Time Response Analysis

Seventh Semester
Electrical Engineering Department
College of Engineering
Salahaddin University - Erbil

October - 2024
 Time Response

 Since time is used as an independent variable in most control system, it is usually

of interest to evaluate the output response with respect to time, or simply, the
time response.
 In designing a system, the time response behavior may well be the most
important aspect of it’s behavior.
 Time response can be obtained if
1. The mathematical model of the system, and
2. The input(s) of the system
are available.
 Output response of a system is the sum of forced response (steady-state) and
natural response (homogeneous solution)
 The concept of poles and zeros, fundamental to the analysis and design of control
systems, simplifies the evaluation of a system’s response.

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 Transient and Steady-State Responses

 For a stable system, the transient response will decay, usually exponentially, to a
steady state as time increases.
 Transient response is a function only of the system dynamics, and it is
independent of the input quantity.
 Steady-state is the response of the system after the transient component has
decayed and it is a function of both the system dynamics and input quantity.

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 Test Input Signals

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 Poles of a Transfer Function

 The poles of a transfer function are

1. The values of the Laplace transform variable s, that cause the transfer
function to become infinite.
2. Any roots of the denominator of the transfer function that are common to
roots of the numerator.
 For example, the roots of the characteristic polynomial in the denominator are
values of s that make the transfer function infinite, so they are poles.
 If a factor of the denominator can be canceled by the same factor in the
numerator, the root of this factor no longer causes the transfer function to
become infinite.
 In control systems, we often refer to the root of the canceled factor in the
denominator as a pole even though the transfer function will not be infinite at
this value.

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 Zeros of a Transfer Function

 The zeros of a transfer function are

1. The values of the Laplace transform variables s, that cause the transfer
function to become zero
2. Any roots of the numerator of the transfer function that are common to roots
of the denominator.
 For example, the roots of the numerator are values of s that make the transfer
function zero and are zeros.
 However, if a factor of numerator can be canceled by the same factor in the
denominator, the root of this factor no longer causes the transfer function to
become zero.
 In control systems, we often refer to the root of the canceled factor in the
numerator as zero even though the transfer function will not be zero at this
value.

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 System Poles and Zeros

 The transfer function provides a basis for determining important system

response characteristics without solving the complete differential equation.
 The transfer function is a rational function in the complex variable s = σ + jω

 It is often convenient to factor the polynomials in the numerator and

denominator, and to write the transfer function in terms of those factor:

 Where the numerator polynomials, N(s) and the denominator polynomials D(s),
have real coefficients defined by the system’s differential equation and K = bm / an

 Thus zi’s are the roots of the equation N(s) = 0 which are the system zeros.
 And pi’s are the roots of the equation D(s) = 0 which are the system poles.

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 System Poles and Zeros Cont.

 When s = zi the numerator N(s) = 0 and the transfer function vanishes, that is

𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝑯𝑯 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟎𝟎
𝒔𝒔 →𝒛𝒛𝒊𝒊

 When s = pi the denominator polynomial D(s) = 0 and the value of the transfer
function becomes unbounded, that is

𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝑯𝑯 𝒔𝒔 = ∞
𝒔𝒔 →𝒑𝒑𝒊𝒊

 All of the coefficients of polynomials N(s) and D(s) are real, therefore the poles
and zeros must be either purely real, or appear in complex conjugate pairs.
 In general for poles, either pi = σi , jωi ,or σi ± jωi
 The existence of a single complex pole without a corresponding conjugate pole
would generate complex coefficients in the polynomial D(s).
 Similarly, the system zeros are either real or appear complex conjugate pairs.

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 System Poles and Zeros Cont.

Example 4.1
Find the system poles and zeros of the linear system which is described by the
following differential equation:

𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

𝟐𝟐
+ 𝟓𝟓 + 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 𝟐𝟐 + 𝒖𝒖
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Answer
From the differential equation the transfer function is

which may be written in factorial form as

2
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 System Poles and Zeros Cont.

The system therefore has a single real zero at s = -1/2 and a pair of real poles at
s = -3 and s = -2.

Note:
The poles and zeros are properties of transfer function, and therefore of the
differential equation describing the input-output dynamics. Together with the
gain constant K they completely characterize the differential equation, and
provide a complete description of the system.

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 System Poles and Zeros Cont.

Example 4.2
A system has a pair of complex conjugate poles p1, p2 = -1 ± j2, a single real
zero z1 = -4, and a gain factor K = 3. Find the differential equation
representing the system.

