Lecture 1: Introduction,

geological structures,
primary structures

Kinematic analysis of deformation

B. Natalin
Structural geology and tectonics
• Structural geology is the study of
deformation of rocks
- we study such features as folds, faults,
their geometry, movements, origins;
- largely descriptive;
- distinction in terms of individual
structures
- micro-, meso- (mega-), and macro scale
Structural geology and tectonics
• Tectonics is the study of evolution and
development structures at regional scale
• Tectonics is:
- largely genetic
- historical
- integrative
- macro- and global scale
Structural geology and structural geologist
A structural geologist:
• Describes and depicts geologic structures
• Delineates rock bodies and units and their relationships
• Elucidates deformation history.
Thus a structural geologist is:
• a geological historian, especially as concerns the
development of geologic structures
• careful observer
• a configurational scientist in open ended research
(always new, better, more highly refined ways for
improved depiction and interpretation)
Structural geology brings together:
• Stratigraphy
• Paleontology
• Petrology
• Geophysics
• Geochronology
 Barriers to understanding
• Vastness of the Earth
volume
• Vastness of geological time
• Complexity of natural
system
• Record is not complete
 Structures
• A geologic structure is a geometric feature
in rock whose shape, form, and
distribution can be described
• Depending on the purpose of study
geologists classify structures using
different criteria
 Structures: Classification based
on geometry
• Planar (or subplanar) surface
• Curviplanar surface
• Linear feature

Classes of structures: Bedding, joint, vein,

fault, fold, shear zone, foliation, and
lineation.
Planar structures

Joints and bedding

Curviplanar surface of bedding
Classification based on geologic significance
• Primary: formed as a consequence of the formation
process of the rock itself
• Local gravity-driven: formed due to slip down an inclined
surface; slumping at any scale driven by local excess
gravitational potential
• Local density-inversion driven: formed due to local lateral
variations in rock density, causing a local buoyancy force
• Fluid-pressure driven: formed by injection of
unconsolidated material due to sudden release of
pressure
• Tectonic: formed due to a) plate interactions; b)
interaction between the asthenosphere and the
lithosphere; c) crustal-scale or lithosphere-scale
gravitational potential energy; d) the tendency of crust to
achieve isostatic compensation.
 Classification based on timing of
formation
• Syn-formational: formed at the same time
as the material that will ultimately form the
rock
• Penecontemporaneous: formed before full
lithification, but after initial deposition
• Post-formational: formed after the rock has
fully formed, as a consequence of
phenomena not related to the immediate
environment of rock formation
 Classification based on the
deformation mechanism
• Fracturing: related to development or
coalescence of cracks in rock
• Frictional sliding: related to the slip of one body
of rock past another, or of grains past one
another, both of which are resisted by friction
• Plasticity: resulting from deformation by the
internal flow of crystals without loss of cohesion,
or by non-frictional sliding of crystals past one
another
• Diffusion: resulting from material transport either
solid-state or assisted by a fluid (dissolution)
 Classification based on the
mesoscopic cohesiveness during
deformation
• Brittle: formed by loss of cohesion
across a mesoscopic discrete surface
• Ductile: formed without loss of
cohesion across a mesoscopic
discrete surface
• Brittle/ductile: involving both brittle
and ductile aspects
Classification based on the strain
significance

• Contractional: resulting in shortening of a

region
• Extensional: resulting in extension of a
region
• Strike-slip: resulting from movement
without either shortening or extension
 Classification based on the
distribution in a volume of rock
• Continuous: occurs through the rock body at
all scales
• Penetrative: occurs throughout the rock body,
at the scale of observation; up close, there
may be spaces between the structures
• Localized: continuous or penetrative structure
occurs only within a definable region
• Discrete: structure occurs as an isolated
feature
Primary and Nontectonic Structures
• Structures that form during or shortly after
the deposition of rocks, and are not an
immediate consequence of deformation
• Nontectonic structures
• Depositional, penecontemporaneous,
intrusive, and gravity-slide structures for
both sedimentary and igneous rocks
 Sedimentary structures
• Bedding = layering = stratification
• Bedding – Primary layering in a sedimentary
rock, formed during deposition, manifested by
changes in texture, color, and/or composition;
may be emphasized in outcrop by the presence
of parting
• Overturned beds – Beds that have been
rotated past vertical in an Earth–surface frame
of reference; as a consequence, facing is down
• Parting – The tendency of sedimentary layers
to split or fracture along planes parallel to
bedding; parting may be due to weak bonds
between beds of different composition, or may
be due to a preference for bedparallel
orientation of clay
Stratigraphic facing (= Younging
direction) – The direction to younger strata, or, in
other words, the direction to the depositional top of
beds
 The use of bedding in structural analysis

