Levelling is defined as “art of determining the relative height of different point on,

above or below the surface.”

Levelling is general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevation
of point or differences in elevation are determined.
❖Vertical control –
1) Determine the height on surface of earth.
2) Fix point of desired height .
Barometric Leveling : Based on atmospheric pressure difference; Using altimeter; Very rough estimation.
Direct Levelling
 Trigonometric Levelling
Indirect or Trigonometric Leveling : By measuring vertical angles and horizontal distance; Less precise.
➢ In this method the difference in elevation of the points is determined from the observed
vertical angles and measured horizontal distances.
➢ The vertical angles are measured with a transit theodolite .
➢ The distances are measured directly (plane surveying) or computed trigonometrically
(geodetic survey).
➢ Trigonometric levelling is commonly used in topographical work to find out the elevation
of the top of buildings, chimneys, church, and so on.
➢ Also, it can be used to its advantage in difficult terrains such as mountainous areas.
➢ Depending upon the field conditions and the measurements that can be made with the
instruments available.
The principle of levelling is obtain horizontal line of sight with respect to
which vertical distance of point above and below this line of sight are find.

when the level is set up correctly and leveled the line of collimation will be
horizontal telescope is rotated about is its vertical axis it will revolve in a
horizontal plane known as the plane of collimation and therefore, all staffs
readings taken with the will be the vertical measurements made downwards
from this plane.

To find by how much amount the line of sight is above the bench mark and
To ascertain by how much amount the next point is below or above the

line sight. Height of instrument= Elevation of B.M + Back sight Elevation of

pt B = Height of instrument – Foresight
Datum:
Horizontal Line :
Horizontal surface:
Horizontal Line of sight:
Line of sight
Vertical Line:
Plumb line:
Equipotential Surface:
Level Line:
Level surface:
Mean Sea Level Line:
Geoid line :
Bench Mark
Level Surface: Any level surface parallel to mean spherical surface of earth is called a
level surface. This surface is normal to the direction of gravity (indicated by plumb bob). Every
point on this surface is equidistant from centre of earth. A plane tangential to level surface is
called the horizontal plane at that point.
Vertical Plane: The plane normal to horizontal plane at any point will be the vertical plane.
This plane will contain the plumb line drawn through that point. The angle of intersection
between two lines in a vertical plane is called vertical angle. It is normal to select horizontal
line as one of these two lines to measure the vertical angle
Reduced Level: The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below the datum
line. This is also known as the reduced level (RL) of the point.
Line of Collimation: It is the line joining the point of intersection of cross hairs to the
optical centre of object glass. It is also called the line of sight. This indicates the horizontal line
at the station of instrument at an elevation of instrument height. While the axis of instrument
will be the line joining the optical centre of the object glass to centre of eyepiece, height of
instrument is the level of the plane of collimation.
Mean Sea Level (MSL): Average elevation of the sea surface based on hourly tide gauge
measurements over a period of 19 years
Back sight and Foresight (BS and FS): The staff reading taken at a point of known or
predetermined elevation, e.g. a bench mark is termed backsight or plus (+) sight. It is the first staff
reading taken after setting the instrument at specified survey station. The foresight is the staff
reading of the point whose elevation is required to be obtained, particularly at a change point. It is
the last staff reading at the station before the instrument is shifted to a new station. All other staff
readings taken at different points of interest of unknown elevations from one instrumental set up
between the back sight and fore sight are called intermediate sights (IS).
Station: Any point on ground whose level is required to be determined or a point whose level is
already fixed (e.g. a bench mark) is termed as a station. It is to be noted that it is a point at which
level measuring staff is positioned and not the point at which the instrument is setup.
A Turning Point (TP) or a Change Point (CP)
A turning point or change point denotes the position at which both foresight and backsight readings
are taken before shifting of level instrument. Any well defined and stable point can be selected as
change point, e.g. boundary stone, benchmark.
Bench Mark: A bench mark (BM) is a fixed (permanent) reference point of known elevation.
This bench mark is used as a base relative to which the elevations or levels of different points
in a survey are measured. This could be
(a) GTS bench marks
(b) Permanent bench marks
(c ) Arbitrary bench marks
(d )Temporary bench marks

