Quantum Mechanics

Instructor: Dr. SDV

TIET, Patiala
Introduction:
Quantum mechanics is the description of the behaviour of matter
and light in all its details. In particular, of happenings on an atomic
scale. Atomic behaviour (like proton, neutrons, electrons, photons
etc.) is very unlike ordinary behaviour that it is very difficult to
understand and get used to it.

Classical mechanics is an approximation of quantum

mechanics.

In classical mechanics, future of the particle is completely

determined by its initial position, momentum and the forces acting
upon it.
In quantum mechanics, the initial state of the particle can not be
established with sufficient accuracy, therefore, future of the
particle has uncertainty associated with it.
de Broglie hypothesis: A moving body behaves in a
certain way as though it has wave nature.

A photon of light of frequency ν has the momentum

ℎ𝜈 ℎ
𝑝= = ; since 𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆
𝑐 𝜆

Which means wavelength of photon is specified by it

momentum according to
ℎ
𝜆= (1)
𝑝

de Broglie suggested that equation (1) is completely general

and applies to material particles as well as photons.
de Broglie hypothesis:

The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never be

observed at the same time.

Under certain situations, a moving body resembles a wave

and in others it resembles a particle.

How the de Broglie wavelength compares with its

dimensions and the dimension of whatever it interacts with
is very important.

de Broglie had no direct experimental evidence to support

his conjecture, hence it was called hypothesis.
Proof of de Broglie hypothesis :

What if this wave source is replaced by electron gun and

then bullet gun?
Proof of de Broglie hypothesis :

(a) (b)
The diffraction pattern of aluminium foil produced (a) by x-
rays and (b) by electrons.

“Thomson, the father, was awarded the Nobel Prize for having
shown that the electron is a particle, and Thomson, the son,
for having shown that the electron is a wave.”
Heisenberg uncertainty principle :

“It is impossible to know both the exact position and exact

momentum of an object at the same time.”

Hence, we can not know the future because we can not know
the present because of associated uncertainties.
ℎ
Mathematically, 𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑝 ≥
4𝜋

If you are talking about 3 dimension then the uncertainty

principle is still true (you can not measure simultaneously
precisely position in x and p ; y and p ; z and p ). But you can
measure simultaneously precisely position in x and p (or p )
and so on.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle :

Uncertainty principle in energy and time is given by

ℎ
𝛥𝐸𝛥𝑡 ≥
4𝜋
Planck's constant h is so small that limitation imposed by
uncertainty principle are significant only in the atomic scale.

The uncertainties are not due to inadequate apparatus.

Doesn't matter how sophisticated an experimental set up is,
these uncertainties are fundamentally there!
Why position and momentum can not be measured
precisely simultaneously?
 Narrower wave group, position can
be determined more precisely.

 Wavelength is not well defined; not

enough waves to measure λ
accurately. λ = h/mv , hence
momentum is not precise.

 Wider wave group, position can not

be determined precisely.

 Wavelength is well defined; enough

waves to measure λ accurately. λ =
h/mv, hence momentum is well
precise.
Significance of wave function:
The wave function is a function of x, y, z and t and is generally a
complex quantity having no direct physical significance. The
probability of finding a particle at certain point can never be
negative as probability can have values between 0 and 1.

The wave function Ψ is not an observable quantity.

The Probability of experimentally finding the body described by the

wave function Ψ at point x,y,z, at time t is proportional to the value
of |Ψ| there at t.

A larger value of |Ψ| means stronger probability of object's

presence. A smaller value of |Ψ| means lesser probability of object's
presence.
Significance of wave function:

Wave function Ψ=A+iB

where A and B are real functions. The complex conjugate of

Ψ is Ψ∗ = A∗ − i B ∗ = A − i B

And so Ψ 2 = Ψ ∗ Ψ = A − i B A + i B = A2 + B2

Hence, Ψ 2 is a positive real quantity as required.

The linear momentum, angular momentum and energy of

the object can be established from wave function Ψ.
Normalization:
The wave function must be normalizable.

Since Ψ 2 is the probability density of finding object

described by Ψ, integral of over all space must be finite—
because object has to be somewhere i.e.
∞
න 𝛹 2 𝑑𝑉 = 1
−∞
Normalization
∞
If ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛹 2 𝑑𝑉 = 0 , the particle doesn't exist.

Obviously this integral can not be infinity and still mean

anything.
Non-normalizable wave function can not represent
particle. A normalized wave function stays normalized
forever.
Conditions for well behaved wave function :

1. Ψ must be continuous and single valued because

probability can have one value at a particular place and
time, and continuous.

