PHYSICS FOR YOU Applied Physics for EEE stream MODULE- 1 1

Questions and Answers for Module – 1 (EEE stream)

Modern Physics and Quantum Mechanics

1. State and explain de-Broglie hypothesis. Obtain the expression for de-Broglie wavelength in
terms of mass and velocity

de-Broglie hypothesis states that every moving material particle is associated with a wave and
this wave is called Matter wave or de-Broglie wave
The wavelength () of matter wave or de-Broglie wave is given by
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
According to Einstein’s mass energy relation
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 − − − (1)
According to Planck’s quantum theory of radiation
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 − − − (2)
From Eq (1) and Eq (2) we get
ℎ𝜈
𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜈 ⇒ 𝑚𝑐 =
𝑐
𝑐
Put 𝑚𝑐 = 𝑝 momentum and = 𝜆 wavelength
𝜈
ℎ
𝑝=
𝜆
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
For a particle of mass m moving with velocity v we can write
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
2. What are matter waves? . Give the expression for wavelength of matter wave in terms of KE of
the particle. Outline their characteristics
Waves associated with particles which are in motion are known as matter waves. Their
wavelength in terms of KE is
ℎ
𝜆=
√2𝑚(𝐾𝐸)
i. Mater waves are produced by moving particles. Hence they are neither electromagnetic
nor acoustic in nature
ii. They can travel in vacuum. Presence or absence of material medium does not affect their
behaviour
iii. Matter wave is associated with a periodic variable called wave function. It represents the
probability of finding the particle at given (x,t)
iv. The amplitude of a matter wave in a particular region represents the maximum
probability of finding the particle
v. Matter waves are associated with two velocities namely phase velocity (vph) and group
velocity (vg).Phase velocity is greater than speed of light. Hence it does not carry physical
significance
 PHYSICS FOR YOU Applied Physics for EEE stream MODULE- 1 2

vi. The particle’s position, momentum and other parameters can be better explained by
matter waves associated with them. Hence matter waves are treated as “guiding waves”.
3. Define the terms phase velocity and group velocity. Discuss the importance of wave group.
Write an explanatory note on principle of complementarity

The velocity with which this wave propagate in an isotropic medium is known as phase velocity.
It is given by
𝜔
𝑣=
𝑘
A wave group is formed when two or more waves of slightly different wavelength superimpose.
The velocity with which this wave group travels is known as group velocity (vg).
d𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
d𝑘
Significance of the Wave group

Wave group of matter waves represents the particle motion. It is a representative of moving
particle. The particle can be located anywhere within the group at a given time. The narrower its
wave group (fig.1) position is more accurate and wider the wave group (Fig.2) the momentum is
more accurate

Fig.1 Fig.2
Principle of complementarity

When importance is given to the particle nature its wave nature is suppressed and vice versa.
The inability to observe the wave nature and the particle nature of the matter simultaneously is
known as the complementarity principle.

4. State and explain Heisenberg Uncertainty principle. Give its physical significance. Show that the
electron emitted during β decay does not pre-exist inside the nucleus using uncertainty principle

Statement:

In the simultaneous measurements of both position and momentum of a particle, there is always
some error. The product of error in the position and momentum is greater than or equal to (h/4).

If x is the error in position and p is that in momentum then

ℎ
Δ𝑥Δ𝑝 ≥
4𝜋
Uncertainty principle is also expressed in terms of energy (E) and time interval (t) as
ℎ
Δ𝐸Δ𝑡 ≥
4𝜋
 PHYSICS FOR YOU Applied Physics for EEE stream MODULE- 1 3

The physical significance of Heisenberg uncertainty principle is that, in subatomic world no

measurements (be it position or momentum) are exact. All the measurements are probabilistic

Non-existence of electron inside the nucleus:

Let us make an assumption that electrons exist inside the atomic nucleus. For an electron to exist
inside the nucleus, uncertainty in its position x must not exceed radius of the nucleus.

𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴1⁄3 = 10 × 10−15 𝑚

i.e x  10x10-15m

w.k.t h h
x . p x  p x 
4 4  . x

Put x = 10x10-15m, we get

6.63𝑥10−34
𝛥𝑝𝑥 ≥ ≥ 0.5𝑥10−20 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
4𝜋 × 10 × 10−15
ie, the momentum of the electron Px must be at least equal to or greater than the order of
uncertainty in momentum.

i.e. 𝑝𝑥 ≥ 0.5𝑥10−20 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1

w.k.t
𝑝𝑥2
𝐸=
2𝑚

𝐸 ≥ 𝑝𝑥2 /2𝑚
𝐸 ≥ 85𝑀𝑒𝑉
It means for an electron to exist inside the atomic nucleus its energy must be greater than or equal
to 85MeV. But, electrons emitted from nucleus in -decay experiment have energies in the range
of 3 – 4 MeV. This discrepancy with respect to energy of electron indicates that electrons do not
exist inside the nucleus.

