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
➢ OPERANT CONDITIONING

method of learning that occurs through reinforcements and punishments through

operant conditioning an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for
that behavior.

BIOLOGICALLY-BASED THEORIES

What is The Biological Perspective on Personality?

This perspective posits that we are genetically predisposed to certain personality traits,
from cleanliness to extraversion. This counters the idea that ourenvironment and life
experiences form our personalities. Similarly, evolutionary theory suggests that our
personality comes from an environment that favors certain traits over time.

Some of the earliest and most famous examples of the biological perspective is ideas
brought forth by Charles Darwin. Darwin was the father of evolutionary psychology. His
theories of evolution suggested that species evolve over time; members of said species
with stronger traits were more likely to reproduce and pass those traits onto their
offspring. Evolution doesn’t just favor physical traits, like taller people or faster
swimmers.

Genes and the Brain

Where do biologist find our traits? In our genes and our brains. To test this theory,
psychologists have studied identical twins. Identical twins have the same genes, but
those who are separated at birth will grow up in completely different environments.
When scientists look at their similarities and differences, they can get a sense of what is
nature and what is nurture.

➢ Using Identical Twin studies, we can narrow down what percentage of traits may
be due to genetics. If a trait can be passed down through a gene, we call it
"Heritable".
➢ Heritability: A variance between multiple people that can be accounted for by
genetic differences.

Brain Chemistry and Personality Traits

Other studies show just how important our brain chemistry is to our reactions and how
we assess our environment. Different parts of the brain “go off” as we make decisions.
The stronger these responses are, the more likely a person is to hold certain personality
traits. For example, people who are highly neurotic have stronger responses in their
amygdala, the part of the brain responsible for reacting to fear.

Brain Chemistry and Personality Traits

Biological theorists believe by changing the size of our amygdala, theoretically, we
could change how neurotic a person is. That is, if you could control the size of a
particular brain section. The physical structure of the brain may also be linked to
personality traits. Studies from Cambridge University revealed a positive correlation
between openness and folding in the prefrontal cortices.

Neuroplasticity, also known as neural plasticity, or brain plasticity, is the ability of neural
networks in the brain to change through growth and reorganization. These changes
range from individual neuron pathways making new connections, to systematic
adjustments like cortical remapping.

What Does The Biological Perspective of Personality Say About Personality Disorders?

➢ Studying personality isn’t just about whether someone is naturally funny or open
to new experiences. Answers must also be gathered regarding personality
disorders. But there have been studies to prove that the structure of the brain
may influence the development of a personality disorder.
➢ For example, smaller regions of certain parts of the brain may be linked to
Cluster B personality disorders. Abnormalities in the brain have been linked to
Schizotypal Personality Disorder. This is not to say that environmental factors
play no role in personality disorders, but that these findings should continue to be
explored.

15. HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE

The origin of language (spoken and signed, as well as language-related technological

systems such as writing), its relationship with human evolution, and its consequences
have been subjects of study for centuries.

The origin of language can be sub-divided according to some underlying assumptions:

"Continuity theories" build on the idea that language exhibits so much complexity that
one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form; therefore it must
have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among humans' primate ancestors.
"Discontinuity theories" take the opposite approach—that language, as a unique trait
which cannot be compared to anything found among non-humans, must have appeared
fairly suddenly during the course of human evolution.

Noam Chomsky. A proponent of discontinuity theory, argues that a single chance

mutation occurred in one individual in the order of 100,000 years ago, installing the
language faculty (a hypothetical component of the mid-brain) in “perfect” or “near-
perfect” form.

The time range for the evolution of language or its anatomical prerequisites extends, at
least in principle, from the phylogenetic divergence of Homo (2.3 to 2.4 million years
ago) from Pan (5 to 6 million years ago) to the emergence of full behavioural modernity
some 50,000–150,000 years ago. The language first evolved around 50,000–150,000
years ago, which is around the time when modern Homo sapiens evolved.

In 1861, historical linguist Max Müller published a list of speculative theories concerning
the origins of spoken language: Bow-wow. The bow-wow or cuckoo theory, which Müller
attributed to the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder, saw early words as
imitations of the cries of beasts and birds. Pooh-pooh. The pooh-pooh theory saw the
first words as emotional interjections and exclamations triggered by pain, pleasure,
surprise, etc.
Ding-dong. Müller suggested what he called the ding-dong theory, which states that all
things have a vibrating natural resonance, echoed somehow by man in his earliest
words. Yo-he-ho.
The yo-he-ho theory claims language emerged from collective rhythmic labor, the
attempt to synchronize muscular effort resulting in sounds such as heave alternating
with sounds such as ho. Ta-ta.
This did not feature in Max Müller's list, having been proposed in 1930 by Sir Richard
Paget. According to the ta-ta theory, humans made the earliest words by tongue
movements that mimicked manual gestures, rendering them audible.