Answer
The transfer function is

and the differential equation is

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 The Pole-Zero Plot: s-plane

 A system is characterized by its poles and zeros in the sense that they allow
reconstruction of the input/output differential equation.
 In general, the poles and zeros of a transfer function may be complex, and the
system dynamics may be represented graphically by plotting their locations on
the complex s-plane, whose axes represent the real and imaginary parts of the
complex variables s.
 It is usually to mark a zero location by a circle (o) and a pole location a cross (×).

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 The Pole-Zero Plot: s-plane

Example 4.3
Show the locations of poles and zeros on s-plane of the following system

Answer
Re-writing in the factorial form as

Showing pole and zeros on s-plane jw

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 First-Order Systems

A first-order system without zeros can be described by the following transfer

function

If the input is a unit step, R(s) = 1/s, the Laplace transform of the step response is
C(s), where

Taking the inverse Laplace transform, the step response is given by

where the input pole at the origin generated the forced response (steady-state)
cf(t) = 1, and the system pole at –a generated the natural response (homogeneous
solution) cn(t) = -e-at.
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 First-Order Systems Cont.

Plotting of c(t) is

Let examine the significant of

parameter a, the only parameter
needed to describe the transient
response. When t = 1/a

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 First-Order Systems: Time Constant

 The time constant is the time for e-at to decay to 37% of its initial value, or the
time constant is the time it takes for the step response to rise to 63% of its final
value.
 The reciprocal of the time constant has the units (1/seconds), or frequency.
 Since the derivative of e-at is –a when t = 0, a is the initial rate of change of the
exponential at t = 0.
 Thus, the time constant can be considered a transient response specification for a
first-order system, since it is related to the speed at which the system responds to
a step input.
 The time constant can also be evaluated from the pole on s-plane.
 Since the pole of the transfer function is at –a, it can be said that the pole is
located at the reciprocal of the time constant, and the farther the pole from the
imaginary axis, the faster the transient response.

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 First-Order Systems: Rise Time, Tr

 Rise time Tr , is defined as the time for the waveform to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its
final value.
 From previous case, c(t) = 0.9, c(t) = 0.1, and from the curve, hence

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 First-Order Systems: Settling Time, Ts

 Settling time is the time for the response to reach, and stay within, 2% of its final
value.
 From previous case, let c(t) = 0.98, and solving c(t) for time, t, the setting time is

𝟒𝟒
𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 =
𝒂𝒂
 Setting time within a specific percentage of the final value could be
𝟒𝟒
𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 = 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝟐𝟐%
𝒂𝒂
𝟑𝟑
𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 = 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝟓𝟓%
𝒂𝒂
𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟔
𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 = 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝟏𝟏%
𝒂𝒂

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 First-Order Systems

Example 4.4
A system has a transfer function, G(s) = 75/(s+50). Find the time constant, Tc,
settling time, Ts (for 2% of the final value), and rise time, Tr for a unit step input.

Answer
Since a = 50, thus
Tc = 1/a = 1/50 = 0.02 s
Ts = 4/a = 4/50 = 0.08 s
Tr = 2.2/a = 2.2/50 = 0.044 s

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 Second-Order Systems: General

A general second-order system is characterized by the following transfer function

The transient response of second-order systems can be described by two physical

quantities: undamped natural frequency, ωn , and damping ratio ζ. Solving the
above transfer function for poles yields

𝒔𝒔𝟏𝟏,𝟐𝟐 = −ζ𝝎𝝎𝒏𝒏 ± 𝝎𝝎𝒏𝒏 ζ𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏

Undamped Natural Frequency, ωn , of the second-order systems is the frequency of

oscillation of the system without damping. For example, the frequency of a series
RLC circuit with the resistance shorted would be the natural frequency.
𝒘𝒘𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏 = 𝒃𝒃
or 𝒘𝒘𝒏𝒏 = 𝒃𝒃 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫/𝐬𝐬

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 Second-Order Systems: General Cont.

Damping Ratio, ζ

Since 𝒂𝒂 = 2ζωn

Thus,
𝐚𝐚
ζ=
𝟐𝟐𝛚𝛚𝐧𝐧

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 Second-Order Systems: Step Response

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 Second-Order Systems :Undamped Response ζ = 0

A typical second-order system which has an undamped (oscillatory) response is

 Poles: two imaginary poles at ± jωn

 Natural Response: undamped sinusoidal with radian frequency equal to the
imaginary part of the poles.

