Mobile Computing December 29 2022

A Survey: Generation of Mobile Communication System

1. The Second Generation (2G) GSM provides recommendations, not

requirements. The GSM specifications

Global system for mobile
define the functions and interface
communication (GSM) is a globally
requirements in detail but do not address
accepted standard for digital cellular
the hardware. The reason for this is to
communication. GSM is the name of a
limit the designers as little as possible but
standardization group established in
still to make it possible for the operators
1982 to create a common European
to buy equipment from different suppliers.
mobile telephone standard that would

formulate specifications for a pan- The GSM network is divided into three
European mobile cellular radio system major systems: The Network ans switching
operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated subsystem system (NSS), the base station
that many countries outside of Europe system (BSS), and the operation and
will join the GSM partnership. support system (OSS).

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

➢ Radio Subsystem (RSS): comprises all radio specific entities, i.e., the mobile stations
(MS) and the base station subsystem (BSS). A connection between the RSS and the

NSS via the A interface (solid lines) and the configuration data, and control of radio
connection to the OSS via the O interface. frequency (RF) power levels in BTS. A
number of BSC’s are served by and MSC.
● Base station subsystem (BSS): A GSM
network comprises many BSSs, each ● Base transceiver station (BTS): The BTS
controlled by a base station controller handles the radio interface to the mobile
(BSC). The BSS performs all functions station. A BTS can form a radio cell or,
necessary to maintain radio connections using sectorized antennas, several others
to an MS, coding/decoding of voice, and and is connected to MS via the Um
rate adaptation to/from the wireless interface, and to the BSC via the Abis
network part. Besides a BSC, the BSS interface. The Um interface contains all the
contains several BTSs. mechanisms necessary for wireless
transmission (TDMA, FDMA etc.)The BTS is
● Base station controllers (BSC):The BSC
the radio equipment (transceivers and
provides all the control functions and
antennas) needed to service each cell in
physical links between the MSC and BTS. It
the network. A group of BTS’s are controlled
is a high capacity switch that provides
by an BSC.
functions such as handover, cell

➢ Network Switching Subsystem: The NSS is responsible for performing call processing

and subscriber related functions. The switching system includes the following functional

units: One of the heart component is of this sub-system is Mobile Switching center.

Which performs the telephony switching functions of the system. It controls calls to and

from other telephone and data systems.

● Home location register (HLR): It is a management of subscriptions. HLR

database used for storage and stores permanent data about

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

subscribers, including a subscribers data about the mobile station from the

service profile, location information and HLR.

activity status. When an individual buys

● Authentication center (AUC): A unit
a subscription from the PCS provider,
called the AUC provides authentication
he or she is registered in the HLR of that
and encryption parameters that verify
operator.
the users identity and ensure the

● Visitor location register (VLR): It is a confidentiality of each call.

database that contains temporary

● Equipment identity register (EIR): It is
information about subscribers that is
a database that contains information
needed by the MSC in order to service
about the identity of mobile equipment
visiting subscribers. VLR is always
that prevents calls from stolen,
integrated with the MSC. When a MS
unauthorized or defective mobile
roams into a new MSC area, the VLR
stations.
connected to that MSC will request

➢ Operation and Support system: The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is

connected to all equipment in the switching system and to the BSC. Implementation of

OMCis called operation and support system (OSS). The OSS is the functional entity from

which the network operator monitors and controls the system. The purpose of OSS is to

offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized, regional and local operational

and maintenance activities that are required for a GSM network. OSS provides a network

overview and allows engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot every aspect of the

GSM network.

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

The mobile station (MS) consists of the The mobile equipment is uniquely

mobile equipment and a smart card identified by the International Mobile

called the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Equipment Identity (IMEI). The SIM card

The SIM provides personal mobility, so that contains the International Mobile

the user can have access to subscribed Subscriber Identity (IMSI) used to identify

services irrespective of a specific terminal. the subscriber to the system, a secret key

By inserting the SIM card into another GSM for authentication, and other information.

terminal, the user is able to receive calls at The IMEI and the IMSI are independent,

that terminal, make calls from that thereby allowing personal mobility. The SIM

terminal, and receive other subscribed card may be protected against

services. unauthorized use by a password or

personal identity number.