16. General patterns of phonological development

Refers to how children learn organize sounds into meaning or language penology
during their stages of growth

Though phonology or systematic organization of sounds into language begins quite

early children don't really begin to speak anything that approximates meaningful words
until they are about one year old.

Major skills they are several major phonological skill that all of us acquire as children
naturally disabilities can't be considered taught all children without major cognitive or
physical challenges will acquire them the particular skills in the following less are
acquire in order as they go from easiest to most difficult.

Word awareness is the ability to track a specific word in a sentence most children
acquire disability between 1.5 and two years example include being able to identify
words that rhyme counting the number of syllables in a name he recognizing alliteration
as segmenting a sentence into words.

Understanding rhyme and alliteration

by age 4 most children can understand and appreciate rhyming alliteration many
children stories utilize these tactics

example

• say sells seashells by the seashore.

• Betty botter bought some butter but she said this butter bitter if i put in my butter it
will make my batter better.

Syllable awareness

at 5 years old most children are aware of syllables and are able to manipulate them in a
basic manner.

to assist syllable awareness have students respond to a prompt such as:

how many world part do you here in the world sunshine

if i say sunshine and take away the sun what is left?

Onset and rime manipulation

the ability to produce a rhyming word depends on understanding the rhyming words
have the same rhyme disability tends to be mastered by 5.5 years old onset and rime
are two parts of a word dance it is the initial consonant sound blend or digraphs in a
single syllable word or syllable not all words have onsets such as the word oar.
the rhyme is the first vowel phonemes followed by all the other phonemes at in rat is
and flesh words that share the same line are considered rhyming words example fresh,
mesh flesh.

Phonemes awareness

this is the most difficult scale and phonological development and this game between six
and nine years old age name ernest stability for the child to manipulate phonemes.

Example

the /n/ sound in the word rain to and /l/ making rail

Able to hear /sh/ and /a/ and /CK/ in the word shack

The first three years of a child life are vital in their development of phonology and
general speech children are extremely resourceful and use any means necessary to
convey what they are feeling for example through intonation these skills help the
development of speech and their understanding of the surrounding world child language
development does not stop wendy can speak but continues to develop will and tudor
teens the phonological development of children is one of the fundamental building
blocks that allows them to create complex sentences and engage and extended
conversation that are critical later in life.

17. Phonological Development

PHONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

ONCE SPEECH BEGINS

Word Recognition

• Word recognition is a student’s ability to see and understand a word quickly

without sounding it out. The ability to sight read is an early reading skill
necessary to all reading success in the future.
• It is commonly assumed that children have only rough representations; they are
less sensitive to differences between words at the phonetic segment level and
base their judgments on syllables or whole words.
• Recent evidence suggests, however, that children do represent words they know
in some phonetic detail, such as when they are sensitive to minor
mispronunciations.

The Foundation of Word Recognition:

Phonemic Awareness

Word Recognition involves phonological awareness, decoding, and sight

recognition. These skills are woven over time so that word recognition becomes
automatic.

Let’s start with the Why!

The simple view of reading is: Word Recognition x language comprehension Word
recognition is the ability to read and understand the words on a page. Language
comprehension is the ability to make sense of the language we hear and the
language we read.

The two essential components of theSimple View of Reading:

 • Word Recognition
• Language Comprehension

Elements of Word Recognition

1. PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS

Major Phonological Skills

a. Track specific words in a sentence.

Happens between 1.5 and 2 years.

b. Syllable Awareness

At 5 years old, most children are aware of syllables

and are able to manipulate them in a basic manner.

c. Onset-Rime

The ability to produce a rhyming word depends on

understanding that rhyming words have the same

rime. This ability tends to be mastered by 5.5 years old.

d. Rhyme

By age 4, most children can understand and appreciate rhyming. Major

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is the ability to identify and manipulate individual sounds

(phonemes) in spoken words.

Phonemic awareness is a sub-skill under a larger umbrella of phonological awareness.