GTS bench marks: are established precisely and accurately by Survey of India department
and are used as base for all levelling exercises, particularly when large areas are to be
surveyed.
Permanent bench marks: are Reference bench marks fixed in an area on permanent
structure (parapet of culvert or bridge, plinth of building)are called permanent benchmarks.
These are used for reference and future surveys to provide continuity.
Arbitrary bench marks : In small levelling works, the reduced level of a well defined
reference point is assumed as arbitrary benchmark of levels.(Such as plinth of building )
Temporary bench marks: During the levelling exercise, whenever there is a break of work
continuity, temporary bench marks are established to provide continuity when the survey is
resumed.
 Different Types of Levels Used for Leveling in Surveying

Levels are the different instruments used for leveling in surveying. There are various types
of levels such as:
➢ dumpy level
➢ Y level
➢ Cushing's level
➢ Tilting level
➢ Cooke's reversible level
➢ Automatic level
➢ Digital level
The process of measuring vertical distances in surveying is called leveling. To perform
leveling, we need some level instruments to focus or to read the object. Nowadays, the
technology also introduced in surveying and so many easy measuring instruments are
designed. Here we discuss about the different levels used in leveling.
1. Dumpy Level
Dumpy level is the most commonly used instrument in leveling. In this level the telescope is
restricted against movement in its horizontal plane and telescope is fixed to its support. A
bubble tube is provided on the top of the telescope. But however, the leveling head can be
rotated in horizontal plane with the telescope. The telescope is internal focusing telescope
is a metal tube contains main parts as given below.
Objective lens
Diaphragm
Eye-piece
2. Y Level
Y level or Wye-level consists y-shaped frames which supports the telescope. Telescope cane be
removed from the y-shaped supports by releasing clamp screws provided. These y-shaped frames
are arranged to vertical spindle which helps to cause the rotation of telescope. Compared to
dumpy level, adjustments can be rapidly tested in y- level. But, there may be a chance of frictional
wear of open parts of level.
3. Cushing’s Level
In case of Cushing’s level, the telescope is restricted against rotation in its longitudinal axis and it is
non-removable. But, the object end and eye piece end can be interchangeable and reversible.
4. Tilting Level
Tilting level consist a telescope which enabled for the horizontal rotation as well as rotation about 4
degree in its vertical plane. Centering of bubble can be easily done in this type of level. But, for every
setup bubble is to be centered with the help of tilting screw. The main advantage of tilting level is it is
useful when the few observations are to be taken with one setup of level.
5. Cooke’s Reversible Level
Cooke’s reversible level is the combination of dumpy level and y-level. In this instrument, the telescope
can be reversed without rotation the instrument. Collimation error can be eliminated in this case
because of bubble left and bubble right reading of telescope.
6. Automatic Level
Automatic level is like the dumpy level. In this case the telescope is fixed to its supports. Circular
spirit can be attached to the side of the telescope for approximate leveling. For more accurate
leveling, compensator is attached inside the telescope. Compensator can help the instrument to
level automatically. Compensator is also called as stabilizer which consists two fixed prisms and it
creates an optical path between eye piece and objective. Due to the action of gravity, the
compensator results the optical system to swing into exact position of line of sight automatically.
But before the process of leveling, compensator should be checked.
7. Digital level: There are fundamentally two types of automatic levels.