GSM Protocols

The signalling protocol in GSM is structured into three general layers depending on the
interface.

The first Layer is the physical layer that The physical layer at U m uses GMSK for

handles all radio-specific functions. This digital modulation and performs

includes the creation of bursts according encryption/decryption of data, i.e.,

to the five different formats, multiplexing of encryption is not performed end-to-end,

bursts into a TDMA frame, synchronization but only between MS and BSS over the air

with the BTS, detection of idle channels, interface.Protocol architecture for

and measurement of the channel quality Signaling

on the downlink.

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

The main tasks of the physical layer remainder is situated in the BSC. The
comprise channel coding and error
functions of RR’ are supported by the BSC
detection/correction, which is directly
via the BTS management (BTSM). The main
combined with the coding mechanisms.
Channel coding makes extensive use of tasks of RR are setup, maintenance, and
different forward error correction (FEC) release of radio channels. Mobility
schemes.
management (MM) contains functions for
Signaling between entities in a GSM registration, authentication, identification,
network requires higher layers. For this location updating, and the provision of a
purpose, the LAPDm protocol has been temporary mobile subscriber identity
defined at the Um interface for layer two. (TMSI).
LAPDm has been derived from link access
Finally, the call management (CM) layer
procedure for the D-channel (LAPD) in ISDN
contains three entities: call control (CC),
systems, which is a version of HDLC. LAPD m
short message service (SMS), and
is a lightweight LAPD because it does not
supplementary service (SS). SMS allows for
need synchronizationflags or
message transfer using the control
checksumming for error detection. LAPD m
channels SDCCH and SACCH, while SS
offers reliable data transfer over
offers the services like user identification,
connections, re- sequencing of data
call redirection, or forwarding of ongoing
frames, and flow control.
calls. CC provides a point-to-point
The network layer in GSM, layer three, connection between two terminals and is
comprises several sub-layers. The lowes used by higher layers for call
sub-layer is the radio resource establishment, call clearing and change of
management (RR). Only a part of this layer, call parameters. This layer also provides
RR’, is implemented in the BTS, the functions to send in-band tones, called

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF), over machines or the entry of PINs in electronic

the GSM network. These tones are used, banking and are, also used for dialing in

e.g., for the remote control of answering traditional analog telephone systems.

There are two basic types of services offered through GSM:

1. Telephony (also referred to as teleservices)

Telephony services are mainly voice services that provide subscribers with the

complete capability (including necessary terminal equipment) to communicate with

other subscribers. Data services provide the capacity necessary to transmit appropriate

data signals between two access points creating an interface to the network. In addition

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

to normal telephony and emergency calling, the following subscriber services are

supported by GSM:

• Dual-tone multifrequency (DTMF)— • Cell broadcast—A variation of the short

DTMF is a tone signaling scheme often message service is the cell broadcast

used for various control purposes via the facility. A message of a maximum of 93

telephone network, such as remote control characters can be broadcast to all mobile

of an answering machine. GSM supports subscribers in a certain geographic area.

full-originating DTMF. Typical applications include traffic

congestion warnings and reports on

• Short message services—A convenient
accidents.
facility of the GSM network is the short
• Voice mail—This service is actually an
message service. A message consisting of
answering machine within the network,
a maximum of 160 alphanumeric
which is controlled by the subscriber. Calls
characters can be sent to or from a mobile
can be forwarded to the subscriber's
station. This service can be viewed as an
voice-mail box and the subscriber checks
advanced form of alphanumeric paging
for messages via a personal security code.
with a number of advantages. If the
• Fax mail—With this service, the
subscriber's mobile unit is powered off or
subscriber can receive fax messages at
has left the coverage area, the message is
any fax machine. The messages are stored
stored and offered back to the subscriber
in a service center from which they can be
when the mobile is powered on or has
retrieved by the subscriber via a personal
reentered the coverage area of the
security code to the desired fax number.
network. This function ensures that the

message will be received.

