UNIT FOUR

MEASUREMENT OF ELEVATIONS

4.1. LEVELLING AND LEVELLING STAFFS

4.2. USE AND ADJUSTMENT OF LEVELS

4.3. DIFFERENT METHODS OF LEVELLING

4.4. SOURCES OF ERRORS & PRECISION OF LEVELLING PROCEDURES.

 4.1. LEVELLING AND LEVELLING STAFFS

 Levelling is defined as “an art of determining the relative height of

different points above or below the surface”

 Levelling is a branch of surveying to measure levels of different

points with respect to a fixed point such as elevation of a building,
height of one point from ground.

 Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes

by which elevations of points or differences in elevation are
determined.
 Cont’d…

 The main purpose of Levelling are:-

 To find the elevation of given point with respect to some assumed

reference line called datum.

 To establish point at required elevation respect to datum.

 Terms used in Levelling
♥ Level surface
 It is the surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth.
 Cont’d…

♥ Level line:- Line lying on level surface.

♥ Horizontal plane:- is a plane tangential to level surface.

♥ Horizontal line:- is a straight line tangential to level line.

♥ Datum:- “It is an arbitrary level surface from which elevation of

points may be referred”.

♥ Mean Sea Level is the average height of sea for all stages of tides
derived by averaging the hourly tide height over a period of 19
 Cont’d…
♥ Reduced level:- is height or depth of any point above or below any datum.
It is denoted as R.L.

♥ Bench Mark (B.M.):- is a fixed reference point of known elevation with

respect to datum.

♥ Line of collimation:- is a line joining the intersection of cross hairs of

diaphragm to the optical center of object glass and its continuation. It is also
known as line of sight.

♥ Height of instrument(H.I) :- is the elevation of line of collimation with

respect to datum
 Cont’d…
♥ Back sight(B.S):- is a staff reading taken at a known elevation. It is the
first staff reading taken after setup of instrument.

♥ Fore sight( F.S.):- is the last staff reading taken denoting the shifting of
the instrument.

♥ Intermediate sight(I.S.):- is staff reading taken on a point whose

elevation is to be determined. All staff reading between B.S. and F.S. are
called Intermediate sight.

♥ Turning Point (T.P):- is a point on w/c both fore & back sight are taken.
 4.1.1. INSTRUMENTS FOR LEVELLING

The following instruments are essentially required for levelling

1) Level & its type

2) Levelling Staff
 1) LEVEL AND TYPES OF LEVEL

I. Level:- the instrument used to furnish horizontal line of sight for

observing staff readings and determining R.L.s.
II.Types of Level:- The Four types of Levels used for levelling are:-
A. Dumpy level
B. Tilting level
C. Wye level
D. Automatic level
 A. DUMPY LEVEL
 Dumpy level is a simple, compact, stable and the most commonly
used instrument in levelling.

 In this Level, the telescope is rigidly fixed to its supports. Hence it

cannot be rotated about horizontal axis.
 B. TILTING LEVEL
 It is also known as Indian office Pattern(I.O.P.) level. In this level the
telescope tilts about its horizontal axis hence it is called tilting level.
 C. WYE LEVEL
 The essential difference between wye level and other levels is that in
wye level the telescope is carried by two vertical wye supports. The
telescope can be rotated, moved or even raised in wyes.
 D. AUTOMATIC LEVEL

 It is also known as self aligning level. It is a recent development.

 The fundamental difference between Auto level and other levels is

that the levelling is not manually but it is levelled automatically. It is
achieved by inclination compensating device.
 2) LEVELLING STAFFS

 A levelling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations.

 Levelling staffs are scales on which distances are measured.

 Levelling staffs are grouped in to two types. Those are:-

Self Reading staff
Target staff
A) Self Reading Staff:-
 The self reading staff can be read directly by the level man looking
through the telescope.
 Cont’d…

 The common types of self reading staffs are:-

Ordinary staff
Telescopic staff
Folding Staff

I. Ordinary staff:-
 is solid and made of seasoned wood, it is a single 3 m long and
graduated in the same way as the telescopic staff.
 Cont’d…
II. Telescopic Staff

 Telescopic staff is arranged in three lengths placed one into the other.

 It can be extended to its full length by pulling. The top portion is solid
and the central box is hollow the total length of staff is 4 m.

 The staff is graduated in such a way that smallest division is of 5 mm.

 The value in m are marked in red on the left and those in decimeter
are in black on the right.
 Cont’d…
III) Folding Staff

 The folding staff is made up of well seasoned timber such as Cyprus.

It consists of two 2 m wooden pieces with a joint assembly.