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 Second-Order Systems :Underdamped Response 0 < ζ < 1

A typical second-order system which has an underdamped response is

Equating coefficients

Partial fraction expansion

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 Second-Order Systems :Underdamped Response 0 < ζ < 1 Cont.

Poles: two complex poles at - ζ ωn ± jωn 𝟏𝟏 − ζ𝟐𝟐

Natural Response: Damped sinusoidal with an exponential envelop whose time
constant is equal to the reciprocal of the pole’s real part. The radian frequency of
the sinusoid, the damped frequency of oscillation, is equal to the imaginary part of
the poles.

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 Second-Order Systems :Critically Damped Response ζ = 1

A typical second-order system which has a critically damped response is

 Poles: two real poles at - ζωn

 Natural Response: one term is an exponential whose time constant is equal to the
reciprocal of the pole location. Another term is the product of time, t, and
exponential with time constant equal to the reciprocal of the pole location.

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 Second-Order Systems :Overdamped Response ζ > 1

A typical second-order system which has an overdamped damped response is

 Poles: two real poles at

- ζωn ± ωn ζ𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏
 Natural Response: two exponentials
with time constants equal to the
reciprocal of the pole locations.

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 Second-Order Systems :Example

Example 4.5
For each of the following systems do the following: (1) Find the values of damping
ratio and undamped natural frequency; (2) Characterize the nature of the response.

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 Second-Order Systems :Example

Answers

a. ωn = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 = 20, 2ζ ωn = 12  ζ = 0.3 and system is underdamped.

b. ωn = 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 30, 2ζ ωn = 90  ζ = 1.5 and system is overdamped.
c. ωn = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 15, 2ζ ωn = 30  ζ = 1 and system is critically damped.
d. ωn = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 25, 2ζ ωn = 0  ζ = 0 and system is undamped.

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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Specifications of Step Response

 The underdamped second-order system, a common model for physical problems,

displays unique behavior that must be itemized.
 A detailed description of the underdamped response is necessary for both
analysis and design.
 The objective is to define transient specifications associated with underdamped
responses, and relating these specification to the pole location, drawing an
association between pole location and the form of the underdamped second-order
response.
 Tying the pole location to system parameters, thus closing the loop: desired
response generates required system components.
 The underdamped of second-order system occurred when the damping ratio is
between 0 and 1.

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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Specifications of Step Response Cont.

The step response of the general second-order system can be founded as

knowing that for underdamped 0 < ζ < 1, thus using partial fractions yields

Taking the inverse Laplace transform

where

which can be determined from the pole location as in the next graph.
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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Specifications of Step Response Cont.

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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Specifications of Step Response Cont.

The relation between value of ζ and the type response of the second-order system is
shown in the following figure.

As shown, the lower value of ζ, the more oscillatory the response. The natural
frequency is a time-axis scale factor and does not affect the nature of the response
other than to scale
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it in time, Salahaddin University/ College of Engineering
Dr. Fadhil Aula October 2024 33 of 49
 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Specifications of Step Response Cont.

The step response of the second-order system can be characterized by using rise
time, peak time, percent overshoot, and settling time, the following figure shows
these parameters.

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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Specifications of Step Response Cont.

Rise Time, Tr
The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90%, 5% to
95%, or 0% to 100% of its final value. For underdamped second-order systems the
0% to 100% rise time is normally used. For overdamped systems, the 10% to 90% rise
time is commonly used.
Peak Time, Tp
The time required to reach the first, or maximum, peak.
Percentage Overshoot, % OS
The amount that the waveform overshoots the steady-state, or final value at the
peak time, expressed as a percentage of the steady-state value.
Settling Time, Ts
The time required for the transient’s damped oscillations to reach and stay within
±2% of the steady-state value.

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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Specifications of Step Response Cont.

Note:
1. Rise time, peak time, and setting time yield information about the speed of the
transient response. this information can help a designer determine if the speed
and the nature of the response do or do not degrade the performance of the
system.
2. Tp, %OS, and Ts are evaluated as functions of ζ and ωn .
3. Tr and Tp increase together.

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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Evaluation of Tp

Tp is founded by differentiating C(t), and finding the first zero crossing after t = 0.