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

2. Data Services / bearer services

GSM mainly focuses on voice-oriented tele services. These comprise encrypted voice

transmission, message services, and basic data communication with terminals as known

from the PSTN or ISDN. The primary goal of GSM was the provision of high-quality digital

voice transmission. Special codecs (coder/decoder) are usedfor voice transmission, while

other codecs are used for the transmission of analog data for communication with

traditional computer modems used in, e.g., fax machines. Another service offered by GSM

is the emergency number (eg 911, 999, 994 ). This service is mandatory for all providers

and free of charge. This connection also has the highest priority, possibly pre-empting

other connections, and will automatically be set up with the closest emergency center. A

useful service for very simple message transfer is the short message service (SMS), which

offers transmission of messages of up to 160 characters. Sending and receiving of SMS is

possible during data or voice transmission. It can be used for “serious” applications such

as displaying road conditions, e-mail headers or stock quotes, but it can also transfer

logos, ring tones, horoscopes and love letter

3. Supplementary Services

GSM supports a comprehensive set of supplementary services that can complement

and support both telephony and data services. Supplementary services are defined by

GSM and are characterized as revenue-generating features. A partial listing of

supplementary services follows.

incoming calls to another number if the

Call forwarding: → This service gives the
called mobile unit is not reachable, if it
subscriber the ability to forward

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

is busy, if there is no reply, or if call Call waiting→ This service enables the

forwarding is allowed unconditionally. mobile subscriber to be notified of an

Barring of outgoing call → This service incoming call during a conversation. The

makes it possible for a mobile subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore

subscriber to prevent all outgoing calls. the incoming call. Call waiting is

Barring of incoming call→ This function applicable to all GSM telecommunications

allows the subscriber to prevent incoming services using a circuit-switched

calls. The following two conditions for connection.

incoming call barring exist: baring of all Multiparty service → The multiparty

incoming calls and barring of incoming service enables a mobile subscriber to

calls when roaming outside the home Net. establish a multiparty conversation—

Advice of charge (AoC)—The AoC service that is, a simultaneous conversation

provides the mobile subscriber with an between three and six subscribers.

estimate of the call charges. There are two This service is only applicable to

types of AoC information: one that normal telephony.

provides the subscriber with an estimate Calling line identification

of the bill and one that can be used for presentation/restriction → These

immediate charging purposes. AoC for services supply the called party with

data calls is provided on the basis of time the integrated services digital network

measurements. (ISDN) number of the calling party. The

Call hold → This service enables the restriction service enables the calling

subscriber to interrupt an ongoing call party to restrict the presentation. The

and then subsequently reestablish the restriction overrides the presentation.

call. The call hold service is only Closed user groups (CUGs)—CUGs are

applicable to normal telephony. generally comparable to a PBX. They

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

are a group of subscribers who are capable of only calling themselves and

certain numbers.

2. The Second and half Generation (2.5G)

2.5 G wireless cellular networks have been developed as a transition path to 3G. The

notable are GPRS and EDGE. These systems build packet-switching systems on top of

existing 2G systems to improve data rates significantly.

• GPRS (General Packet Radio Service): GSM networks offer circuit-switched data

services at 9.6 Kbps. Most GSM carriers are developing a service called General Packet

Radio Service (GPRS), a 2.5G technology. GPRS can theoretically provide IP-based packet

data speeds up to a maximum of 28 Kbps and higher. However, typical GPRS networks

operate at lower data rates. One proposed configuration is 80 Kbps maximum (56 Kbps

typical) for the downlink and 20 Kbps maximum (14.4 Kbps typical) for the uplink. GPRS

supports both IP and X.25 networking. GPRS can be added to GSM infrastructures quite

readily. It takes advantage of existing 200 kHz radio channels and does not require new

radio spectrum. GPRS basically overlays a packet switching network on the existing circuit

switched GSM network. This gives the user an option to use a packet-based data service.

An architectural view of GPRS Network Is Depicted as follows.

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

The two main component or addition of GPRS is Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) and

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) connected to the use of the external data

networks and can act as a packet filter for

The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an
incoming traffic.
interface and a router to external networks.