At the heart of phonemic awareness is one’s ability to hear, recognize, and manipulate
sounds in words.

Decoding

Decoding is the ability to apply your knowledge of letter-sound relationships, including

knowledge of letter patterns, to correctly pronounce written words. Understanding these
relationships gives children the ability to recognize familiar words quickly and to figure
out words they haven't seen before.

Sight Word Recognition

The third critical component for successful word recognition is sight word recognition. A
small percentage of words cannot be identified bydeliberately sounding them out, yet
they appear frequently in print.

Word Learning

Young children have difficulty distinguishing newly taught words that differ only by one
segment.

The multiple demands of the word-learning task do not leave the child with enough
resources to record all of the phonetic details of newly encountered words.
Fast Mapping

Some learning does occur during fast mapping.

Children begin by making an initial fast mapping between a new word they hear and its
likely meaning. They guess, and then modify the guess as more input comes in.

Early Word Learning

Infants begin to understand words such as "Mommy", "Daddy", "hands" and "feet" when
they are approximately 6 months old. Initially, these words refer to their own mother or
father or hands or feet. Infants begin to produce their first words when they are
approximately one year old.

Vocabulary Development

In particular, children begin to learn abstract words. Beginning around age 3–5, word
learning takes place both in conversation and through reading. Word learning often
involves physical context, builds on prior knowledge, takes place in social context, and
includes semantic support.

Physical context

Physical context involves the presence of an object or action that is also the topic of
conversation. With the use of physical context, the child is exposed to both the words
and a visual reference of the word.

Prior knowledge

Past experiences or general knowledge is often called upon in conversation, so it is a

useful context fo children to learn words. Recalling past experiences allows the child to
call upon their own visual, tactical, oral, and/or auditory references.

Social Context

Social context involves pointing out social norms and violations of these norms. This
form of context is most commonly found in conversation, as opposed to reading or other
word learning environments.

Semantic support

Semantic support is the most obvious method of vocabulary development in school-age

children. It involves giving direct verbal information of the meaning of a word. By the
time children are in school, they are active participants in conversation, so they are very
capable and willing to ask questions when they do not understand a word or concept.

18. INTERACTIONIST

Interactionist perspective

◦ AN EXPLANATION OF BEHAVIOR THAT ASSUMES THAT OUR PERSONALITY

DEPENDS ON OUR TRAITS AND ON THE ENVIRONMENT.

◦ INTERACTIONIST IN THE ENVIRONMENT

◦ Interactionists identify human actions and inactions as the sources of environmental

problems. To overcome environmental problems, political actions involving human

judgements, decisions, and choices, should be taken.

Interactionist theory

IS BASED ON THE IDEA THAT HUMAN BEINGS, AS THEY INTERACT WITH ONE
ANOTHER,GIVES MEANING TO THEMSELVES, OTHERS, AND THE WORLD
AROUND THEM, AND USE THOSE MEANINGS AS A BASIN FOR MAKING
DECISION AND TAKING ACTION IN THERE EVERYDAY LIVES.

For example:

◦ Think of any Dealings you have had with people who do not behave in ways that

conform to your cultural expectations.

◦ People who are drunk, for example, frequently fail to observe expected cultural norme

and this makes it very difficult for us to interact with them on anything but a very basic

level of understanding.

DEFINITION OF INTERACTIONISM

A theory that mind and body are distinct and interact causally upon one another —
compare double-aspect theory, psychophysical parallelism. 2 : a theory that derives
social processes (conflict, competition, cooperation) from human interaction.

19. components of language

Phonemes the basic unit of phonology it is the smallest unit of sound that may cause a
change of meaning within a language but that doesn't have meaning by itself.

A series of phonemes that has a special meaning if a morpheme is altered in any way
the entire meaning of the word can be changed within the category of morphemes there
are two additional subtypes.