First, the optical one whose distinguishing feature is self-leveling i.e., the instruments gets
approximately leveled by means of a circular spirit level and then it maintains a horizontal line of
sight of its own.
Second, the digital levels whose distinguishing features are automatic leveling, reading and
recording
A bar-coded rod having a scale represented through a series of bars of different widths. Bars are
spaced constantly or variably. The spacing and width of the bars denote the code.
 An engineer's level primarily consists of a telescope mounted
upon a level bar which is rigidly fastened to the spindle. Inside
the tube of the telescope, there are objective and eye piece lens
at the either end of the tube. A diaphragm fitted with cross hairs
is present near the eye piece end. A focusing screw is attached
with the telescope. A level tube housing a sensitive plate bubble
is attached to the telescope (or to the level bar) and parallel to it.
The spindle fits into a cone-shaped bearing of the leveling head.
The leveling head consists of tribrach and trivet with three foot
screws known as leveling screws in between. The trivet is
attached to a tripod stand.
Telescope : used to sight a staff placed at desired station and to
read staff reading distinctly.
Diaphragm : holds the cross hairs (fitted with it).
Eye piece : magnifies the image formed in the plane of the
diaphragm and thus to read staff during leveling.
Level Tube : used to make the axis of the telescope horizontal
and thus the line of sight.
Leveling screws : to adjust instrument (level) so that the line of
sight is horizontal for any orientation of the telescope.
Tripod stand : to fix the instrument (level) at a convenient
height of an observer.
Temporary Adjustment of Level: At each set up of a level instrument, temporary adjustment
is required to be carried out prior to any staff observation. It involves some well defined operations
which are required to be carried out in proper sequence. Permanent adjustment need be made only
when fundamental relations between some parts or lines.
The temporary adjustment of a dumpy level consists of Setting , Leveling and Focusing .

During Setting, the tripod stand is set up at a convenient height having its head horizontal (through
eye estimation). The instrument is then fixed on the head by rotating the lower part of the instrument
with right hand and holding firmly the upper part with left hand. Before fixing, the leveling screws
are required to be brought in between the tribrach and trivet. The bull's eye bubble (circular bubble),
if present, is then brought to the centre by adjusting the tripod legs.
Next, Leveling of the instrument is done to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly vertical. It
is achieved by carrying out the following steps:
Focusing is required to be done in order to form image through objective lens at the plane of the
diaphragm and to view the clear image of the object through eye-piece. This is being carried out by
removing parallax by proper focusing of objective and eye-piece.
For focusing the eye-piece, the telescope is first pointed towards the sky. Then the ring of eye-piece is
turned either in or out until the cross-hairs are seen sharp and distinct. Focusing of eye-piece depends
on the vision of observer and thus required whenever there is a change in observer.
For focusing the objective, the telescope is first pointed towards the object. Then, the focusing screw
is turned until the image of the object appears clear and sharp and there is no relative movement
between the image and the cross-hairs. This is required to be done before taking any observation.
Basic Principle of Leveling: The fundamental principle of leveling lies in finding out the
separation of level lines passing through a point of known elevation (B.M.) and that through an
unknown point (whose elevation is required to be determined).
Methods of Leveling: Direct measurement, precise, most commonly used; types:
Simple leveling :
• When the difference in the elevation of two nearby points is required then simple levelling is
performed.
• One set up of level. To find elevation of points.

Differential leveling :
• Numbers of set-ups of level. To find elevation of non-intervisible points.
• Performed when the final point is very far from the final point.
Fly leveling : Low precision, to find/check approximate level, generally used during
reconnaissance survey.
• Performed when the work site is very far away from the bench mark.
• The surveyor starts by taking BS at BM and proceed towards worksite till he finds a
• suitable place for temporary BM.
• All works are done with respect to temporary BM.
• At the end of the day the surveyor comes back to original BM

Precise leveling : Precise form of differential leveling.

Cross-sectional levelling: The cross-sections are taken at regular intervals (such as 10 m,
20 m, 40 m, 50 m, etc.) along the alignment. Cross-sectional levelling is done in order to
know the nature of the ground across the centre line of the alignment.

