GROUP 4 09/26/23

DEFORMATION OF THE

CRUST
11- ABM A
WHAT IS
DEFORMATION ?
 DEFORMATION
— process by which the crust is deformed
along with tectonic plate margins.

— produces a variety of geologic

structures such as folds, faults, joints
and foliation.
 FAULTS
FOLDS

FOLIATIONS JOINTS
FORCES OF DEFORMATION

STRESS
VS.
STRAIN
STRESS
— force applied
over an area.
Uniform Stress
— equal force in all
directions.

Differential Stress
— unequal force
— has (3) types
 Types of Differential Stress
TENSIONAL COMPRESSIONAL SHEAR
• stress within an
"stretching force" "contracting forces"
object causes a side
• pull apart • pushes together
to side movement.
STRAIN
— changes due to
stress— changes in; size,
shape, and volume.
 STAGES OF DEFORMATION
ELASTIC DUCTILE FRACTURE
• reversible strain • permanent strain (yield point)

– the material
– DOES NOT revert – material breaks
returns to its
to its original form. from the stress.
original form.
Factors Affecting Deformation:

1. Temperature
2. Confining Pressure
3. Strain Rate, and the
4. Composition of the ground
 2 Products of Deformation
(Geological Structures)

FAULTS FOLDS
• fracture in bedrock along • permanent wave-like
which rock on one side have deformation in layered rock
moved relative to other side or sediment formed from a
• these caused by shear force compressional force.
In general, you can say that a rock has
been deformed if it has been;
• Translated (move) from its original
position.
• Changed in orientation (folding,
rotation, or tilting)
• Change in shape (distortion)
GROUP 4

THANK YOU FOR

LISTENING !
GEOLOGIC
TIME SCALE
 MEASURING TIME

• The Earth has existed for

4.6 billion years
• The geologic time scale
divides all those years into
sections
• Like how your science
book is divided into Units,
then Chapters, then
Sections, then Pages
• Each section is unique
because it shows a specific
change in life or in the
Earth’s surface
 GIVING TIME A NAME

• The largest sections are called “eons”

• “Eons” are divided into “eras” (the 2nd largest section)
• “Eras” are divided into
“periods”
• Then “periods” are divided
into “epochs”
• Usually the oldest sections
are shown on the
bottom and
the most recent sections are shown on the top
 HOW IS TIME DIVIDED?

• Major changes in Earth’s history mark the boundaries

between the sections
• Most sections have been divided because a major organism
developed or went extinct.
PRECAMBRIAN TIME
PRE- CAMBRIAN TIME

• Oldest and Longest Time Period

• Almost 90% of Earth’s History
• From beginning of Earth (4.6 billion years ago) to 540
Million years ago
• Oldest rocks are the deepest rocks
• Ores are deposited (iron, silver, gold)
 PALEOZOIC ERA

• Began 542 million years ago and

ended 251 million years ago
• Age of Fishes
• Many new life forms appeared during
the 1st period, the Cambrian Period
= Cambrian Explosion”
• Formation of Supercontinent Pangea
• Some organisms that were alive
during this period still exist today
(ferns and salamanders) but they
were giants!
 PERMIAN EXTINCTION

• The largest mass extinction

happened 251 million years ago
• Marked the end of the Paleozoic Era
and the start of the Mesozoic Era
• Scientists are not sure what caused
this mass extinction (maybe climate
change & volcanoes)
• 90% of ocean life and 78% of land
life died
• Reptiles and amphibians survived!
MESOZOIC ERA
 MESOZOIC ERA

• Began 251 million years ago

• Surviving reptiles and amphibians evolved into many other
species (like dinosaurs) = “Age of Reptiles”
MESOZOIC ERA

• Meso- “middle” -zoic

“animals/life”
• Breakup of Pangea
• Age of
Reptiles/Mammals-
dinosaurs and reptiles
rule planet
• Rocky Mountains form
 CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY EXTINCTION

• Another mass extinction

happened 65 million years ago
• Marked the end of the
Mesozoic Era and the
beginning of the Cenozoic Era
• All of the dinosaurs and half
of the other animals & plants
went extinct
• Scientists think an asteroid hit
Earth, the dust clouds blocked
out the sun, plants died, then
herbivores, then carnivores.
MASS EXTINCTION

• Dinosaurs are killed by

meteorite
• Animals and plants
change
• 90% of all species that
have ever lived are now
extinct
CENOZOIC ERA
 CENOZOIC ERA

• Began 65 million years ago and continues today

• Scientists know the most about this Era because the
fossils are in the top rock layers and are easier to find
• Land & climate has
changed a lot
• What big change
will happen that
will end this era
& start the next?
CENOZOIC ERA

• Ceno- “new”; -zoic “life”

• Last 45 million years
• Age of Mammals- Humans evolve
• Ice Ages
• Flowering Plants
• Colorado Plateau and Sierra Nevada Mountains formed
FORMATION OF ROCK LAYERS
 LESSON 1: ROCK LAYERS
- How are rock layers formed?