Derivational change the meaning or part of speech of a word when they are used
together inflectional modify either the tense of a verb or the number value of a noun

Morphemes the basic unit of morphology the smallest meaningful unit of language

Lexical and grammatical morphemes lexical morpheme have meaning and can stand
alone examples are a man girl play etc grammatical morphemes conversely are mostly
used to specify a relationship between two lexical morphemes or modify one

examples ,are, at ,and t,he ,etc

Free and bound morphemes free morphemes include lexical or grammatical

morphemes and they can stand alone examples nouns verbs a etc (lexical) or
prepositions conjunctions and articles (grammatical)

Bound morphemes include lexical or grammatical morphemes but they cannot stand
alone example suffixes and prefixes all affixes is in english are bound morphemes

Lexemes

are the set of inflected forms taken by a single word another way to think about lexemes
is that they are the set of words that would be included under one entry in the

Syntax
Is a set of rules for constructing full sentences out of words and phrases language has a
different state of syntactic rules but all languages have some form of syntax in english
the smallest form of a sentence is a noun phrase which might just be a noun or a
pronoun and a verb phrase which may be a single verbs adjectives and adverbs can be
added to the sentence to provide further meaning word order matters in english
although in some languages are there is of less importance.

Context

is how everything within language works together to convey a particular meaning

includes tone of voice body language and the words being used.

Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from words and sentences in a
given language.

20. Theories of Language Development: Generativist and Social Interactionist

The process of language development in infants and children is a complex and

interrelated. For normal communication to develop, there must be an integration of
anatomy and physiology of the speech systems, neurological development, and
interactions that encourage infants and children for communication attempts.

The one of the most amazing feats you & l ever accomplish as a human being already
happened, and that is language development. I mean, think about it. When you & are a
baby, all these sounds are coming at you, and somehow, you & are able to figure out
which sounds are words, where there are breaks between the words, general
grammatical rules, and you & able to apply them without any real formal training.

So naturally, a lot of research has been done into how this ability develops. And I & m
going to tell you about the three main theories that look at language development.
Nativist, or innatist perspective. And what this perspective says is that children are born
with the ability to learn language. And the main guy associated with this theory is Noam
Chomsky. And he thought the humans had something called a language acquisition
device, or LAD, in their brains that allowed them to learn language. And this isn’t really
supposed to be in a specific part of the brain. It’s just an idea that this ability exists. And
this works because he thought that all languages shared a universal grammar, or the
same basic elements, so all languages would have nouns, verbs, things like that.

This theory believes that language is universal and unique to only humans that unless
there are mental and physical limitations or severe isolation and deprivation, humans
will acquire language. It also argues that caregivers do not teach children the
understanding of language and do not usually provide feedback about the correctness
of their utterances.

So the language acquisition device enables the child to pick up on and understand
those types of words and their organization within a sentence for any language. This
goes along with the idea that there is a critical period or a sensitive period. The critical
period is usually thought to be from birth until about age eight or nine, and it’s the period
of time in which a child is most able to learn a language. So if you try to learn a
language after that age, it’s a lot harder. It’s not impossible. It’s just a lot harder.

And nativists like Chomsky would say that that's because the LAD only operates
during that critical period. He came up the idea of the Language acquisition device
(LAD). The LAD is a language organ that is hardwired into our brains of birth. Once a
child expose in language, the LAD activates. Once you start using it, then it specializes
to your language, and it becomes unable to detect other sounds and grammar from
other languages.

Learning theory

Perhaps the most straightforward explanation of language theory development is that it

occurs through the principles of learning. Children learn the language that they hear
spoken around them rather than some other language. It seems that modify their
language through imitation and reinforcement.

Learning theorists think that children aren’t born with anything. They only acquire
language through reinforcement. So a learning theorist would say that a child learns to
say mama & because every time it makes it sound that approaches that so ma-
something then Mom starts smiling, hugging the child, so over time, the child learns, oh,
the more I make this sound, the more I get hugs and smiles.

And so then, eventually, it learns to say ma and then say it again, and learns to say
mama. So this makes sense. But a strict learning theory doesn’t explain how children
are able to produce words they've never heard before or produce unique
sentences.

Sometimes this is called the social interactionism approach, because these theorists
believe that biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn
language. So they would say that children strongly desire to communicate with others,
such as the adults in their lives, and that desire motivates them to learn to communicate
via language. And the main theorist associated with this school of thought is Vygotsky.

He was a big proponent of the importance of social interaction in the development of

children.

All three of these theories have made big contributions to our understanding of how
children develop language. So the next time you look at a baby, be impressed. They’re
actually working really hard.

21. DISCOURSE AND WORD FORMATION

DISCOURSE
Discourse (DISK-horse) is another word for written or spoken communication. The term
is a broad one that has slightly different definitions depending on the discipline in which
it is used; in literature, discourse refers to a presentation of thought through language.
Discursive language typically contains long, detailed sentences that address a specific
subject in a formal manner.

