Vector Algebra

1.1 Overview

Vector analysis provides an elegant mathematical language in which electromagnetic theory is

conveniently expressed and best understood. In order to better understand electromagnetic
principles, it is imperative to use this mathematical language fluently. We are going to deal with four
major topics in vector analysis: vector algebra, including vector addition, subtraction and
multiplications; vector representation and vector algebra in orthogonal coordinate systems, including
Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical systems; vector calculus, which encompasses differentiation and
integration of vectors; line, surface and volume integrals; the del (∇) operator; and the gradient,
divergence and curl operations.

1.2 Scalars and Vectors

Quantities that can be described by a magnitude alone are called scalars. Energy, temperature,
weight, and mass are all examples of scalar quantities. Other quantities, called vectors, require both a
magnitude and a direction to fully characterize them. Examples of vector quantities include force,
velocity, and acceleration. Thus, a car traveling at 30 miles per hour (mph) can be described by the
scalar quantity speed. However, a car traveling 30 mph in a northwest direction can be described by
the vector quantity velocity, which has both a magnitude (the 30 mph speed) and a direction
(northwest). In electromagnetics, we frequently use the concept of a field. A field is function that
assigns a particular physical quantity to every point in a region. In general, a field varies with both
position and time. There are scalar fields and vector fields. Temperature distribution on a printed
circuit board and carbon dioxide distribution in and gravitational force distribution in Rocky
Mountains are examples of vector fields. In this course note, boldface type will be used to denote a
vector, for example, A; while scalars are printed in italic type, for example, A. Since it is difficult to
write bold face letters by hand, it is popular to use an arrow or a bar over a letter (𝐴̅ or 𝐴⃗) or use a
bar below a letter (𝐴) to describe a handwritten vector, and a scalar is written without adding any
arrows or bars.

1.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction

If the magnitude of a vector A is written as |A| or A, the direction of the vector can be specified by
the dimensionless unit vector 𝒂
̂ (aA) defined by
𝐀 𝐀
̂ = |𝐴| =
𝒂 (1.1)
𝐴

Since the unit vector has unity magnitude

|𝒂
̂|=1 (1.2)

and points in the same direction as A, we can specify A in terms of its magnitude A and direction 𝒂
̂
as
 A = |A| 𝒂
̂ (1.3)

Figure 1.1 shows the vector A represented by a straight line of length A with an arrow pointing in
the direction 𝒂 ̂ . If two vectors have the same magnitude and direction, we define them to be equal
vectors, even though they may be displaced in space. Vector addition follows the parallelogram rule as
shown in Figure 1.2 (a), where the sum of two vectors A and B gives another vector C which lies
along the diagonal of the parallelogram. The parallelogram rule is equivalent to the tip-to-tail rule as
shown in Figure 1.2 (b), where the tail of vector B connects to the tip of vector A and the sum
vector C connects the tail of A to the head of B.

FIG. 1.1:Graphical representation of a vector A with magnitude |A| and unit vector aA.

FIGURE 1.2: Vector addition using (a) parallelogram rule and (b) tip-to-tail rule.

It’s easy to show that vector addition obeys the commutative, associative and distributive laws
summarized as follows:

Commutative Law: A+B = B+A (1.4)

Associative Law: A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C (1.5)

Distributive law: k(A+B) = kA + kB (1.6)

In (1.6), the multiplication of a vector by a scalar can be defined as

kA = kA 𝒂
̂ (1.7)

If k is a positive scalar, the magnitude of A will be changed by k times without changing the
direction. Vector subtraction can be defined through vector addition as

A – B = A + (–B) (1.8)

where (–B) is the negative vector of B which has the same magnitude as B but is pointing in the
opposite direction of B.