It contains routing information for GPRS Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets The Serving GPRS Support Node is
responsible for authentication of GPRS
through the IP based internal backbone to
mobiles, registration of mobiles in the
the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The network, mobility management, and
GGSN also collects charging information collecting information on charging for the
use of the air interface.

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

3. The Second and half Generations (2.75G)

The phase after GPRS is called Enhanced depends upon the number of time slots, if

Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE). any, that are reserved for exclusive use of

GPRS. In addition, GPRS actual data rates

EDGE, generally considered a 3G
are much lower than advertised.
technology, introduces new methods at the
Specifically, achieving the theoretical
physical layer, including a new form of
maximum GPRS data transmission speed of
modulation (8 PSK) and different ways of
172.2 Kbps would require a single user
encoding data to protect against errors. But
taking over all eight time slots without any
the higher layer protocols stay the same.
error protection. Finally, GPRS is based on a
Thus EDGE can deliver maximum data rates
modulation technique known as Gaussian
up to 500Kbps using the same GPRS
minimum-shift keying (GMSK). EDGE is
infrastructure (practical throughput may be
based on the eight-phase-shift keying (8
only half the maximum rate).
PSK) modulation that allows a much higher
EDGE has been designed to address some
bit rate across the air interface. Since 8 PSK
of the limitations of GPRS. GPRS impacts a
is also used in 3G, network operators need
network’s existing cell capacity because
to incorporate it at some stage to make the
voice and GPRS calls both use the same
transition to third generation mobile phone
network resources. The extent of the impact
systems.

4. 3G - Third Generation

This generation set the standards for most of Smartphone technology were introduced in

the wireless technology we have come to the third generation. Introduced

know and love. Web browsing, email, video commercially in 2001, the goals set out for

downloading, picture sharing and other third generation mobile communication were

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

to facilitate greater voice and data capacity, improving how audio is compressed during a

support a wider range of applications, and call, so more simultaneous calls can happen

increase data transmission at a lower cost . in the same frequency range. The UN's

International Telecommunications Union IMT-

The 3G standard utilities a new technology
2000 standard requires stationary speeds of
called UMTS as its core network architecture -
2Mbps and mobile speeds of 384kbps for a
Universal Mobile Telecommunications
"true" 3G. The theoretical max speed for
System. This network combines aspects of the
HSPA+ is 21.6 Mbps
2G network with some new technology and

protocols to deliver a significantly faster data 3G networks are wide area cellular

rate. Based on a set of standards used for telephone networks which evolved to
mobile devices and mobile incorporate high-speed internet access
telecommunications use services and and video telephony. IMT-2000 defines a
networks that comply with the International set of technical requirements for the
Mobile Telecommunications-2000 ( IMT-
realization of such targets, which can be
2000 ) specifications by the International
summarized as follows:
Telecommunication Union. One of
 high data rates: 144 kbps in all
requirements set by IMT-2000 was that speed
environments and 2 Mbps in low-
should be at least 200Kbps to call it as 3G
mobility and indoor environments.
service.

3G has Multimedia services support along  symmetrical and asymmetrical data

with streaming are more popular. In 3G, transmission.

Universal access and portability across  Circuit-switched and packet-

different device types are made possible
switched-based services
(Telephones, PDA's, etc.). 3G increased the
 Speech quality comparable to wire-
efficiency of frequency spectrum by
line quality

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

 improved spectral efficiency  global roaming

 several simultaneous services to end  Open architecture for the rapid

users for multimedia services introduction of new services and

technology.
 seamless incorporation of second-

generation cellular systems

3G Standards and Access Technologies

There are several different radio access technologies defined within ITU, based on either

CDMA or TDMA technology. An organization called 3rd Generation Partnership Project

(3GPP) has continued that work by defining a mobile system that fulfills the IMT-2000

standard. This system is called Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). After

trying to establish a single 3G standard, ITU finally approved a family of five 3G standards,

which are part of the 3G framework known as IMT-2000:

 W-CDMA

 CDMA2000

 TD-SCDMA

Europe, Japan, and Asia have agreed upon a 3G standard called the Universal Mobile