Discourse comes from the Latin discursus, which means “a running about.” This
illustrates the basic idea of relaying information through the natural rhythm and flow of
language.

is a generalization of the notion of a conversation to any form of communication.

Discourse is a major topic in social theory, with work spanning fields such as sociology,
anthropology, continental philosophy, and discourse analysis.

Discourse as a system of thought, knowledge, or communication that constructs our

experience of the world. Since control of discourse amounts to control of how the world
is perceived, social theory often studies discourse as a window into power. Within
theoretical linguistics, discourse is understood more narrowly as linguistic information
exchange and was one of the major motivations for the framework of dynamic
semantics, in which expressions' denotations are equated with their ability to update a
discourse context.

Example:

when you discuss something with your friends in person or over a chat platform.

The four types or modes of discourse are description, narration, exposition and
argumentation.

DESCRIPTION

helps the audience visualise the item or subject by relying on the five senses. Its
purpose is to depict and explain the topic by the way things look, sound, taste, feel, and
smell. Description helps readers visualise characters, settings, and actions with nouns
and adjectives.

Example: One Bottle by One Movement:

"Beautiful, functional, versatile and sustainable.

At 17 oz / 500ml it's the only bottle you'll ever need, using double-wall stainless steel
which will keep your drinks cold for 24 hours or piping hot for 12. It's tough, light and
dishwasher safe. "

NARRATION

Example :

Narration is the second type of discourse. The aim of narration is to tell a story. A
narrator usually gives an account of an event, which usually has a plot. Examples of the
narrative mode of discourse are novels, short stories, and plays.

Shakespear tragedy Romeo and Juliet '' Two households, both alike in dignity,
In fair Verona, where we lay our scene, From ancient grudge break to new mutiny,
Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean. From forth the fatal loins of these two foes
A pair of star-cross'd lovers take their life;

EXPOSITION
is the third type of discourse. Exposition is used to convey background information to
the audience in a relatively neutral way. In most cases, it doesn't use emotion and it
doesn't aim to persuade.
Examples of discourse exposure are definitions and comparative analysis.
What is more, exposure serves as an umbrella term for modes such as:
Exemplification (illustration): The speaker or writer uses examples to illustrate their
point.

Example:
Michael Jackson is one of the most famous artists in the world. His 1982 album
"Thriller" is actually the best-selling album of all time - it has sold more than 120 million
copies worldwide.

ARGUMENTATION
Argumentation is the fourth type of discourse. The aim of argumentation is to persuade
and convince the audience of an idea or a statement. To achieve this, argumentation
relies heavily on evidence and logic.

Example: Martin Luther King Jr.'s famous speech I Have a Dream (1963)
"I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its
creed: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal. (...). This
will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning: My
country, 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. Land where my fathers died,
land of the pilgrims' pride, from every mountainside, let freedom ring. And if America is
to be a great nation, this must become true. " ²

Discourse is the verbal or written exchange of ideas. Any unit of connected speech or
writing that is longer than a sentence and that has a coherent meaning and a clear
purpose is referred to as discourse.

Communication of thought by words; talk; conversation: earnest and intelligent

discourse. a formal discussion of a subject in speech or writing, as a dissertation,
treatise, sermon, etc. Linguistics. any unit of connected speech or writing longer than a
sentence.

WORD FORMATION
The ‘Word Formation Process’ is regarded as the branch of Morphology, and it has a
significant role in expanding the vocabulary that helps us communicate very smoothly.
The main objectives of the word-formation process are to form new words with the
same root by deploying different rules or processes.

In other words, we can say that the word-formation process is a process in which new
words are formed by modifying the existing terms or completely changing those words.

There are four main kinds of word formation: prefixes, suffixes, conversion and
compounds.

1. PREFIXES
2. SUFFIXES
3. CONVERTIONS
4. COMPOUNDS

Cognitive and language Development

What is Cognitive Development?

Is the construction of thought processes including remembering, problem solving, and

decision making from childhood through adolescents to adulthood.

22. Cognitive Development Theorists

Jean Piaget
Born in 1896

He was a Swiss psychologist and

epistemologist

Most of Piaget’s interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his
observations of children in his family. These observations reinforced his theory that
children’s mind were not merely smaller versions of adult minds. Up until this point in
history, Piaget thoughts were that children were treated as smaller versions of adult.

Piaget believed that children act as “little scientists,” exploring their environment to gain
understanding. He thought that children do this naturally, without any adult intervention.
He put forth the idea of distinct developmental stages through which children learn
language, memory, and reasoning.