If we are not considering vector fields, we can add or subtract vectors at different positions in space.
The ability to employ vector notation allows us the convenience of visualizing problems with or
without the specification of a coordinate system. After choosing the coordinate system that most
concisely describes the distribution of the field, we then specify the field with the components
determined with regard to that coordinate system (i.e., Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical). Detailed
exposition of vector operations will be given in Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates with the
equivalent results just stated in the other systems. A vector in Cartesian coordinate system can be
specified by stating its three components. For example, vector A can be expressed as

A = Ax𝒙
̂+ Ay𝒚
̂ + Az𝒛̂ (1.9)

where Ax, Ay, and Az are the magnitudes of the x, y, and z components of the vector A, respectively;
and 𝒙
̂, 𝒚
̂ and 𝒛̂ are the unit vectors directed along the x, y, and z axes. The addition of two vectors in
Cartesian coordinates can be written as

A+ B = (Ax + Bx) 𝒙
̂ +( Ay + By) 𝒚
̂ +( Az + Bz) 𝒛̂ (1.10)

Two vectors are equal (A=B) if and only if their corresponding components are equal. That is Ax
=Bx, Ay =By and Az =Bz. It is noted that two vectors are equal does not mean they are necessarily
identical. Two parallel vectors with the same magnitude and pointing in the same direction are equal,
but their tip and tale points may not be the same. If they have the same tip and tale points (meaning
that one vector exactly coincides with another vector), they are identical.

EXAMPLE 1.1

Given the vectors A = 3𝒙

̂ and B = 4𝒚
̂, compute the sum C = A + B. Find the

magnitude of C and the unit vector aC.

.
Solution:

The sum is C = 3𝒙
̂ + 4𝒚
̂.

The magnitude is

C = 32 + 42 = 5

and the unit vector is

𝒄̂ = (3𝒙
̂ + 4𝒚
̂ ) 32 + 42 = 0.6𝒙
̂ + 0.8𝒚
̂.

1.4 Vector Multiplication

The operation of multiplication on vectors can be carried out in two different ways, yielding two
very different results. They are scalar (or dot) product and vector (or cross) product. One definition
of the scalar product of two vectors is

A.B ≡ A B cosθ = ABcosθ (1.11)

This multiplication results in a scalar product that is equal to the product of the magnitude of vector
A times the magnitude of vector B times the cosine of the smaller angle θ of the two angles between
the two vectors. An equivalent definition of the dot product is given by

A.B ≡ Ax Bx + AyBy + Az Bz (1.12)

The first definition could be considered a geometric definition of the dot product while the second
definition could be considered an algebraic definition. With the use of the dot product, we can
determine several useful quantities or properties associated with the combination of these two
vectors. For instance, we can determine if two vectors are perpendicular or parallel to each other
with the use of the dot product. In examining equation 1.11, we note that if A and B are
perpendicular to each other, then the angle between them is 90°, and cos (90°) = 0, which means the
dot product is equal to zero. In similar fashion, we note that if two vectors are parallel, then the
magnitude of the dot product equals the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors. Finally, if we
take the dot product of a vector with itself, we obtain the square of the magnitude of the vector, or

A.A = A2 = A2 (1.13)

Another quantity we can obtain from the dot product is called the scalar projection of one vector
onto another. For instance, if we want to obtain the scalar projection of the vector A onto the
vector B, we can compute this as follows:
𝑨.𝑩
proj 𝑩𝑨 = |𝑩|
(1.14)
Note that this is a scalar quantity, and that we can also define the projection of the vector B onto
the vector A in a similar fashion. To see the geometrical illustration of this, see Figure 1.3. We can
obtain a more familiar form of the scalar projection by rewriting (1.14) using (1.11) to obtain

proj 𝑩𝑨 = |𝑨| cosθ (1.15)

Finally, we can simplify this even further if the vector B is a unit vector. In that case,

the projection is simply the dot product:

̂
proj 𝑩𝑨 = |𝑨| cosθ = A. 𝒃 (1.16)

FIG. 1.3: Illustration of scalar products of two vectors A and B.