2. Momentum considerations require that partial derivatives

∂Ψ/∂x, ∂Ψ/∂y and ∂Ψ/∂z be finite, continuous, and single
valued.

3. Ψ must be normalizable which means that Ψ must go to

zero as x→±∞, y→±∞, z→±∞ in order that probability of
finding the object over all space is finite constant.
Unacceptable wave function:
Acceptable wave function:
For a normalizable wave function, the probability that the
particle will be found between 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 ሺ𝑥2 = 𝑥1

𝑥2
𝑃𝑥1 𝑥2 = න 𝛹 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥1
Expectation value: how to extract information from a
wave function.

The wave function Ψሺ𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) contains all information about

the particle permitted by uncertainty principle.

Suppose if a particle is confined in x-direction, then

expectation value <x> of position of the particle described
by wave function Ψ(x,y,z,t) can be calculated.

The expectation value of the position of a single particle is

given by ∞
‫׬‬−∞𝑥 𝛹 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = ∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝛹 2 𝑑𝑥
Expectation value:
∞
‫׬‬−∞𝑥 𝛹 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = ∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝛹 2 𝑑𝑥

If Ψ is a normalized wave function then denominator in

above equation is 1 (because the particle exists somewhere
between x = +∞ and x = -∞). In that case
∞
Then Expectation value for position 𝑥 = න 𝑥 𝛹 2 𝑑𝑥
−∞

Physically 𝑥 is the average of measurements performed on

particles all in the state Ψ.
It doesn’t mean that if you measure position of one particle
again and again, 𝑥 will be the average of the results.
Expectation value:
Expectation value 𝐺 𝑥 of any quantity that is function of x
for example potential energy can be calculated in this way
∞
Expectation value 𝐺 𝑥 = න 𝐺 𝑥 𝛹 2 𝑑𝑥
−∞
Expectation value:
The expectation value of momentum can not be calculated
this way because uncertainty principle doesn't allow that
𝑑𝑥
because 𝑝 = 𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑚 ;
𝑑𝑡

If 𝑥 is specified then Δ𝑥 = 0 and then corresponding

ℏ
momentum p can not be specified because Δ𝑥 Δ𝑝 ≥ .
2

The same problem occurs for the expectation value of energy

𝐸 as well. The expectation values 𝑝 and 𝐸 are calculated
in other way (operators are used).

Again, this kind of limitation is not observed in classical

mechanics.
Operators (another way to calculate expectation value) :
The observable quantities in quantum mechanics is
expressed in terms of operators.

A free particle wave function is given by 𝛹 = A ei kx−𝜔𝑡

= 𝐴𝑒 − 𝑖Τℏ 𝐸𝑡−𝑝𝑥 [𝐸 = ℏ𝜔; 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘]

Differentiating above equation w.r.t. x and t gives

𝜕𝛹 𝑖 𝑖
= 𝑝𝐴𝑒 − 𝑖Τℏ 𝐸𝑡−𝑝𝑥
= 𝑝𝛹
𝜕𝑥 ℏ ℏ
ℏ 𝜕
⇒ 𝑝𝛹 = 𝛹
𝑖 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝛹 𝑖 𝑖
similarly = − 𝐸𝐴𝑒 − 𝑖Τℏ 𝐸𝑡−𝑝𝑥 = − 𝐸𝛹
𝜕𝑡 ℏ ℏ
𝜕
⇒ 𝐸𝛹 = 𝑖ℏ 𝛹
𝜕𝑡
Operators
ℏ 𝜕 𝜕
𝑝𝛹 = 𝛹 ⇒ 𝑝Ƹ = −𝑖ℏ
𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
𝐸𝛹 = 𝑖ℏ 𝛹 ⇒ 𝐸෠ = 𝑖ℏ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
An operator tells us what operation to carry on quantity following
it. 𝐸෠ and 𝑝Ƹ are operators.
Even if they are derived for free particle, they are entirely general.
In that case, E is sum of K.E. and P.E.
𝑝2
𝐸= +𝑈
2𝑚
multiplying both sides by𝛹
𝑝2
⇒ 𝐸𝛹 = 𝛹 + 𝑈𝛹
2𝑚
𝜕𝛹 ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝛹
𝑖ℏ =− + 𝑈𝛹 Schrodinger equation
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
in 1-d
Expectation value of p for normalized wave function is
given by ∞ ∞
𝜕
𝑝 = න 𝛹 ∗ 𝑝Ƹ 𝛹𝑑𝑥 = න 𝛹 ∗ −𝑖ℏ 𝛹𝑑𝑥
−∞ −∞ 𝜕𝑥
∞
∗ 𝜕𝛹
= −𝑖ℏ න 𝛹 𝑑𝑥
−∞ 𝜕𝑥
Expectation value of E is given by
∞ ∞
∗ ∗ 𝜕
෠
𝐸 = න 𝛹 𝐸 𝛹𝑑𝑥 = න 𝛹 𝑖ℏ 𝛹𝑑𝑥
−∞ −∞ 𝜕𝑡
∞
∗ 𝜕𝛹
= 𝑖ℏ න 𝛹 𝑑𝑥
−∞ 𝜕𝑡
Remember operators have to be in between Ψ* and Ψ. Hence,
expectation value of observable 𝐺 𝑥, 𝑝 can be calculated as
∞
𝐺 𝑥, 𝑝 = න 𝛹 ∗ 𝐺෠ 𝛹 𝑑𝑥
−∞
Schrodinger Equation:
A basic principle (like Newton’s law in classical mechanics)
that can not be derived from anything else.
𝜕𝛹 ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝛹 𝜕 2 𝛹 𝜕 2 𝛹
𝑖ℏ =− 2
+ 2
+ 2 + 𝑈𝛹
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Where m is mass of the particle and U is the potential energy
of the particle.