 The staff has brass cap at the bottom. It has two folding handles, with
spring action. It is provided with a circular bubble fitted at the back.

 Each piece of the staff is made of one longitudinal strip without any
joint. The folding joint is of the detachable type with a locking device
at the back.
 Cont’d…
B) Target Staff

 For very precise works and sight target staff are used.

 A movable target is provided in this staff.

 In target staff level man directs the staff man to move the target up and
down until it bisects by the line of sight. The staff man observe the staff
reading.

 The face of each rod is graduated in feet, tens and hundredth of a foot,
while the back of a sliding rod is similarly graduated, but from the top
downwards.
 4.2. USE AND ADJUSTMENT OF LEVELS
 Leveling is done for all important engineering works and construction projects.

 Some of the purposes for which leveling is done are listed below:

To find elevations on the earth’s surface for topographic maps.

For design of highways, railways, canals, sewers etc.

For locating grid lines

For laying out of construction projects

For locating excavating(mining) levels

To determine the drainage characteristics of an area

Determination of volumes of earthwork for roads, railways etc.

 4.2.1. Adjustment of levelling
1. Temporary Adjustment:
 Adjustments are made for every setting of a level.
 At each set up of a level it is required to be carry out.
 Operations of temporary adjustment include:

I. Setting
II. Levelling
III.Focusing
 Cont’d…

 During setting

 This operation includes fixing the instrument on the tripod and also
approximate levelling by leg adjustment.

1) The Tripod stand up firmly having its head horizontal .

2) Rotate the lower part of the instrument with right hand and holding
firmly the upper part with the left hand.

3) The level is fixed on its top by turning tripod legs radially.

 Cont’d…
 During Levelling

 The object of levelling up instrument is to make its vertical axis truly

vertical by:

1. Turn the telescope until bubble axis is parallel to the line joining any
two screws

2. Turn the two screws inward and outward till bubble is centered.

3. Turn back the telescope to its original position

4. Check the bubble till it centered for both positions of telescope

 Cont’d…

 Focusing

1. Focusing the eyepiece: Hold a sheet of white paper in front of

telescope and rotate eyepiece in or out till the cross hairs are
seen sharp and distinct

2. Focusing the objective: For this telescope is directed towards

the staff and the focusing screw is turned till reading appear
clear and sharp.
 Cont’d…
2. Permanent adjustment of level:

 Establishing a desired relationship b/n the fundamental lines of a leveling

instrument is termed permanent adjustment.

 Permanent adjustment indicates, rectification of instrumental error.

The fundamental lines
The line of collimation
The axis of the bubble tube
The vertical axis
The axis of the telescope
 4.3. DIFFERENT METHODS OF LEVELLING

 The various methods of levelling are classified as follows:

Simple levelling.
Differential levelling.
Fly levelling.
Profile levelling.
Check levelling.
Reciprocal levelling.
Trigonometrical levelling.
Precise levelling.
 Cont’d…

 Simple levelling: is the simplest method used to find the difference

in elevation between two points.

 Differential Levelling: is used to find the difference in the elevation

between points if they are too far apart or the difference in elevation
between them is too much.
 Cont’d…
 The basic cycle of differential leveling can be summarized as follows:

 Frequently, the elevations of points over a relatively long distance must be

determined. A process of measuring two or more widely separated points simply
involves several cycles or repetitions of the basic differential leveling operation.
 Cont’d…
 The process of differential leveling is repeated at each instrument set up.
 Cont’d…

 Fly Levelling: is just like differential levelling used to check the

accuracy of levelling. In fly levelling only B.S. and F.S. are taken.

 Profile levelling: is used for taking levels along the center line of
any alignment like road, railway, canal etc. It’s object is to determine
the undulations of the ground surface along the alignment.

 Check levelling: is carried out to check the accuracy of work. It is

done at the end of the days work in the form of fly levelling to
connect the finishing point and starting point.
 Cont’d…

 Reciprocal levelling: is adopted to accurately determine the

difference of level between two points which are far apart. It is used
when it is not possible to setup level in midway between two points.
 Trigonometrical levelling:
 Cont’d…
 Precise Levelling:

 It is used for establishing bench marks for future public use.

 It is carried out with high degree of accuracy using advanced instruments.

 Barometric Levelling:
 In this method the altitude difference is determined by means of a barometer.

 It is based on the fact that the atmospheric pressure varies inversely with
height.