Check levelling: The fly leveling done at the end of the day’s work to connect the finishing
point with the starting point on that particular day is known as check levelling. It is
undertaken in order to check the accuracy of the day’s work
Longitudinal or Profile leveling : finding of elevation along a line and its cross section.

Reciprocal leveling : Along a river or pond. Two level simultaneously used, one at either end.
1. Differential Leveling:
Applied to determine the elevation of point which is some distant apart from B.M i.e., the
unknown elevation of a point cannot be determined in a single set up of an instrument. Thus, in
this method, instrument gets setup number of times to observe reading along a route in between
observed points. For each set up, staff readings are taken back to a point of known elevation
(first sight from the B.M and forward to a point of unknown elevation) final sight to the
terminal station.
Field Book : A field book, also called level book is being used for taking down each staff
reading during leveling and subsequently, used for finding out the elevation of points/ stations.
There are two types of level books Height of instrument method & Rise and Fall method Usually,
level book contains columns of both the types together and it is for a surveyor to use only the
relevant columns only.
Reduction of Level: The observed staff readings as noted in a level book are further required
to be manipulated to find out the elevation of points. The operation is known as reduction of level.
There are two methods for obtaining the elevations at different points:

1. Rise and Fall method and

2. Height of instrument (or plane of collimation) method.
1.Rise and Fall method:
In this method the height of instrument is not at all calculated but the difference of level between
consecutive points is found out by comparing the staff reading on the two points for the same setting
of the instrument. The difference between their staff readings a rise or fall according as the staff
reading at the point is smaller or greater than that at the proceeding point. The figures for rise and fall
worked out thus for all the points give the vertical distance of each point above or below the
preceding one, and if the level of any one point is known the level of the next will be obtained by
adding its rise or subtracting its fall as the case may be.

Check
The difference between the sum of back sight and sum of the fore sights should be equal to the
difference between the sum of rise and sum of fall and should also be equal to the difference between
the first R.L. and Last R.L.
∑ BS - ∑FS = ∑Rise - ∑Fall = First R.L.- Last R.L.
2. Height of Instrument method:
In this method, the height of the instrument (H.I) is calculated for each setting of the instrument by
adding back sight (plus sight) to the elevation of the B.M. The elevation of (Reduced Level) the turning
point is then calculated by subtracting fore sight from H.I the. For the next setting of the instrument the
H.I. is obtained by adding the B.S taken on TP1 to its R.L.

The process continues till the R.L of the last point (fore sight) is obtained by subtracting the staff
reading from height of the last setting of the instrument. If there are some intermediate points the R.L of
those points is calculated by subtracting the intermediate sight (Minus sight) from the height of the
instrument for that setting.

Check
The difference between the sum of back sight and sum of the fore sights should be equal to the
difference between the last and first R.L.
∑B.S – ∑F.S = Last RL – First RL
2. Longitudinal or Profile Leveling:
• Profile leveling is a method of surveying that has been carried out along the central line of a track of land
on which a linear engineering work is to be design and constructed/ laid.
• The operations involved in determining the elevation of ground surface at small regular interval along a
line is called profile leveling.
• The route along which a profile is run may be single straight line, as in case of a short sidewalk; a broken
line, as in the case of a transmission line or sewer; or a series of straight lines connected by curves, as in
case of a railroad, highway or canal.
• After getting the RL of various points the profile is drawn. Normally vertical scale is much larger than
horizontal scale for the clear view of the profile.
A 3.005 108.620 105.615 B.M.