Stratification
• It is also known as bedding, which is the
Stratigraphy layering that happens in sedimentary and
• It is the branch of geology that deals with igneous rocks formed at the surface of the
the description, correlation, and Earth that comes from lava flows or other
interpretation of stratified rocks on and volcanic activity.
within the Earth. • It is expressed by rock layers (units) of a
general tabular or lenticular form that differ
in rock type

Stratified Rocks
• Also known as derivatives rock, maybe fragmental or crystalline.
• These rocks are product of SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES.
• These are made of visible layers of sediments.
• Formation on rock layers depend on its stratigraphy and stratification
 Relative and Absolute Dating
Use words like “older” or “younger” instead of exact numbers
Relative Dating
• Tells us the sequence in which events occurred, not how long ago they occurred.
• Geologists used simple principles in order to get the relative ages.

Law of Superposition

Law of Cross Cutting

Law of Inclusions
Relationship

LAWS OF
STRATIGRAP
HY
Law of Law of Original
Unconformomities Horizontality

Law of Faunal
Succession
Law of Superposition
• The largest and heaviest rock layer that settled first at the bottom is the oldest
rock layer
• The lightest and smallest that settled last is the youngest rock layer.

Limestone

Limestone & Sandstone

Sandstone

Shale & Siltstone

Sandstone & Shale

Principle of Original Horizontality
• sediments are deposited in flat layers, if the rock maintains in
horizontal layers, it means it is not yet disturbed and still has its
original horizontality

2
Law of Inclusions
• A rock mass that contains pieces of rocks called
inclusions are younger than the other rock
masses.
• Stated that if a rock body (Rock B) contained
fragments of another rock body (Rock A), it
must be younger than the fragments of rock it
contained. The intruding rock (Rock A) must
have been there first to provide the fragments.
Law of Cross Cutting Relationship
• Stated that if a fault or other body of rock cuts through another body
of rock then it must be younger in age than the rock through which it
cuts and displaces.
• When magma intrudes to the rock, that fault or magma is younger
than the rock

dike or dyke, in
geological usage,
is a sheet of rock
that is formed in a
fracture of a pre-
existing rock body
Law of Faunal Succession
• Different strata contain particular assemblage of fossils by which rocks
may be identified and correlated over long distances
Law of Unconformities
• Rock layers that are formed without interruptions are conformable.
• Describes a layer of rock that have been deformed or eroded before
another layer is deposited, resulting in rock layer mismatching
• An unconformity represents a long period during which deposition
stopped, erosion removed previously formed rocks, and then deposition
resumed
• Three types of unconformities: Disconformity, Angular Uncorformity and
Non-conformity
 Three Types of Unconformities
Disconformity Angular Unconformity Non-conformity
Originates from horizontal It originates from horizontally It originates between
sedimentary rock layers that is parallel strata of sedimentary sedimentary rocks,
lifted and the top layer eroded. rock that are deposited on metamorphic or igneous rock
New sediments are deposited tilted and eroded layers. when sedimentary rock lies
when they are submerged It produced an angular above and was deposited on the
beneath a freshwater or discordance with underlying pre-existing and eroded
saltwater horizontal layers. metamorphic or igneous rock.
EXAMPLES:
• Arrange the rock layers from OLDEST to YOUNGEST
EXAMPLES:
• Arrange the rock layers from OLDEST to YOUNGEST

C, E, D, A B
EXAMPLES:
• Arrange the rock layers from OLDEST to YOUNGEST

E, B, C, D, A
EXAMPLES:
• Arrange the rock layers from OLDEST to YOUNGEST

A,C, B
Absolute Dating
• Determining how old something is
• Using numbers (in millions of years, mya)
• Determines the specific age of a fossil
• Looks at chemical properties
• Numerical Dating

Scientists found a natural process that occurs at

constant rate and accumulates its record of radioactive
decay of elements in rocks.
Absolute Dating
• Radioactive elements
- decay because they are composed of unstable isotopes that
decompose spontaneously.
• Radioactive Decay
- spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in the release
of energy and matter from the nucleus
- when an unstable radioactive element changes into a stable element
- proceeds at a constant, regardless of changes in conditions such as
temperature, pressure, or the chemical environment
• Half life
- time required for 1/2 of a
parent material to break down
to daughter material
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
 GEOLOGIC,
HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL,
COASTAL EROSION HAZARD
• Geologic Hazards: Geologic hazards are natural events caused by the
dynamic processes of the Earth's interior and surface.
• Ex. Earthquake, Landslide , Volcanic Eruption
• Hydrometeorological Hazards: Hydrometeorological hazards are
events related to weather and climate that can have severe impacts on
the environment and human activities. These include hurricanes,
floods, droughts, and extreme temperature events.
• Coastal Processes: Coastal processes involve the interactions between
the sea and the land, which can lead to coastal erosion, submersion,
and saltwater intrusion