5. Setup 1-dimensional time independent Schrodinger wave equation.

A progressive wave propagating along x-axis can be represented in the form of 2nd order
differential equation as follows.
𝑑2𝑦 1 𝑑2 𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2
Where y is f(x,t). Similarly a wave equation for a matter wave can be represented as
𝑑2𝜓 1 𝑑2 𝜓
= − − − − − (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2
The solution for this equation is
 PHYSICS FOR YOU Applied Physics for EEE stream MODULE- 1 4

𝜓 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) where the symbols have their usual meanings.

𝑑𝜓
= 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) (−𝑖𝜔)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝜓
= 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) (−𝑖𝜔)2 = −𝜔2 𝜓
𝑑𝑡 2
Hence equation (1) becomes
𝑑2𝜓 1
= (−𝜔2 𝜓)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜔 2
( )
𝑘
𝑑2𝜓 2
−4𝜋 2
= (−𝑘 𝜓) = 𝜓
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜆2
𝑑2𝜓 1
2
= (−4𝜋 2 𝜓) 2 − − − − − − (2)
𝑑𝑥 𝜆
The total energy of a particle is
E = KE + PE  KE = E – PE = (E – V)
But
ℎ ℎ2
𝜆= ⇒ 𝜆2 =
√2𝑚(𝐾𝐸) 2𝑚(𝐾𝐸)

ℎ2
𝜆2 =
2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
1 2𝑚
∴ = (𝐸 − 𝑉) − − − − − −(3)
𝜆2 ℎ2
Substitute (3) in (2)
𝑑2𝜓 2
2𝑚
= (−4𝜋 𝜓) (𝐸 − 𝑉)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎
+ (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒉𝟐
This is 1-d time independent Schrodinger wave equation
6. Discuss (i)characteristics of wave function (ii) Born’s interpretation of wave function and (iii)
normalization of wave function

The characteristics of wave function are

i.  must be continuous and single valued everywhere.

 PHYSICS FOR YOU Applied Physics for EEE stream MODULE- 1 5

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
ii. 𝜕𝑥
and 𝜕𝑡
must be continuous and single valued everywhere.

iii.  must be normalizable and it should not be .

Born’s approximation:

The wave function represents the probability of finding a particle at a given x & t. It cannot be
negative and imaginary because negative probability is meaningless. In order to overcome this
problem Max Born gave explanation called Born’s approximation as follows.

The probability of finding a particle described by the wave function  at a point x and at time t is
proportional to probability density |𝜓|2 at (x,t).

Even if  is imaginary and negative |𝜓|2 is always positive. Hence the probability density is more
significant than probability alone. It is obtained by multiplying the wave function by its complex
conjugate.

∴ |𝜓|2 = 𝜓𝜓 ∗
Normalization:

The probability of finding the particle is calculated by calculating area under the curve of |𝜓|2 v/s
x . It is done by multiplying |𝜓|2 at a point by small distance dx (shaded area), ie |𝜓|2 𝑑𝑥. The total
area gives the net probability and it must be equal to 1. This is known as normalization in 1-d

Normalization in 1-dimension is
𝑥
∫ |𝜓 2 |𝑑𝑥 = 1
0

Normalization 3-d is
𝑉
∫ |𝜓 2 |𝑑𝑉 = 1
0

7. What are Eigen functions and Eigen values? Give the characteristics of wave function

There are certain functions that will not change when operated upon by the operator. These state
functions are called the ‘‘Eigen functions’’ of this operator.

Application of an operator on each of its Eigen functions leads to a characteristic number, which
is a real number and it is called the ‘‘Eigen value’’

𝑂̂𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑓(𝑥)

Here 𝑂̂ is operator, f(x) is Eigen function and a is Eigen value

Wave function as Eigen function:

Wave function possessing following properties is known as Eigen function and the energy value
obtained by solving Schrodinger wave equation using Eigen function is known as energy Eigen
value.
 PHYSICS FOR YOU Applied Physics for EEE stream MODULE- 1 6

i.  must be continuous and single valued everywhere.

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
ii. 𝜕𝑥
and 𝜕𝑡
must be continuous and single valued everywhere.

iii.  must be normalizable and it should not be .