Telecommunications System (UMTS), which is WCDMA operating at 2.1GHz. UMTS and

WCDMA are often used as synonyms. In the USA and other parts of America, WCDMA will

have to use another part of the radio spectrum

4. Evolution of 4G

The development of 4G Networks scenario is imperative indicator of

and related technologies in today’s advancement in the field of wireless

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

communication and technology. 4G will appropriate combination of resources; it is

utilize most of the existing wireless possible for 4G Networks to create
communication infrastructure. The 4G alternatives that exceed consumer and
Mobile communications will be based on industry expectations. Therefore, 4G
the Open Wireless Architecture (OWA) to developers must consider the appropriate
ensure the single terminal can seamlessly security measures; the promotion of high-
and automatically connect to the local speed data transmission across the
high speed wireless access systems when network, this 4G is intended to replace the
the users are in the offices, homes, airports current 3G systems within few years. The
or shopping centers where the wireless ambitious goal of 4G is to allow everyone
access networks (i.e. Wireless LAN, to access the Internet anytime and
Broadband Wireless Access, Wireless Local everywhere. The provided connection to
Loop, Home RF, Wireless ATM, etc) are Internet will allow users to access all type
available. When the users move to the of services including text, databases, and
mobile zone (i.e. Highway, Beach, Remote multimedia. 4G, unlike 3G, is IP based, that
area, etc.), the same terminal can is every user connected to the Internet will
automatically switch to the wireless have an IP address. This feature makes it
mobile networks (i.e. GPRS, W-CDMA, easier to integrate the infrastructure of all
cdma2000,TD-SCDMA, current networks and consequently it will
be easier for users to access services and
etc.). Based on this OWA model, 4G mobile
applications regardless of the
will deliver the best business cases to the
environment. 4G will also provide higher
wireless and mobile industries, i.e.
bandwidth, data rate, lower authentication
cdma2000/WLAN/ GPRS 3-in- 1 product,
overhead, and will ensure that the service
WCDMA/OFDM/ WLAN 3-in-1 product, etc.
is constantly provided to the user without
The converged wireless communications
any disruption. Another key feature of 4G
can provide the following advantages:
networks is high level of user friendly
1. Greatly increase the spectrum efficiency customization. That is, each user can
2. Mostly ensure the highest data-rate to the choose the preferred level of quality of
wireless terminal service, radio environment; etc. Accessing
3. Best share the network resources and 4G networks will be possible virtually by
channel utilization using any wireless device such as PDAs,
4. Optimally manage the service quality and cell phones, and laptops. In various forms
multimedia applications with the

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

and at various levels connection with the network applications can be

accomplished efficiently and correctly

High usability and global roaming: The end user terminals should be compatible with any

technology, at anytime, anywhere in the world. The basic idea is that the user should be

able to take his mobile to any place, for example, from a place that uses CDMA to

another place that employs GSM. Multimedia support: The user should be able to receive

high data rate multimedia services. This demands higher bandwidth and higher data

rate. Personalization: This means that any type of person should be able to access the

service. The service providers should be able to provide customized services to different

type of users.

4G Issues and Advantages:

 Access

 Handoff

 Location co-ordination

 Resource co-ordination to add new user

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

 Support for quality of Service.

 Wireless Securities & Authentication.

 Network failure & backup.

 Pricing and billing.

Advantages

 Support for interactive multimedia voice, streaming video, internet & other

broadband services.

 IP based mobile system.

 High speed, high capacity & low cost per bit.

 Gobal access, service portability & scalable mobile services.

 Better scheduling and call admission control technique.

 Ad-hoc & multi-hop network.

 Better spectral efficiency.

 Seamless network of multiple protocols & air interfaces.