PIAGET'S FOUR STAGES

➢ Sensorimotor

➢ Pre-operational
 ➢ Concrete Operational

➢ Formal Operational

Sensorimotor Stage

Birth —age 2

➢ Knowledge is acquired through sensory

➢ experience and physical interaction

➢ Knowledge gained through limited

➢ movement and physical reaction

➢ Language skills developed through

➢ physical movement, eventually mimicking
➢ sounds

➢ Marked achievement of object

➢ permanence —understanding that an
➢ object continue to exits even though
➢ they can no longer be seen or heard.

Pre - operational Stage

Age 2—7
Learn through pretend playStruggle with logic

Egocentrism
— refers to the child's
inability to see a situation from
another person's point of view.

Concrete Operational stage

Age 7—11
Begin to think more logically, speaking in concrete facts Gain ability to sort object in
order by various characteristics Understand conservation Start to consider other’s point
of view.

Formal Operational Stage

Age 11 into adulthood

Logic, deductive reasoning,
abstract thought Ability to visualize multiple solutions to a problem Express and debate
abstract concepts More scientific approach to the world

Lev Vygotsky

Born in 1896 and died in 1934

Advocate of early childhood programs that meet the needs of the whole child Lifelong
process of development dependent on social interaction with adults and peers He felt
that community and parental influence greatly the way, and when children learn.

SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT.

Theory describe students learning as a social process, which facilitates a child

potential for learning through Social interactions and their culture.
Vygotsky Theories

Zone of Proximal Development

(ZPD) Scaffolding Language and thought

➢ Private speech

➢ Inner Speech

Vygotsky Theories

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - is defined as the space between what a learner
can do without assistance and what a learner can do with adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers.

Vygotsky Theories

Scaffolding - is a teaching method that helps students learn more by working with a
teacher or a moradvanced student to achieve their learning goals.

Vygotsky Theories

Languages and thought Where language support the solving of taskthrough

➢ Private speech ( child talk to themselves in

➢ order to plan guide and monitor themselves and

➢ Inner Speech ( turning the private speech

➢ from out loud to inner thoughts.)

23. Word production

Word production is a multistage process. That is, given the intention to say something,
representations need to be selected or constructed in a sequence of processing levels.
Each of these processing levels is specialized and represents a particular type of
knowledge, such as meaning or form.

In picture naming, this involves the initial process of visual processing, followed by core
processes of identifying the concept, retrieving the appropriate word from memory,
determining the word’s phonological structure (e.g., the word has three syllables) and
content (e.g., the first speech sound is a /b/), and planning a speech motor program,
which controls articulation.

Historically, language production has been the subject of less research than language
comprehension, and this holds for both research studying the word level and the
sentence level. However, in recent years there has been an increase in interest in
production. This increased interest is accompanied by important methodological
innovation. Until fairly recently, the main source of data informing the field of word
production research was corpora of spontaneously occurring speech errors. Although
this work has allowed the development of influential production theories,

Merrill Garrett’s theory of language production, observational methods suffer from

important problems, such as collector biases, the infrequency of errors, and the issue of
whether the corpus is representative of the language as a whole. Methodological
improvements have made it possible to study word production under laboratory
conditions, considering normal, fluent production as well as the production of errors and
allowing researchers to focus on the time course of the production process. Moreover,
despite methodological obstacles (e.g., the need to control for movement artifacts),
word production can now be studied while registering the speakers’ eye-movements,
event-related potentials, or Bold signals.
First word

Before babies learn to talk in a real language -- English, say, or Spanish --

they babble and coo, playing with sound. That's baby talk, and baby talk
sounds similar the world over.

But when will you hear your baby's first words? Critical milestones for a baby
learning to talk happen in the first three years of life, when a baby's brain is
rapidly developing. During that time, your baby's speech development
depends on your "baby talk" skills as well as your baby's.

Baby Talk Milestones

Baby talk at 3 months. At 3 months, your baby listens to your voice, watches your face
as you talk, and turns toward other voices, sounds, and music that can be heard around
the home.

Many infants prefer a woman's voice over a man's. Many also prefer voices and music
they heard while they were still in the womb By the end of three months, babies begin
"cooing" -- a happy, gentle, repetitive, sing-song vocalization.

Baby talk at 6 months. At 6 months, your baby begins babbling with different sounds.
For example, your baby may say "ba-ba" or "da-da."