One very important physical application of the scalar or dot product is the calculation of work. We
can use the dot product to calculate the amount of work done when impressing a force on an object.
For example, if we are to move an object a distance Δx in the direction, x, we must apply a force, F,
with a component in the same

direction. The total amount of work expended, ΔW, is given by the expression

ΔW = F.(Δx) 𝒙
̂ = |𝑭| Δx cosθ (1.17)

This operation will be very useful later, when we start moving charges around in an electric field and
we want to know how much work is required. We will also use the dot product to help us find the
amount of flux crossing a surface. Other useful things that can be done using the dot product and its
variations include finding the components of a vector if the other vector is a unit vector, or finding
the direction cosines of a vector in three-dimensional space. The scalar product obeys the
commutative and distributive laws summarized as

follows:
Commutative Law: A.B = B.A (1.18)

Distributive law: A.(B +C) = A.B + A.C (1.19)

The vector product, or the cross-product, is defined as

A×B ≡ |𝑨| |𝑩| sinθ 𝒏

̂ = ABsinθ 𝒏
̂ (1.20)

and illustrated in Figure 1.4.

FIG. 1.4: Illustration of cross product of two vectors A and B

This multiplication yields a vector whose direction is determined by the “right hand rule.” This rule
states that if you take the fingers of your right hand (represented by vector A) and curl them in the
direction of vector B to make a fist, the unit vector 𝒏 ̂ will point in the direction of your thumb.
Therefore, we find that the cross product is “anticommutative”:

B × A = −A × B (1.21)

or curling from vector B to A points the thumb in the opposite direction. A convenient way to state
that the two nonzero vectors are parallel (θ = 0°) or antiparallel (θ = 180°) is to use the vector
product. If A × B = 0, then the two vectors are parallel or antiparallel, since sin0° = sin180° = 0. In
Cartesian coordinates, we can easily calculate the vector product by remembering the expansion
routine of the following determinant.

(1.22)

It is possible to give a geometric interpretation for the magnitude of the vector product. The
magnitude |A × B| is the area of the parallelogram whose sides are specified by the vectors A and
B as shown in the Figure 1.5. From geometry, we recall that the area of a parallelogram with sides of
length A and B with interior angle
θ is given by Area = AB sin θ, which is also equal to the area of a rectangle with sides of length A
and B sin θ. By the definition of the cross product (1.22), this area is simply its magnitude: Area =
|A × B|.

FIGURE 1.5: Parallelogram spanned by vectors by A and B

Triple Products

Two triple products encountered in electromagnetic theory are included here. The first is called the
scalar triple product. It is defined, following the cyclical permutation, as

A.(B ×C) = B.(C× A) = C.(A× B) (1.23)

It can also be written as a 3 by 3 determinant:

(1.24)

In the following, it was shown that the volume of a parallelepiped defined by three vectors
originating at a point can be defined in terms of the scalar and vector products of the vectors. As
illustrated in Figure 1.6, the volume of the parallelepiped is given by

Volume = area of the base of the parallelepiped height of the parallelepiped

(1.25)

Note that the height of the parallelepiped is the projection of vector C onto the unit vector (A ×
B)/|A × B| that is perpendicular to the base.
FIGURE 1.6: Parallelepiped spanned by three vectors A, B and C.

The second triple product is called the vector triple product, such as A×(B×C) . It can be shown
that

A × (B ×C) = B(A.C) −C(A.B) (1.26)

This triple product is sometimes called the “bac-cab” rule, since this is an easy way to remember
how the vectors are ordered. The inclusion of the parentheses in this vector triple product is critical
since it does not, in general, obey the associative law, that is

A×(B×C) ≠ (A×B)×C (1.27)

EXAMPLES

1. Given three vectors A=–𝒙

̂+2𝒚
̂+3𝒛̂, B =3𝒙
̂+4𝒚
̂+5𝒛̂ and C=2𝒙
̂ –2𝒚
̂+7𝒛̂, compute

a) the scalar product A • B

b) the angle between A and B

c) the scalar projection of A on B

d) the vector product A × B

e) the area of the parallelogram whose sides are specified by A and B

f) the volume of a parallelepiped defined by vectors A, B and C

 g) the vector triple product A × (B × C) and check equation (1.26)

Solution:

(a) The scalar product A • B is given by A.B = −1×3+ 2× 4 + 3×5 = 20 .