If the particle motion is limited to 1-dimension ሺ𝑥, 𝑡) the

above equation becomes

𝜕𝛹 ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝛹
𝑖ℏ =− 2
+ 𝑈𝛹
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
Time-independent Schrodinger equation:
For a particle whose potential energy doesn’t depend on time
explicitly, forces acting on the particle and hence, potential energy
U, vary with position of the particle only. In that case, Schrodinger
equation can be simplified by removing reference to t.
Time variations of all wavefunctions of particles acted on forces
independent of time have the same form as that of
free/unrestricted particle
The wave function can be written as 𝛹 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜙 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝛹 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝜙 𝑥 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
= 𝑒
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕 2 𝛹 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑 2 𝜙 𝑥 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 (4)
2
= 2
𝑒
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝛹 𝑥, 𝑡
= 𝜙 𝑥 ሺ−𝑖𝜔)𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 (5)
𝜕𝑡
Time-independent Schrodinger equation:
Using equation (4) and (5) in Schrodinger equation

𝜕𝛹 ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝛹
𝑖ℏ =− 2
+ 𝑈𝛹 gives
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
2 2
−𝑖𝜔𝑡
ℏ −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑑 𝜙 𝑥 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑖ℏ𝜙 𝑥 ሺ−𝑖𝜔)𝑒 =− 𝑒 + 𝑈𝜙 𝑥 𝑒
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
Dividing both sides by𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜙 𝑥
ℏ𝜔𝜙ሺ𝑥) = − 2
+ 𝑈𝜙 𝑥
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜙 𝑥
⇒𝐸𝜙 𝑥 =− 2
+ 𝑈𝜙 𝑥
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥
Time-independent Schrodinger equation:
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜙
− 2
+ 𝑈𝜙 = 𝐸𝜙 (6)
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥
In three dimensions, equation (6) can be written as

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜙 𝑑 2 𝜙 𝑑 2 𝜙
− 2
+ 2 + 2 + 𝑈𝜙 = 𝐸𝜙
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

The above equation can be applied to various quantum

mechanical problems like tunneling of electrons through a
barrier, SHO in small dimensions
Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions:
Not necessarily an operator gives an acceptable value of the
observable after acting upon the wave function.
It will do so only if after operated by the operator the wave
function remains unaffected and gets a number multiplied to it.

Eigen value equation

𝑂෠ 𝜓 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝑂. 𝜓ሺ𝑟, 𝑡)

Operator Eigen value of the operator

Eigen function of operator

Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions:
Schrodinger equation in 1-d is given by
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜙 (7)
− + 𝑈𝜙 = 𝐸𝜙
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
ℏ2 𝑑 2
⇒𝐻 ෡=− +𝑈 Hamiltonian operator
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
in such steady−state Schrodinger equation
෡ 𝜙𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛 𝜙𝑛
𝐻

This leads to quantization of energy.

Particle in a box or infinite well: particle in a box with
infinitely hard walls (particle doesn't lose energy each time it
strikes a wall).

Consider a particle of mass m trapped in a box of length L, the

particle motion is restricted to x = 0 to x = L. For convenience,
the potential energy U is taken to be zero inside the box and
infinite for x < 0 and x > L.