By the end of the sixth or seventh month, babies respond to their own names, recognize
their native language, and use their tone of voice to tell you they're happy or upset.

Some eager parents interpret a string of "da-da" babbles as their baby's first words --
"daddy!"
But babbling at this age is usually still made up of random syllables without real
meaning or comprehension.

Baby talk at 9 months. After 9 months, babies can understand a few basic words like
"no" and
"bye-bye." They also may begin to use a wider range of consonant sounds and tones of
voice.

Baby talk at 12-18 months. Most babies say a few simple words like "mama" and
"dadda" by the end of 12 months -- and now know what they're saying. They respond to
-- or at least understand,
if not obey -- your short, one-step requests such as, "Please put that down.“ Baby talk at
18 months. Babies at this age say several simple words and can point to people,
objects, and body parts you name for them. They repeat words or sounds they hear you
say, like the last word in a sentence. But they often leave off endings or beginnings of
words. For
example, they may say "daw" for "dog" or "noo-noo's" for "noodles.“

Baby talk at 2 years. By age 2, babies string together a few words in short phrases of
two to four words, such as "Mommy bye-bye" or "me milk." They're learning that words
mean more than
objects like "cup" -- they also mean abstract ideas like "mine.“
Baby talk at 3 years. By the time your baby is age 3, their vocabulary expands rapidly,
and
"make-believe" play spurs an understanding of symbolic and abstract language like
"now,"
feelings like "sad," and spatial concepts like "in."

The development of phonological process

Phonological processes are variations in the way phonemes are combined. Study of
bilingualism in children is important for our understanding of language development.

14 phonological processes

Fronting , cluster reduction, Epenthesis, initial consonant deletion, affrication,

metathesis and final consonant deletion. The least occurring processes were medial
consonant deletion, backing of stops, alveolar assimilation, stopping & backing of
fricatives, and vowel unrounding.

24. CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS

The critical period hypothesis says that there is a period of growth in which full native
competence is possible when acquiring a language. This period is from early childhood.
to adolescence. The hypothesis claims that older learners may be able to speak the
language, but will lack the native fluidity of younger learners and after puberty, language
acquisition becomes more difficult and effortful.

WHAT IS THE FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION?

First language acquisition refers to the way children learn their native language.

Why Do We Call it Acquisition?

LEARNING
Intentional process
• Presupposes a teacher, teaching
• Teacher controls pace
ACQUISITION
Subconscious process
• Does not presuppose a teacher
Child controls pace

FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

natural
subconscious
no other alternative to a first language

STAGES OF FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

1. Phoneme perception - 1-4 months
2. Cooing - 4-8 months
3. Babbling - 12-16 months
4. Proto sentences 2 years Two words Telegraphic speech

The term telegraphic speech deriving from the word telegram' was coined by Roger Brown,
an American psycholinguist, in 1963. It refers to the two-word a child can utter when she is
18 to 24 months of age.

FACTORS
AGE
Easy of recieving and mastering the language
PERSONALITY
Do not feel shy Do not hesitate
MOTIVATION
to get things and Express oneself
We are designed to walk...That we are taught to walk is impossible. And pretty much the
same is true of language. Nobody is taught language. In fact you can't prevent the child
from learning it. - Noam Chomsky
WHAT IS THE SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Second language acquisition refers to the learning of another language or languages
besides the native language.

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Li serves as a basis of learning the second language.
Requires more of a conscious effort.
More rapid pace of language development
Occurs more often later in life.

STAGES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Silent/Receptive Early Production Speech Emergence Intermediate fluency Advance fluency

FACTORS
Age
Under the age of 10 Its easy to adapt the language during that stage
personally
Introvert learners usually make slower progress, particularly in the development of oral skills
while extroverts will take risks, and thus will give themselves much more practice.
Motivation
Students who enjoy language learning and take pride in their progress will do better than
those who don't.

THE SIMILARITIES BETWEEN L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION

1- In both first and second language acquisition, universal grammar may influence
learning. In second language learning, universal grammar may influence learning
either independently or through the first language
2- In both first and second language acquisition, there are predictable stages and
particular structure are acquired in a set order, individuals may move more slowly or
quickly through these stages but they cannot skip ahead.
3- In both first and second language acquisition, the learner uses context clues, prior
knowledge, and interaction to comprehend language
4- in both first and second language acquisition, age is an important variable affecting
proficiency.