Refer more on LTE and LTE advanced 4G standard ……

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

MOBILE CLOUDING COMPUTING

Mobile devices such as smartphones and swift development of mobile computing

tables PCs are becoming an integral part (MC) has become a forceful pattern in IT
of today ’s lifestyle, as they are convenient technology’s development and in
and effective communication modes. There commerce and related fields. Nevertheless,
are many mobile applications that enrich the devices used to contain several
the lives of the mobile users with m any challenges in terms of resources such as
services, which can be found and storage, bandwidth, and battery life, and
downloaded from Google, and those made communication in terms of security and
for the iPhone; these e applications can mobility. These problems potentially
run on man y types of devices through a impede the development of the quality of
wireless ss network and remote servers. The this service.

Cloud Computing (CC) is becoming popular tool for the computing architecture. CC

provides several benefits for users of this service such as the infrastructure (networks,

servers and storage) , platforms (operating systems and middleware) and software such

as the many applications offered by the providers of cloud computing such as Google,

Salesforce and Amazon. Moreover, CC allows the users to peruse the resources when it is

needed

Mobile cloud computing (MCC) is the latest trend of cloud computing and is growing

rapidly as a well utilized technology. The main aim is to use the techniques of cloud

computing for the processing of data and storage in mobile devices. MCC has many

benefits for both the mobile device users and enterprises.

The name of Mobile cloud computing was derived from the cloud computing

concept. It has attracted the focus of business people as a viable business model

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

that lowers the cost of running or developing mobile application, the use of mobile

devices as a form of technology that offers many mobile services at very low-cost

Definition

MCC infers that its a mixture of Cloud Computing and mobile web, which is common

tool used by most mobile users when wanting to use Internet services and

applications. In short, MCC offers cloud services such as storage services and data

processing to mobile users. The mobile device used for this purpose does not have to

be of high capacity in terms of memory and CPU speed since all the difficult modules

of computing are taken care of in the cloud.

This section reviews the conceptual model that is used to examine the mobile cloud

computing technology, and offers a few models of architecture for managing the

Mobile Cloud Computing systems.

Jason H Christensen [31] proposed three types of the archetype for building the

architecture for mobile applications of next generation's standards, which include the

integration of smart mobile devices, context enabling and REST-based cloud

computing. These three parts of the model are aligned to the transmission model in

the mobile cloud which is the “Client-Connection-Cloud”.

The cloud and client are shown to the right and the left. In between the cloud and the

client side is the component called the “Transmission Channel". On this component

are found the “Context Management” and the “Resource Scheduling” parts, which are

on the cloud and client sides. This model has a prerequisite namely that the client is

context-aware and that the Cloud side must provide a flexible, service on demand

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

for the client. The three middle portions in the model will be explained in a top-down

approach. The following picture shows the abstract conceptual model of MCC

Transmission channel: The channel consists of different wireless communication protocols

which mobile client can connect to the cloud by using these protocols.

Resource scheduling: This component handles computer and storage resource by using

virtual machines. The VM placement decisions are made by a separated scheduler

component. It depends on data that is run o n real time using VMs and the physical

resources that are available.

Context Management: This module tracks context parameters and modify them

according to context conditions. To have this kind of capability, some new applications

such as explicit spatial contexts, spatial augmented reality (SAR), and Location Based

Services (LBS) are highly used.

Architecture of Mobile Cloud Computing

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Mobile Computing December 29 2022

This figure shows how the mobile devices are linked to the mobile networks through the

use of the base stations, such as the base transceiver station, access point, or satellite. The

information and requests (location and ID) made by the mobile users are channeled to

the central processors which are linked to servers that provide the network services. From

this place, the mobile network operators are able to offer services to users such as

authorization, authentication, and accounting according to the home agent and data of

the subscribers that is kept in the databases. Subsequently, the requests made by the

subscribers are given to the cloud using the Internet service.

Cloud controllers inside the cloud will process the requests made an offer the requested

services. The concepts of virtualization, service-oriented architecture, and utility

computing (database servers, application, and web) are used to develop these services.

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Advantage of Mobile Cloud Computing

 Extending battery lifetime.  On-demand services

 Improving data storage capacity  Cost effectiveness

and processing power
 Universal access
 Improving reliability
 allows to make backup and recovery
 Dynamic provisioning
 centralized monitoring and
 Scalability maintenance of software

 Flexible and portable

****Review the disadvantage / challenge in Mobile cloud computing *****

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