 Barometer is used to determine the differences in elevation of points, which

differ considerably in heights as in a mountainous country.
 4.3.1. Methods of Reducing Levels

1. Height of Instrument Method

 This method consist of finding H.I. for every setup of instrument,

and then obtaining the R.L. of point of reference with respect to H.I.
 Cont’d…
 Example: Height of Instrument Method
 Cont’d…

 Example of Instrument Method

 The following staff readings were observed successively with a

level the instrument is moved by third, sixth and eighth readings.
2.228 :1.606 :0.988 :2.090 :2.864 :1.262 :
0.602 :1.982 :1.044 :2.684 m.

 Enter the reading in record book and calculate R.L. if the first
reading was taken at a B.M of 432.383m
 2. Rise and Fall Method
 This method consist of determining the difference of level b/n consecutive
points by comparing each point with immediate preceding point.
 Example: Rise and Fall Method
 Cont’d…
 Example of Rise and Fall Method

 The following consecutive readings were taken with a level and a 4m staff at
a common interval of 30m; The first reading was taken at B.M. having R.L.
=100m.

 The instrument were shifted after the 4th and 9th readings. Rule out a page of
a level book, enter the readings given and also calculate the reduced levels
of the points by the collimation method and also apply arithmetic checks.

 Consecutive readings are: 2.650, 1.745, 0.625, 0.260, 2.525, 2.160, 1.235,
0.870, 1.365, 0.625, 1.790, and 2.535.
 4.4. SOURCES OF ERRORS & PRECISION OF LEVELLING
PROCEDURES.
Errors in Levelling
 The following are the different sources of Errors
a) Personal Error:-
 The Instruments may not be levelled.
 The focusing of eye piece and objective glass may not be perfect.
 The position of staff may have changed
 Entry and recording in the field book may not be correct
 The staff may not be fully extended, may not be held vertical.
 Cont’d…
b) Instrumental Error

 The Permanent adjustment of the instrument may not be perfect.

That is the line of collimation may not be horizontal line.

 The internal arrangement of focusing tube may not be correct

 The graduation of the staff may not be perfect

 Imperfect bubble tube, if the bubble tube is inactive, the bubble line
is not horizontal.
 Cont’d…

c) Errors due to Natural Causes

 The Curvature of the Earth may affect the staff readings when the
distance of sight is long.

 The effect of refraction may cause a wrong staff reading.

 There are some errors in staff readings due to high velocity wind.

 Common errors in Leveling:-

 Foresight and back sight not being taken on exactly the same point.
 Cont’d…

 Reading the staff upward instead of downward

 Reading of stadia hair

 Reading of wrong number of meter and decimeter

 Entering backsight in F.S and vice versa

 Transposing the figures

 Omitting an entry

 The leveling staff not being fully extended.

 Cont’d…

Curvature & Refraction Correction

Curvature Correction:-

 The vertical distance between the line of sight and level line at
particular place is called the curvature correction.

 The effect of curvature is to cause the object sighted to appear lower

than they really are.

 Curvature correction is always Subtractive(-)

 Cont’d…

 True staff reading = (Observed staff reading - 0.0785D 2)m.

 Where D= distance in Km.

 Cont’d…
Refraction:-

 The ray of light pass through layers of air of different densities and
refractor bent down.

 The effect of refraction is to make the object appear higher than they
really are.

 Refraction varies considerably with climate conditions.

 However it is taken as, Cr=0.0112 D2 m(+)

 Refraction is always additive

 Cont’d…
 True staff reading = Observed staff Reading+ Refraction correction.
 UNIT 5
5. TRAVERSING
5.1. Introduction
 The methods of establishing control points in surveying are; triangulation,
trilateration, Satellite position fixing, and traversing.
 Traverse is a series of connected survey lines of known lengths and directions.
 In traversing the positions of points are fixed by measuring horizontal angles, at
each station, subtended by the adjacent stations and the horizontal distance
between consecutive pairs of stations.
 Cont’d…
 The angles define shape of the network, while the lengths establish the scale.

Use of traverse control points

In Engineering surveying traverse points are used as control for:

Surveying topographic detail.
Cadastral Survey to lay out property boundaries.
Setting out engineering works.
 Aerial survey (Photogrammetric survey).
 5.2. Types of Traverse
There are two types of traverses

1. Open traverse.

 Is a traverse which neither start and end at the same point nor start
and end at known point. It does not form a polygon.
 Open traverses are mainly used in underground tunneling and mining
works where physical situation does not allow closing the traverse.
 Open traverse has no means of checking.
 Cont’d…
2. Closed traverse

 Closed traverse may be polygonal traverse or link traverse.

 Polygonal traverse is the one, which close back to its starting point.

 A link traverse is the one, which starts at a known point and ends to another
known point (points with known position).