Since particle can not have infinite

energy, it can not exist outside box,
and so the wave function Φ is zero
for x ≤ 0 and x ≥ L.
Particle in a box or infinite well:
The Schrodinger equation is given by

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜙
− 2
+ 𝑈𝜙 = 𝐸𝜙
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥

For particle inside the box, above equation becomes

𝑑 2 𝜙 2𝑚𝐸
2
+ 2 𝜙=0 (Remember U=0 inside box)
𝑑𝑥 ℏ

The general solution of this equation (as in S.H.O.) is given by

2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚𝐸 (8)
𝜙 = 𝐴 sinሺ 𝑥) + 𝐵 cosሺ 𝑥)
ℏ ℏ
The solution given by (8) is subjected to boundary condition:
wave function must vanish for 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝐿 (i.e. 𝜙 = 0 for 𝑥
= 0 and 𝑥 = 𝐿 ). A and B are constants to be calculated.
Particle in a box or infinite well:
2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚𝐸 (8)
𝜙 = 𝐴 sinሺ 𝑥) + 𝐵 cosሺ 𝑥)
ℏ ℏ
At 𝑥 = 0, cos 0 = 1, therefore second term in equation (8) can
not describe the particle because it does not vanish at 𝑥 = 0
(remember well behaved wave function must be continuous).
Therefore, B = 0 .
2𝑚𝐸 (9)
𝜙 = 𝐴 sinሺ 𝑥)
ℏ
At 𝑥 = 0, sin 0 = 0 . Hence 𝜙 = 0 at 𝑥 = 0 . But 𝜙 must also
vanish at 𝑥 = 𝐿 which is possible if

2𝑚𝐸
𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋 n = 1,2,3……….. (10)
ℏ
Particle in a box or infinite well:
2𝑚𝐸
𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋 n = 1,2,3……….. (10)
ℏ
From equation (10) it is clear that energy of the particle can have
certain values, which are eigenvalues. These eigenvalues
constitute energy levels of the system and are given by (10) as

𝑛𝜋ℏ 𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
2𝑚𝐸𝑛 = ⇒ 2𝑚𝐸𝑛 =
𝐿 𝐿2
𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝐸𝑛 = n=1,2,3 …… (11)
2𝑚𝐿2
Particle in a box or infinite well:
𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝐸𝑛 = n=1,2,3 …… (11)
2𝑚𝐿2

Each permitted energy is called an energy level and the integer

n specifying an energy level E is called its quantum number.

Conclusions :
1. Trapped particle can not have an arbitrary energy. Boundary
conditions or its confinement restricts its wave function and
hence particle is allowed to have only certain specific energies
and no others (No counterpart in classical). Exact energies
depend on mass of particle and details how it is trapped.
2. Because Planck's constant is so small – quantization of energy
clearly noticeable only when m and L are also small.
Particle in a box or infinite well:
3. A trapped particle can not have zero energy. The de Broglie
wavelength (𝜆 = ℎ/𝑚𝑣) is infinite when 𝑣 = 0. There is no way a
trapped particle can have an infinite wavelength, so particle
must have at least some kinetic energy. Exclusion of 𝐸 = 0 has
no counterpart in classical physics.

4. Energy levels are not equally spaced. 𝐸𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2

𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
𝐸𝑛 = n=1,2,3 …… (11)
2𝑚𝐿2
Particle in a box or infinite well:
Wavefunction :

The wavefunction of particle in a box whose energy is 𝐸𝑛 is given

2𝑚𝐸𝑛
by 𝜙 = 𝐴 sinሺ 𝑥)
ℏ
𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
Putting 𝐸𝑛 =
2𝑚𝐿2
We get
𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2 𝑛𝜋ℏ
2𝑚 𝑛𝜋𝑥
2𝑚𝐿2 𝐿
𝜙𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛
ℏ ℏ 𝐿

n=1,2,3 ……
Particle in a box or infinite well:
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜙𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 n=1,2,3 ……
𝐿
𝜙𝑛 is a well behave wave function because :
1. For each value of n, 𝜙𝑛 is finite, single valued function of x and
𝜕𝜙𝑛
𝜙𝑛 and are continuous.
𝜕𝑥
2. The integral 𝜙𝑛 2 over all space is finite.