Completing the squares in the denominator, yields to

Referring to tables in Chapter 2;

Setting the derivative equal to zero yields or

Each value of n yields the time for local maxima or minima. Letting n = 0 yields t =
0, the first point on the curve (in previous figure) that has zero slope. The first peak,
which occurs at the peak time, Tp, is found by letting n = 1 as

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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Evaluation of %OS

From the response of the underdamped second-order

system, the percentage overshoot, %OS, is giving by

The term cmax is found by evaluating c(t) at the peak time, c(Tp):

For unit step, cfinal = 1, substituting cmax and cfinal into %OS yields

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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Evaluation of %OS Cont.
Since the percentage overshoot is a function only of the damping ratio, ζ. Thus, ζ
can be founded for the given %OS (another way for finding ζ);

The relation between %OS and ζ is depicted in the following curve.

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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Evaluation of Ts
In order to find the settling time, we must find the time for which c(t) reaches and
stays within ± 2% of the steady-state value, cfinal. Thus

This equation is conservative estimate, since we assuming that 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 �𝒘𝒘𝒏𝒏 𝟏𝟏 − ζ𝟐𝟐 𝒕𝒕 −
𝜽𝜽� = 𝟏𝟏 at the settling time. Solving the above expression for t, the settling time is

Since the numerator varies from 3.91 to 4.74 as ζ varies from 0 to 0.9. Thus,
simplifying it for all values of ζ yields
𝟒𝟒
𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 =
ζ 𝒘𝒘𝒏𝒏
𝟑𝟑
For 5%, 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 =
ζ 𝒘𝒘𝒏𝒏
𝟓𝟓
and for 1%, 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 =
ζ 𝒘𝒘𝒏𝒏
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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Evaluation of Tr
A precise analytical relationship between rise time and damping ratio, ζ, cannot be
found. However, the approximation value of Tr can be founded using the following
equation for rise the response from 10% to 90%:

And for rising the response from 0% to 100%, Tr is given by

𝟏𝟏 − 𝜻𝜻𝟐𝟐
𝝅𝝅 − 𝜽𝜽 𝝅𝝅 − 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕−𝟏𝟏 𝜻𝜻
𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓 = =
𝒘𝒘𝒅𝒅 𝒘𝒘𝒏𝒏 𝟏𝟏 − 𝜻𝜻𝟐𝟐

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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Example
Example 4.6
Consider the following closed-loop control system:

R(s) 𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛2 1 C(s)

+
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜁𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠
_

For unity step input function, find rise time, delay time, peak time, percentage
overshoot, and settling time when damping ratio and undamped natural frequency are
0.6 and 5 rad/sec, respectively.

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 Underdamped Second-Order Systems: Assignment
H.W. 4.1

Find the value of the resistor R such that a 20% overshoot in vc(t) occurs when vi(t)
is a unit step voltage and C=10-6 F and L= 1H.

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 Higher-Order Systems: General Form
The general form of the higher-order control system can be expressed by the following
transfer function:

𝑪𝑪(𝒔𝒔) 𝒃𝒃𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒔𝒎𝒎 +𝒃𝒃𝟏𝟏 𝒔𝒔𝒎𝒎−𝟏𝟏 + ⋯+𝒃𝒃𝒎𝒎−𝟏𝟏 𝒔𝒔+𝒃𝒃𝒎𝒎

= where m ≤ n
𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔) 𝒂𝒂𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒔𝒏𝒏 +𝒂𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒔𝒔𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 + ⋯+𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒔𝒔+𝒂𝒂𝒏𝒏
Once the numerator and denominator have been factored, C(s)/R(s) can be written as
the following:
𝑪𝑪(𝒔𝒔) (𝒔𝒔+𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 )(𝒔𝒔+𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 )⋯(𝒔𝒔+𝒛𝒛𝒎𝒎 )
= 𝑲𝑲 (K = b0/a0)
𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔) (𝒔𝒔+𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 )(𝒔𝒔+𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 )⋯(𝒔𝒔+𝒑𝒑𝒏𝒏 )

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 Higher-Order Systems: Case 1
Case 1: Poles are real:
For a unit-step input function, the transfer function becomes as
𝒏𝒏
𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂𝒊𝒊
𝑪𝑪 𝒔𝒔 = + �
𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒔 + 𝒑𝒑𝒊𝒊
𝒊𝒊=𝟏𝟏

Where ai is the residue of the pole at s = – pi , ai can be found by using partial-fraction

expansion.
Example 4.7
Find the time response for a unit-step input function of the following closed-loop
control system: 1
Step Response