 The advantage of closed traverse is that the amount of angular and linear
miss closures can be detected and corrected.
Type of traverse
 5.3. Traverse Surveying Fieldwork

 The general duties of the traverse field party is to :

1) Select suitable stations.

2) Measure and record distances between stations.

3) Set, and move the sighting targets from station to station.

4) Measure and record the angles.

5) Reference the stations for further use.

 Cont’d…

 Selection of traverse stations

 The positions of the stations are governed by the following factors:

a) Easy measuring conditions.

b) Traverse lines should be long and have approximately of equal lengths.

c) Stations should pass near to the features to be surveyed.

d) Lines of sight should not pass too close to ground to avoid effect of refraction.

e) Adjacent traverse stations should be inter visible to each other

 Cont’d…

5.3.1. Measurements made in traversing

 Linear measurements:- Measured by electromagnetic distance

measuring instrument (EDM), Tachometric method or by direct
taping with steel tapes.

 Angular measurements:- These are obtained using theodolites.

Total stations are used to obtain both linear & angular measurements
and make the use of theodolite and tape obsolete in traversing.
 Cont’d…
 Conditions for making linear measurements using tape include:-

i. When measurements made on the slope, vertical angles to same points

should be observed.

ii. Each tape length should be aligned accurately using a theodolite.

iii. Field temperature should be recorded and the appropriate correction applied.

iv. If steel tape is to be used, it should be standardized before being used and
correction for tension should be applied,

v. Sag corrections should be applied to measured lengths when the tape was
under sag during measurements.
 Cont’d…
 For the Angular observations:-

 Angles in traverse are observed referring from a Reference point also known as
Reference Object (R. O). A reference object is a point where a first reading is
taken after setting the instrument.

 Angles are observed before linear measurements then, while the theodolite is
set up, the various vertical angles can be taken and the tape aligned properly
for taking linear measurements.

 If three tripods are available, forced centering method is adopted to eliminate

small systematic centering errors.
 Cont’d…

5.3.2. Conversion of angles to bearings

 Observed angles are corrected and converted to bearings to facilitate

computations of rectangular coordinates.
 Procedures:
1. Open and Polygon traverse

♥ To the previous forward WCB, add observed angle 180o = WCB of next line.

♥ Use +ve when the sum is less than 180o

♥ Use –ve when the sum is more than 180o

♥ If the sum is more than 540o, subtract 540o

 5.4. COORDINATE SYSTEMS
 Coordinates are description of location of points on the earth’s surface.
 In a general classification the coordinates used word-wide are as follows:
1) Astronomical coordinate system
2) Geodetic coordinate system
3) Cartesian coordinate system and
4) Plane Rectangular coordinate system
 Coordinates used in most of engineering surveying are:
1. Cartesian coordinates, in w/c point is defined by the length and bearing
from a reference point
2. Rectangular coordinates, defined by perpendicular distances from the
reference axes to a point.
 Cont’d…

 The axes are Eastings (x-axis) and Nothings (y-axis). The usual Mathematical
sign conventions are used.
Departures and Latitudes
 Departures are Eastings (x) and Latitudes are Northings (y). Partial
departures/latitudes are partial coordinates/change in coordinates.
 Partial departures and partial latitude are used in determining the
coordinates (departures and latitude) of a point.
 Partial departures and partial latitude are computed from length and bearing of
line.
 Cont’d…
 If the length and bearing of a line AB are L and  respectively, the Partial
departures (ΔE) and partial latitude (ΔN) are computed from:
1. ΔE = Lsin  ….(1)

2. ΔN = Lcos  …..(2).

 If the total coordinates of points A and B are (NA, EA) and (NB, EB) then,

 Partial latitude of AB= NB – NA = ΔNAB = Lcos  …..(3)

 Partial departure of AB = EB – EA= EAB = Lsin  …….(4)

 Equations (1) to (4) are very useful in computations of coordinates in

surveying.
 Cont’d…

 Coordinates can be computed and converted from one system to another to

define a position of a point on the earth’s surface as shown in the figure below.
 Cont’d…
Mathematical sign conventions

QUADRANTS
A circle is divided into four quadrants
having 90 degree angular measure.
 Cont’d…

 Use of coordinates;
 The coordinate values are used for:

1) Adjusting the traverse

2) Plotting accurately the traverse on the constructed grid system Computations

of data for setting out engineering works.

3) The final stage in the traverse computation is adjustment of the coordinates

to make the traverse network geometrically correct.

 For polygon traverse: ΔE = ΔN =0

 UNIT 6
6. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING

 Topography is the study of the shape and features of land surfaces.

 Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary science and is

concerned with local detail in general, including not only relief but
also natural and artificial features, and even local history and culture.
 Cont’d…
 Topography - defined as the shape or configuration or relief or
three-dimensional quality of a surface.

 Topography maps are very useful for engineers when planning and
locating a facility.
 Cont’d…
Topographic surveying:

 Determining the relative locations of points (places) on the earth's

surface by measuring horizontal distances, differences in elevation
and directions.
 Survey of correct horizontal and vertical positions of features.

 Identify and locate contours and physical features on the surface of

the earth or slightly above or below the earth's surface (i.e. trees,
buildings, streets, utility poles etc.)
 Cont’d…

 Main features on a topographic map are

Points, lines/ networks (road, rail, water),

Polygons (property, vegetation, soil boundaries) and

Heights (contours, spot heights).

 Different categories of topographic features are:

Man-made features, e.g. buildings, fences etc.

Natural features that are not easily defined e.g. trees, streams
etc.
 6.1. Plane table surveying

 Plotting of the plan and field observations can be done simultaneously.

 Cont’d…

 Best fitted for small-scale surveying.

 Surveying industrial areas where compass survey fails to perform
 Instruments used:-

1) Spirit level: is required to ensure levelling the table surface.

 The spirit level can be place in two perpendicular directions and levelled.
 Cont’d…

2) Magnetic needle:
 A magnetic needle in a rectangular box is generally used.
 By turning the box placed on the table, the needle is made to read zero.
 A line drawn along the edges of the box gives the magnetic meridian
 Cont’d…

General Instructions while Plane Table Surveying:

 The points A, B, C etc. on the ground should be denoted by the corresponding
small letters a, b, c, etc. when plotted on the sheet.
 The table should be turned only when it is to be oriented.
 The table should be kept clamped in position while the objects are sighted.
 While the sights are being taken, the drawing edge of the alidade must be set
touching the plotted station-point on the sheet and not the other edge.
 The lines should be drawn as fine as possible & with good quality hard pencil.
 6.2. Contours and contour mapping
 Contours are maps showing the natural and cultural features as well as
showing the nature of the surface of the land (topography of the land) of the
up and downs and its representation in (3D)three dimensions.
 A contour is a line drawn on a plan joining all points of the same height
above or below a datum.
 A contour line is a line that passes through points having the same elevation.
 Contour interval: The constant vertical distance(VD) between any two
consecutive contours is called the contour interval.
 Cont’d…
The contour interval on this map is 20m
 Cont’d…

Choice of suitable contour interval depends on several factors:

a) The nature of the ground surface.

b) The scale of the map.
c) The purpose of the map.
d) The area of the ground.
e) The time and cost.
 Cont’d…
Elevation from Contours
  Distance to High 
Elevation = High Contour - High Elevation - Low Elevation x  
 Distance between 

 Elevations of points between contours can be determined by interpolation.

 0.75 
.
Elevation = 200 - 200 - 150 x  
  2 
 200 - 50 x 0.375
= 200 - 18.75
= 181.25 or 181 ft
 Cont’d…
Slope from Contours
 The percent slope can also be determined from the contour lines on a topo map.
 Determine the slope between the two points on the map.
 Rise 
% slope =   x 100
Run 
Rise = 200 - 150 = 50 ft.

200 ft - 250 ft 
% slope =   x 100
 2625 ft 
= 1.9 %
 6.2.1. Basic characteristics of contour lines
1) Contour lines are continuous.

 Some contour lines may close

within the map, but others will
not.

 In this case, they will start at a

boundary line and end at a
boundary line.
 Cont’d…

2) Contour lines are parallel

 Contour lines are relatively parallel
unless one of two conditions exists.

 Two exceptions are:

1. They will meet at a vertical cliff

2. They will overlap at a cave or

overhang.
 Cont’d…
3. Valleys and higher elevation
 A series of V-shapes indicates a valley
and the V’s point to higher elevation.
4. U shapes and ridge
 A series of U shapes indicates a ridge.
 The U shapes will point to lower
elevation.
 Cont’d…
5. Contour Spacing
with the elevations
 Evenly spaced contours indicate an
area of uniform slope.
 Unevenly spaced contours indicates
an area with variable slope.
6. Hills and Depressions
 A series of closed contours with
increasing elevation indicates a hill.
 Hills may be identified with a “+”
 Cont’d…

 A series of closed contours with lower % slope.

decreasing elevation indicates a
depression.
 Depressions may be identified with a
“-”.
7. Contour Spacing

 Contours spaced close together

indicate a higher % slope.

 Contours spaced wider apart indicate

 The End
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