• The Law of Original Horizontality

• Bedding provides a reference frame
• Bedding is labeled S0 (pronounced ess-
zero), where the S is an abbreviation for
planar structures (surface)
• Bedding provides information on
depositional environment, younging
direction, current direction
• Homoclinal
 Graded beds and younging
direction
• During settling, the
largest grains fall first,
and the finest grains
last
• Bouma sequence in
turbidites
• Flysch
Cross beds and younging direction
• Sedimentation on a lee side
• Topset, forset, and bottomset beds
• Erosion of topset beds
• Clear stratigraphic facing and current indicator
Cross beds in fluvial deposits of the
Manzurka Formation, Baikal Lake

Erosion of topset
Convolute folds
 Disrupted Bedding
•Load casts
•Sand volcanoes
•Clastic dikes

Studies of disrupted bedding, sedimentary

dikes, and sand volcanoes provide an
important basis for determining the
recurrence interval of large earthquakes
Extend downward
from a sand layer into Load casts
an underlying mud or
very fine sand layer
Load casts
Clastic dikes
Clastic dikes
Clastic dikes
Conformable and unconformable contacts
Disconformity beds above and
below the unconformity are parallel to
one another, but there is an age
difference between the two sequences

Angular unconformity
strata below the unconformity have
a different attitude than strata
above the unconformity.

Nonconformity strata were

deposited on a basement of older
crystalline rocks.

Buttress unconformity
beds of the younger sequence were
deposited in a region of significant
predepositional topography
Angular unconformity

Base of white rocks

Nonconformity
How to identify unconformities?
 Compaction and Diagenetic
Structures
• Compaction results in a decrease in
porosity (>50% in shale and >20% in
sand) that results in an increase in the
density of the sediment
• Compaction of mud leads to development
of a preferred orientation of clay - shale
• Deeper compaction can cause pressure
solution
 Penecontemporaneous Structures
• Deposition on a preexisting slope or tilting
prior to full lithification in a tectonically
active region can pull the layers down the
slope
• Fluid pressure in the layers keeps the
layers apart
• Debris flows
• The deformed interval is intraformational,
meaning that it is bounded both above and
below by relatively undeformed strata
Gizem slump, Karaburun
Debris-flow deposits
 Salt structures
• Salt is a sedimentary rock that forms by
the precipitation of evaporate minerals
(typically halite [NaCl] and gypsum or
anhydrite calcium sulfates) from saline
water
• Rifts and passive continental margins
• Salt is much weaker than sedimentary
rocks it may deform solely in response to
gravity – halokinesis
 Maximum Freeboard
• Pressures equal under
F sediment and under salt
• rsedgZ = rsaltg(Z+F)
• F = Dr Z / rsalt
rsed Z • E.g. Dr = 200 kg /m3,
Z = 2 km, rsalt = 2000 kg/m3
gives F = 200 m
rsalt

Ian Davison
Diapiric freeboard and buoyancy-Al Salif Yemen

Davison et al. 1996

Salt glaciers, Iran
 Igneous structures
• Extrusive rocks are formed either from
lava that flowed over the surface of the
Earth and cooled under air or water, or
from ash that exploded out of a volcanic
vent
• Intrusive rocks cooled beneath the
surface of the Earth
•Magma is less dense than the surrounding
rock, and buoyancy forces cause it to rise
•At the level of neutral buoyancy, the
magma may form a sheet intrusion, or may
pool in a large magma chamber that
solidifies into a blob-like intrusion called a
pluton

Batholith Dike (Dyke)

Pluton Dike swarms
Stock Sill
Laccolith
Ring dikes
Radial dikes
 Plutons
• Temperature gradient – 20 - 40°/km
• Shallow level plutons – sharp contacts
• Deep level plutons – gradual contacts
• Migmatites
Pillow lavas
Columnar jointing
Tuffs
Kent Condie in Taiwan