(b) The angle between the two vectors is computed from the definition of the

scalar product.

which is the same as A×(B×C)

1.5 Coordinate Systems

To be able to specify the field at a point in space caused by a source, we have to refer to a
coordinate system. In three dimensions, the coordinate system can be specified by the intersection
of three surfaces. An orthogonal

coordinate system is defined when these three surfaces are mutually orthogonal at every point.
Coordinate surfaces may be planar or curved. A general orthogonal coordinate system is illustrated
in Figure 1.7.

FIG. 1.7: A general orthogonal coordinate system. Three surfaces intersect at a point, and the
unit vectors are mutually orthogonal at that point.

In Cartesian coordinates, all of the three surfaces are planes, and they are specified by each of the
independent variables x, y, and z separately having prescribed values. In cylindrical coordinates, the
surfaces are two planes and a cylinder. In spherical coordinates, the surfaces are a sphere, a plane,
and a cone. We will examine each of

these in detail in the following discussion. There are many other coordinate systems that can be
employed for particular problems, and there are formulas that allow one to easily transform vectors
from one system to another. The three coordinate systems commonly used are pictured in Figure 1.8
as (a), (b), and (c). The directions along the axes of the coordinate systems are given by the sets of
unit vectors (ax, ay, az), (aρ, aφ, az), and (ar, aθ, aφ) for Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates,
respectively. In each of the coordinate systems, the unit vectors are mutually orthogonal at every
point.
FIGURE 1.8: (a) Cartesian coordinates. (b) Cylindrical coordinates. (c) Spherical coordinates.

In each coordinate system, the unit vectors point in the direction of increasing coordinate value. In
Cartesian coordinates, the direction of the unit vectors is independent of position, whereas in
cylindrical and spherical coordinates, unit vector directions at a point in space depend on the
location of that point. For example, in spherical coordinates, the unit vector ar is directed radially
away from the origin at every point in space; it will be directed in the +z direction if θ = 0, and it will
be directed in the −z direction if θ = π. Since we will employ these three coordinate systems
extensively in the following chapters, it is useful to summarize the important properties of each one.
The unit vectors in Cartesian coordinates depicted in Figure 1.8a are normal to the intersection of
three planes. A point in Cartesian coordinates is defined by the intersection of the three planes: x =
constant; y = constant; z = constant. The three unit vectors are normal to each of the three surfaces.
For the unit vectors that are in the directions of the x, y, and z axes, we can easily prove that

(1.28)

The following rules also apply to the cross products of the unit vectors, since this is a

right-handed system:

(1.29)

All other cross products of unit vectors follow from the facts that the cross product is

anti-symmetric (ax × ay = −ay × ax, etc.), and the cross product of any vector with itself

is zero (ax × ax = 0, etc.). In Figure 1.9, the position vector rP (or P) from the origin to a point P(xP, yP,
zP) in Cartesian coordinates is defined as
 (1.30)

and the distance vector that extends from point P to point Q(xQ, yQ, zQ) is

(1.31)

FIGURE 1.9: Illustration of position vector

The coordinates of any point can be transformed from cylindrical coordinates ( r,θ,φ)

to Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) as follows:

(1.32)

The inverse transformation from Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates is

(1.33)

The transformation of the coordinate variables from spherical to Cartesian coordinates is

 (1.34)

The transformation of the coordinate variables from Cartesian to spherical coordinates yields

(1.35)

EXAMPLE 1.3

There are four points A(1,2,3), B(4,5,4), C(3,-3,8) and D(2,3,7) in Cartesian coordinate system. Find

(1) RAB , RAC and RAD

(2) the area of triangle ABC

(3) the volume of tetrahedral ABCD

Solution:

EXAMPLE 1.4

A vector field A in two dimensional space is given as A(x, y) = 4x2ax + 2xyay . Find the unit vectors
of A at (1, –1) and (–2, 3)

Solution