1 0+00 2.285 0.720 106.335

2 0+10 1.560 0.725 107.060

3 0+20 1.785 0.225 106.835

4 0+30 2.105 0.320 106.515

T.P.1
B 0+40 2.875 3.105 1.000 108.390 105.515

5 0+50 3.465 0.590 104.925

X 0+53.35 3.955 0.490 104.435

6 0+60 3.120 0.835 105.270

7 0+70 3.015 0.105 105.375

8 0+80 2.580 0.435 105.810

9 0+90 1.955 0.625 106.435

C 1+00 1.465 0.490 106.925

S 5.880 4.570 3.935 2.625

 S B.S. - S F.S. = 5.880 – 4.570 = 1.310m
S Rise- S Fall = 3.935 – 2.625 = 1.310m
Last R.L. - First R.L.= 106.925 - 105.615 = 1.310m
3. Cross Sectioning:
In many projects, terrain information transverse to the longitudinal section (through profile leveling) is
also required such as for highways, railways, canals etc. In those cases, surveying is carried out at right
angle to the central line, generally, at regular interval is being carried out and is termed as cross-
sectioning. If, for any reason, a cross-section is run in any other direction, the angle with the centre line
is required to be noted. The observations are then recorded as being to the left or right of the centre line.
 Difference in elevation
Distance Staff reading (m)
Pegs Direction (m) H.I (m) R.L (m) Remark
(m)
B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise (m) Fall (m)

A 3.005 108.620 105.615 B.M.

4 0+30 2.105 0.320 106.515 0m

1.850 0.255 106.770 2m left

1.725 0.125 106.895 4m left

1.680 0.045 106.940 6m left

1.985 0.305 106.635 2m right

1.875 0.11 106.745 4m right

1.780 0.095 106.840 6m right

B 0+40 2.875 3.105 1.000 108.390 105.515 T.P.1

:
Example 1: Following staff readings were taken with a level. The instrument having been shifted after the 4th,
7th and 10th reading. R.L. of the starting B.M. is 100.00 m. Enter the reading in the form of a level book page.
Find the R.L. of stations and apply usual checks.

2.665, 3.745, 3.830, 2.275, 2.645, 0.385, 0.960, 1.640, 2.845, 3.845, 2.680 and 3.265
Solution :
Observatio
B.S.(m) I.S.(m) F.S.(m) H.I.(m) R.L.(m) Remark
n Station
1 2.655 102.655 100.00 B.M.
2 3.745 98.910
3 3.830 98.825
4 2.645 2.275 103.025 100.380 CP1
5 0.385 102.640
6 1.640 0.960 103.705 102.065 CP2
7 2.845 100.860
8 2.680 3.485 102.900 100.220 CP3
9 3.265 99.635
S 9.620 9.985

S B.S. - S F.S. = 9.620 - 9.985 = - 0.365 m

Last R.L. - First R.L. = 99.636 - 100.00 = - 0.365 m
Example 2: The following consecutive reading were taken with dumpy level on continuously sloping
ground at common interval of 30m .if the frist point RL was 380.500m, calculate RL of other point by
rise and fall method.
0.855, 1.545, 2.335, 3.115,3.825, 0.455, 1.380, 2.055, 2.855, 3.455, 3.455, 0.585, 1.015, 1.850,
1.850,2.755,3.845.
Solution :

Observat
ion Length B.S.(m) I.S.(m) F.S.(m) Rise Fall R.L.(m) Remark
Station
1 0 .855 380.500 B.M.
2 30 1.545
3 60 2.335
4 90 3.115
5 120 0.455 3.825 CP1
6 150 1.380
7 180 2.055
8 210 2.855
9 240 3.455
10 270 3.455
 Reciprocal Leveling
• To find accurate relative elevations of two widely separated intervisible points (between which
levels cannot be set), reciprocal leveling is being used.
• We have found by the principle of equalizing backsight and foresight distances that if the level is
placed exactly midway between two points and staff reading are taken to determine the difference
of level, then the errors (due to inclined of collimation line, curvature and refraction) are
automatically eliminated.
• In reciprocal leveling, the level is set up on the both banks of the river or valley and two sets of
staff readings are taken by holding the staff on both banks.
• In this case, it is found that the errors are completely eliminated and true difference of level is equal
to the mean of the true apparent differences of level.
Determination of difference of elevation by single and
reciprocal observations
To find the difference in elevation between two points, say X and Y (Figure 15.1), a level is set up at L near
X and readings (X1 and Y1) are observed with staff on both X and Y respectively. The level is then set up
near Y and staff readings (Y2 and X2 ) are taken respectively to the near and distant points. If the
differences in the set of observations are not same, then the observations are fraught with errors. The errors
may arise out of the curvature of the earth or intervening atmosphere (associated with variation in
temperature and refraction) or instrument (due to error in collimation) or any combination of these.
The true difference in elevation and errors associated with observation, if any, can be found as follows:

Let the true difference in elevation between the points be rh and the total error be e. Assuming, no error on
observation of staff near the level (as the distance is very small)

Then, rh = X1 - (Y1 - e) [From first set of observation]…..1

and rh = (X2 - e) - Y2 [From second set of observation]….2

Adding Eqs. (1) and (2), we get

Thus, the true difference in elevation between any two points can be obtained by taking the mean of the two
differences in observation.
Thus, the true difference in elevation between any two points can be obtained by taking the mean of the
two differences in observation.

Thus, total error in observations can be obtained by taking the difference of the two differences in
observation. The total error consist of error due to curvature of the earth, atmospheric errors (due to
temperature and refraction) and instrumental errors (due to error in collimation) etc
 Example 3: In order to transfer reduced level across a canyon, a reciprocal leveling campaign was
conducted. Simultaneous readings were observed using two levels one at each side of the canyon. Each of
the levels are having same magnifying power and sensitiveness of level tube. With instruments
interchanged during leveling operation yielded the following average readings:

Instrument Average near Average distant,

station readings, meter readings, meter R.L of X = 101.345 m
Distance,
X 1.780 2.345 XY = 1.025Km
Y 2.435 1.870

Find out the R.L. of unknown point. Comment on the errors associated with observations.

Solution :
The difference in elevation between X and Y is

= 0.565 m (Y lower than X)

R.L. of Y (unknown Point) = R.L. of X - Dh = 101.345 - 0.565 = 100.780 m

Ex.16-1 A surveyor standing on seashore can just see the top of a ship through the telescope of a
levelling instrument. The height of the line of sight at instrument location is 1.65 meter above msl
and the top of ship is 50 meter above sea level. How far is the ship from the surveyor?

The following notes refer to the reciprocal levels taken with one level:

Staff Readings on
Remarks
Instrument Station
Near Station Further station

P 1.03 1.630 Distance PQ = 800 m

Q 2.74 0.950 R.L. of P = 450 m

Find (i) the true R.L. of Q;