𝑪𝑪(𝒔𝒔) 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
=
0.9

𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔) 𝒔𝒔𝟑𝟑 +𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 +𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓+𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 0.8

0.7

Answer: The inverse Laplace transform is 0.6

Amplitude

0.5

𝒄𝒄 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝒆𝒆−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓𝒆𝒆−𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 + 𝟒𝟒𝒆𝒆−𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
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0.5 1 October
1.5 2024
2 2.5 3 3.5 45 of 49
 Higher-Order Systems: Case 2
Case 2: Real and complex conjugate poles

For a unit-step input function, the transfer function becomes as

𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓
𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂𝒋𝒋 𝒃𝒃𝒌𝒌 𝒔𝒔 + 𝜻𝜻𝒌𝒌 𝒘𝒘𝒌𝒌 + 𝒄𝒄𝒌𝒌 𝒘𝒘𝒌𝒌 𝟏𝟏 − 𝜻𝜻𝟐𝟐𝒌𝒌
𝑪𝑪 𝒔𝒔 = +� +�
𝒔𝒔 𝒋𝒋=𝟏𝟏
𝒔𝒔 + 𝒑𝒑𝒋𝒋 𝒌𝒌=𝟏𝟏
𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝜻𝜻𝒌𝒌 𝒘𝒘𝒌𝒌 𝒔𝒔 + 𝒘𝒘𝟐𝟐𝒌𝒌

where n= q+2r, and the time response is given by:

𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓

𝒄𝒄 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒂𝒂 + � 𝒂𝒂𝒋𝒋 𝒆𝒆−𝒑𝒑𝒋𝒋𝒕𝒕 + � 𝒃𝒃𝒌𝒌 𝒆𝒆−𝜻𝜻𝒌𝒌𝒘𝒘𝒌𝒌𝒕𝒕 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒘𝒘𝒌𝒌 𝟏𝟏 − 𝜻𝜻𝟐𝟐𝒌𝒌 𝒕𝒕 +

𝒋𝒋=𝒌𝒌 𝒌𝒌=𝟏𝟏
𝒓𝒓

� 𝒄𝒄𝒌𝒌 𝒆𝒆−𝜻𝜻𝒌𝒌𝒘𝒘𝒌𝒌𝒕𝒕 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒘𝒌𝒌 𝟏𝟏 − 𝜻𝜻𝟐𝟐𝒌𝒌 𝒕𝒕

𝒌𝒌=𝟏𝟏

Control Engineering Dr. Fadhil Aula Salahaddin University/ College of Engineering October 2024 46 of 49
 Higher-Order Systems: Case 2
Example 4.8
Find the time response for a unit-step input function of the following closed-loop
control system: 𝑪𝑪(𝒔𝒔) 𝟖𝟖
= 𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟐
𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔) 𝒔𝒔 +𝟓𝟓𝒔𝒔 +𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏+𝟖𝟖

Answer: factoring the denominator:

𝑪𝑪(𝒔𝒔) 𝟖𝟖 𝟖𝟖
= =
𝑹𝑹(𝒔𝒔) (𝒔𝒔+𝟏𝟏)(𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 +𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒+𝟖𝟖) (𝒔𝒔+𝟏𝟏)(𝒔𝒔+𝟐𝟐+𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋)(𝒔𝒔+𝟐𝟐−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐)

The inverse Laplace transform for a unit-step input is

Step Response

𝟖𝟖 𝟑𝟑 𝟏𝟏 1

𝒄𝒄 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒆𝒆−𝒕𝒕 + 𝒆𝒆−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝒆𝒆−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

𝟓𝟓 𝟓𝟓 𝟓𝟓 0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Amplitude

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Control Engineering Dr. Fadhil Aula Salahaddin University/ College of Engineering October 2024
Time (seconds) 47 of 49
 Higher-Order Systems: Assignment
HW. 4.2
Find the time response for a unit-step input function of a unity-feedback system whose
open-loop transfer function is

𝐶𝐶(𝑠𝑠) 3𝑠𝑠 3 + 25𝑠𝑠 2 + 72𝑠𝑠 + 80

= 4
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 + 8𝑠𝑠 3 + 40𝑠𝑠 2 + 96𝑠𝑠 + 80

Control Engineering Dr. Fadhil Aula Salahaddin University/ College of Engineering October 2024 48 of 49
 End of Chapter Four!

Control Engineering Dr. Fadhil Aula Salahaddin University/ College of Engineering October 2024 49 of 49