8. Staring from Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation, derive the expression for energy eigen
value and eigen function for an electron present in 1-d potential well of infinite depth

Consider a quantum particle (say electron) trapped in a 1- dimensional potential well of

infinite height and width of a. Its walls are extremely hard so that the collision between
wall and particle is perfectly elastic. The potential energy of the particle is zero inside and
infinity outside the well. Particle is restricted to move only along x-axis (i,e from x = 0 to
x = a). The boundary conditions are as follows.
i. 𝜓 = 0 and 𝑉 = ∞ outside the well.
ii. 𝜓 ≠ 0 and 𝑉 = 0 for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 (inside the well).
iii. 𝜓 = 0 for 𝑥 ≤ 0 and 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎.

Case-1:
Outside the well, V = . Hence Schrodinger wave equation
𝑑 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0 (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
becomes
𝑑 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
+ (𝐸 − ∞)𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
The possible solution for this equation is  = 0. This means that the probability of finding the
particle and hence probability density outside the well is ZERO.
Case-2:
Inside the well, V = 0 and hence equation (1) becomes
𝑑 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 0)𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
Even though  = 0 is a possible solution it cannot be considered for obvious reason.
Put
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
𝑘2 = (2)
ℎ2
𝑑2𝜓
+ 𝑘2𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
 PHYSICS FOR YOU Applied Physics for EEE stream MODULE- 1 7

This is a second order differential equation and its solution is

𝜓 = 𝐶 cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐷 sin 𝑘𝑥 (3)
Put x = 0 and  = 0, we get
C = 0.
Again, put x = a and  = 0, we get
0 = 0 cos 𝑘𝑎 + 𝐷 sin 𝑘𝑎
𝐷 sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0 ⟹ 𝐷 ≠ 0 and sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0
∴ 𝑘𝑎 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (0) ⟹ 𝑘𝑎 = 𝑛𝜋
𝑛𝜋
∴𝑘= (4)
𝑎
Here n = 1,2,3,4…
From equation (2) and (3) we get
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸 𝑛𝜋 2
= ( )
ℎ2 𝑎
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸=
8𝑚𝑎2
Or,
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝑬𝒏 =
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
If n =1, then we get ground state energy of the particle. It is also called as ZERO POINT
energy.
𝒉𝟐
𝑬𝒁𝑬𝑹𝑶 =
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
Substitute C and k in equation (3) we get
𝑛𝜋
𝜓𝑛 = 𝐷 sin 𝑥 (5)
𝑎
Normalization (To find D):
Consider
𝑎
∫ |𝜓2 𝑛 |𝑑𝑥 = 1
0
𝑎
𝑛𝜋 2
∫ (𝐷 sin 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0 𝑎
 PHYSICS FOR YOU Applied Physics for EEE stream MODULE- 1 8

𝑎
𝑛𝜋𝑥
∫ 𝐷2 sin2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0 𝑎

𝐷2 𝑎 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1 because 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)/2
2 0 𝑎

𝐷2 𝑎 𝑎
2𝑛𝜋𝑥
[∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥] = 1
2 0 0 𝑎

𝐷2 𝑎 2𝑛𝜋𝑎
[(𝑎 − 0) − (𝑠𝑖𝑛 − sin 0)] = 1
2 2𝑛𝜋 𝑎
𝐷2 𝑎
[𝑎 − (sin 2𝑛𝜋 − sin 0] = 1
2 2𝑛𝜋
𝐷2 𝑎
[𝑎 − (0 − 0)] = 1
2 2𝑛𝜋
𝐷2
𝑎=1
2

2
𝐷=√
𝑎

Hence equation (5) becomes

𝒏𝝅
𝝍𝒏 = √𝟐/𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧( )𝒙
𝒂
This is the Eigen function.

List of equations
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ 𝑛2 ℎ2
𝜆= = 𝛥𝑥𝛥𝑝 ≥ & 𝛥𝑥𝑚𝛥𝑣 ≥ 𝐸𝑛 =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣 4𝜋 4𝜋 8𝑚𝑎2
ℎ ℎ ℎ2
𝜆= 𝛥𝐸𝛥𝑡 ≥ 𝐸𝑍𝐸𝑅𝑂 =
√2𝑚𝐸 4𝜋 8𝑚𝑎2
ℎ 𝑑2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚 𝑛𝜋
𝜆= + (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0 𝜓𝑛 = 𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉 𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2 𝑎

ℎ |𝛹|2 = 𝛹 ∗ 𝛹 𝑛𝜋
𝜆= 𝜓𝑛 = √2/𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛( )𝑥
√3𝑚𝑘𝑇 𝑎
𝑣 = 𝜔/𝑘 𝑑𝜔 ℎ𝑐 𝑃2
𝑣𝑔 = 𝐸 = ℎ𝜗 = &𝐸 =
𝑑𝑘 𝜆 2𝑚