•combined correction for curvature and refraction
•the error in collimation adjustment of the instrument.
 Errors in Levelling
There are following types of Errors in Leveling :-
1.Instrumental Errors
2.Personal Errors
3.Natural Errors
4.Other Errors
 1.Instrumental Error
Error in permanent adjustment of level : For any major surveying work, instrument needs
to be tested and if required, gets to be adjusted. For small works, bubble of the level tube
should be brought to the centre before each reading and balancing of sights are to be
maintained.
Staff defective and/or of non-standard quality : The graduation in staff may lack standard
distance and thus may cause error in reading. In an ordinary leveling, the error may be
negligible but in the case of precise leveling, the graduations are to be standardized with
invar tape.
Error due to defective level tube : The bubble of the level tube may remain central even
though the bubble axis is not horizontal due to its sluggishness or it may take considerable
time to occupy central position, if it is very sensitive. Also, there may be irregularity in the
curvature of the tube causing delirious effect.
Error due to defective tripod : The tripod stand should be strong and stable otherwise it
causes setting of the instrument unstable and considerable time is required to make it level.
The nuts provided at the joints of the legs to the tripod head should be well-tightened before
mounting the instrument. The tripod should be set up on a stable, firm ground.
 2.Personal Error
Due to imperfection in temporary adjustment of the instrument
These errors are caused due to careless setting up of the level, improper leveling of the instrument, lack in
focus of eyepiece or/and objective and error in sighting of the staff.
Careless set-up of the instrument: If the instrument is not set up firmly, it gets disturbed easily. If the ground
is not firm, it may settled down and on hard ground, it may get slipped.
Imperfect leveling of the instrument : Due to improper leveling of the instrument, bubble does not remain at
the centre when the sights are taken resulting error in reading. To avoid the error, the bubble should be brought
to the centre before each reading.
Imperfect focusing . If either the eye-piece or the objective or both are not properly focused, parallax and thus
error in the staff readings occur. Due to movement of eyes if there is any apparent change in the staff reading
the eye-piece and objective need proper focusing.
Errors in sighting : This occurs when the horizontal cross-hair does not exactly coincide with the staff
graduation or it is difficult to see the exact coincidence of the cross hairs and the staff graduations. The error
can be minimised by keeping the sight distance small.
Error due to staff held Non-vertical . If the staff is not held vertical, the staff reading obtained is greater than
the correct reading. To reduce the error, the staff should be held exactly vertical or the staff man should be
asked to waive the staff towards the instrument and then away from the instrument and the lowest reading
should be taken.
Errors in reading the staff: These errors occur if staff is read upward, instead of downwards,
read against the top or bottom hair instead of the central hair, mistakes in reading the decimal part
and reading the whole meter wrongly.
Errors in recording: The common errors are entering a wrong reading (with digits interchanged
or mistaking the numerical value of a reading called by the level man), recording in wrong
column, e.g., B.S. as I.S., omitting an entry, entering the inverted staff reading without a minus
sign etc.
Errors in computing: adding the fore sight reading instead of subtracting it and or subtracting a
back sight reading instead of adding.

3.Error due to Natural Cause

Error due to curvature : In case of small sight distance error due to the curvature are negligible, but
if the sight distances are large, the error should be estimated and accounted. However, the error can
be minimized through balancing of sight or reciprocal observation.
With reference to Figure 16.1, the horizontal line of sight through an instrument set at L is L'
x h. The level line passing through L' is L' x L. The correct staff reading at X is x L. Thus,
horizontal staff reading at station X, x h is associated with an error x h x L due to curvature of
the earth.
In Figure 16.2, PH is a horizontal line tangent at P to the level line along the mean radius, Rm
of the earth. At station L, LH is the amount of departure of the horizontal line from level line
and thus the error due to curvature of the earth (ec). This can be calculated from the triangle
OPH in which
 OH2 = OP2 + PH2
Or, (Rm + ec )2 = Rm2 + PH2

(Neglecting ec in the denominator as it is very small in comparison to Rm ).

Assuming, mean radius of the earth as 6367 Km, and D is the distance in Km from the instrument
position to the staff station, the error due to the curvature of the earth is

ec= 0.0785D2 Meters

It is subtractive in nature as curvature of the earth always provides increase in staff reading.
Error due to refraction: It varies with temperature, terrain and other atmospheric conditions. It is
usually considered to be one seventh times but in opposite nature to the error due to curvature. To
minimize this error, reciprocal observation at the same instant of time is required to be adopted.

In actual field condition, the line of sight through a level is not straight but it bends downward due to
the refraction of rays of light as it passes through the intervening medium. Thus, reduces the error due
to curvature of the earth by approximately 14%. With reference to Figure 16.1, the actual line of sight
of the instrument set at L is thus L' x a. The observed staff reading at station X is x a. Thus, the
compensation due to refraction is thus x h x a which is error due to refraction (er ) through intervening
atmosphere. In Figure 16.2, HA is the error due to refraction (er ).
• The effect of refraction is therefore 1/7th that of the curvature but of opposite sign.
• The correction of refraction is always added to the staff readings.