∞ 𝐿 𝐿
2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑛𝜋𝑥
න 𝜙𝑛 = න 𝜙𝑛 = 𝐴2 න 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑑𝑥
−∞ 0 0 𝐿
𝐿
𝐴2 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
= න 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
2 0 𝐿
𝐴2 𝐿 𝐿
2𝑛𝜋𝑥
= න 𝑑𝑥 − න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
2 0 0 𝐿
Particle in a box or infinite well:
∞ 2 𝐿 𝐿
2
𝐴 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
න 𝜙𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑑𝑥 − න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
−∞ 2 0 0 𝐿
𝐿
𝐴2 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
= 𝑥− 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2𝑛𝜋 𝐿 0
𝐴2 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝐿 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋0
= 𝐿− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −0− 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2 2𝑛𝜋 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋 𝐿
2
𝐿
=𝐴
2
∞
𝐿
2
⇒ න 𝜙𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 2 (12)
−∞ 2

But if 𝜙𝑛 is to be normalized that means A should be assigned a

value such that equation (12) should be equal to 1.
Particle in a box or infinite well:
∞
𝐿
⇒න 2
𝜙𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 2
=1 (because 𝜙𝑛 has to be
−∞ 2 normalized)
2
⇒𝐴=
𝐿
Therefore the normalized wave function Φ is given by

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 n = 1,2,3………...
𝜙𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐿 𝐿
which leads to
2 𝜋𝑥 2 2𝜋𝑥
𝜙1 = sin ; 𝜙2 = sin
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

2 3𝜋𝑥
𝜙3 = sin
𝐿 𝐿
Particle in a box or infinite well:
The ground state (lowest energy) of this particle :
when 𝑥 = 0, 𝜙 = 0
2 𝜋𝑥 when 𝑥 = 𝐿/2, 𝜙 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜙1 = sin ; when 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝜙 = 0
𝐿 𝐿

2
𝜙1 𝜙1

0 L x
0 L x

Particle has the maximum probability to be in the middle of box

in the lowest energy state.
Particle in a box or infinite well:
when 𝑥 = 0, 𝜙 = 0
𝐿
2 2𝜋𝑥 when 𝑥 = , 𝜙 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥.
4
𝜙2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿 when 𝑥 = ,𝜙 = 0
2
3𝐿
when 𝑥 = , 𝜙 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
4
when 𝑥 = 𝐿 𝜙 = 0

2
𝜙2 𝜙2

0 L/2 L x 0 L/2 L

Particle has the minimum probability to be in the middle of box in

the first excited energy state.
Particle in a box or infinite well:
2 3𝜋𝑥 (work it out yourself)
𝜙3 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐿 𝐿

𝜙3 𝜙3 2

0 L/2 L x 0 L/2 L
Comparison of different states for particle in a box :

𝜙3 𝜙3 2

𝜙2 𝜙2 2

𝜙1 𝜙1 2
x=L x=L x=0 x=L
Classical physics, of course, suggests same probability for
the particle being anywhere in the box.
𝜙3

𝜙2

𝜙1

𝑝 = ℎΤ𝜆; as 𝜆 is larger for particle in finite square well, 𝑝 is

smaller and hence E, will be smaller. This means energy
levels will be lower in finite square well.
Tunnelling: Another phenomenon that can be explained only
quantum mechanically. No classical counter part.

Potential energies are never infinite in real world and well with
infinitely hard walls (infinite potential well) has no physical
counterpart.

In real world, we deal with potential barriers of finite height.

Tunnelling: U
E<U
E
Energy

I II III
x=0 x=L x

𝜙𝐼+ 𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝜙𝐼𝐼

𝜙𝐼−
x=0 x=L x

On both sides of barrier U=0, no forces act on the particle

there. Barrier height is “U” and width is “L”.
Tunnelling:
𝜙𝐼+ : Incoming beam of particles moving to the right.
𝜙𝐼− : Reflected particles moving to the left.
𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼 : Transmitted particles moving to the right.

The transmission probability for a particle to pass through The

barrier is equal to fraction of incident beam that gets through the
barrier.
Transmission probability is given by 𝑇 = 𝑒 −2𝑘2 𝐿

2𝑚ሺ𝑈−𝐸)
Where 𝑘2 =
ℏ

m is mass of the particle, E is Kinetic Energy and U is barrier

height, L is width of the barrier.
Tunnelling:
Classical Mechanically, when energy of the particle is less than
barrier height U, particle must be reflected back. In QM, the de
Broglie waves corresponding to particle are partly reflected and
partly transmitted.

If the barrier is infinitely thick then the transmission probability

will be zero. But if it is of finite thickness there is finite
probability-however small- for particle to tunnel through region
II and emerge in region III.

Particle doesn't go over the top of the barrier, but tunnels

through the barrier.

The higher the barrier and wider it is, less will be the chance
that the particle can get through the barrier.
Book: Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser

Pages: 93-94, 108, 111, 161-163, 166-168, 172-174,

177-179, 184-185