The correction for refraction

Cr = 1/7× d2/2 Rm
= 0.0112d2
where d is in kilometers.
The combined error due to curvature and refraction (ecomb ) is thus given by

ecomb = 0.0675 D2 m
where D is the distance in km
It is finally subtractive in nature as the combined effect provides increase in staff reading. In Figure
16.1, x l x a represents the combined error due to curvature and refraction and in Figure 16.2, it is AL .

In most ordinary leveling operation, the line of sight is rarely more than 2 meter above the ground
(where the variation in temperature causes substantial uncertainties in the refraction index of air).
Fortunately, most lines of sights in leveling are relatively short (< 30 m) and B.S. & F.S. are balanced.
Consequently, curvature and refraction corrections are relatively small thus insignificant except for
precise leveling.

Errors due to wind: Strong wind disturbs leveling of an instrument and verticality of staff. Thus, it is
advisable to suspend the work in this condition.
Errors due to sun : Due to bright sunshine on the objective, staff reading cannot be taken properly. To
avoid such error, it is recommended to maintain a shed to the objective.
Errors due to temperature: Temperature of the atmosphere disturbs setting of parts of instrument as
well as causes fluctuation in the refraction of the intervening medium. These lead to error in staff
reading. Disturbance caused to instrument may be minimized by placing the instrument under shed.
 Precaution in Leveling

While leveling, the following precautions should be taken:

•The staff should be held vertical while taking the reading;
•The bubble in the level tube is to be brought to central before taking any reading;
•Readings should be taken in the proper direction depending on the type of staff;
•Balancing of sight is to be maintained as far as possible;
•Reading and recording of observation correctly.
Effect of curvature and refraction.
 Curvature Correction
• For long sights the curvature of earth can effect staff readings. The line
of sight is horizontal but the level line is curved and parallel to the mean
spheroidal surface of the earth.
• The vertical distance between the line of sight and level line at
particular place is called the curvature correction.
• The effect of curvature is to cause the object sighted to appear higher
than they really are.
• Curvature correction is always Subtractive(-)
• True staff reading=(Observed staff reading- 0.0785D2)m
• Where D= distance in Km.
 Refraction
• The ray of light pass through layers of air of different densities
and refractor bent down. The effect of refraction is to make the
object appear higher then they really are. Refraction varies
considerably with climate conditions.
However it is taken as,
• Cr=0.0112 D2m
• Refraction is always additive
True staff reading = Observed staff Reading+ Refraction
correction.
• If the distance between the instrument station and object is
small, correction of earth curvature and reflection is not
required.
• If the distance between the instrument station and object is
large the combined correction = 0.0673 D2, for earth’s
curvature and reflection is required, were D = distance in Km.
Example 3 A level was set up at a point O and the distances to two staff stations A and B were 150 m
and 250 m respectively. The observed staff readings on stations A and B were 2.725 and 1.855. Find the
correct difference of levels between stations A and B.
Solution.
Combined correction of curvature and refraction for the staff reading on A
= 0.0673 d2 = 0.0673 ×(150/1000) 2
= 0.0015 m
Combined correction of curvature and refraction for the staff reading on B
= 0.0673 d2 = 0.0673 × (250/1000)2
= 0.0042 m.

∴ Correct staff reading on station A

= 2.7250 − 0.0015 = 2.7235 m

and Correct staff reading on station B

= 1.8550 − 0.0042 = 1.8508 m

∴ Correct difference of level between A and B

= 2.7235 − 1.8508 = 0.8727 m Ans.
 Advanced Leveling Instrument

• Automated Levels
• Easy to use (not power)
• No Needs experience
• Robust even in hostile environment

• Digital Levels
• Push-button technique
• No reading errors, special staff
• Readings are stored and analyzed digitally
• Laser Level
• Has a compensator similar to Automatic Level
• Radiates a Laser Beam 360 through line of
collimation
• Laser is then picked by a receiver to indicate
line of collimation
• Some lasers are self leveling
• Survey quality laser levels are designed with
two features:
• Visible or non-visible
• Rotating or non-rotating
THANK YOU