WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

• COURSE CODE: WME 552

• COURSE TITLE: WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
• FULL MARKS: 50 THEORY:30 PRACTICAL:10
INTERNAL:10

• GENERAL OBJECTIVE: the student will gain knowledge and

skills regarding the concepts and practices of watershed
management in the context mountainous country like Nepal.

1
UNIT 1 INTEGRATED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT (8)
1.1 Objective, Concept, Approach and Scope
1.2. The Watershed as a Management Unit
1.3. Watershed Characteristics
• 1.3.3.1 Climatic zones of Nepal
• 1.3.3.2 Agro-climatic zones of Nepal
• 1.3.3.3 Factors affecting micro-climatic patterns
1.3.4. Land use
• 1.3.4.1 Agriculture
• 1.3.4.2 Forest
• 1.3.4.3 Grass lands
• 1.3.4.4 Shrub lands
• 1.3.4.5 Urban and industrial

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 1.3.5 Land capability
• 1.3.5.1 Land Evaluation
• 1.3.5.2 Land Capability Classification
• Social, Cultural and Economic Factors
– Socio-cultural
Demographic
Cultural obstacles
Awareness and knowledge
– Economic
Market Availability
Economic Class Stratification
Outward Migration and Labor Availability
Tourism Impacts on local Resource use
• 1.3.7. Topography and geometry of watershed
• 1.3.8 Watershed delineation, parametrization and morphometric analysis
(tools and techniques)

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Watershed

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5
6
 Definition of Watershed
• Watershed: Watershed literally means it sheds ‘water’.
The watershed is defined as a unit of land on which all
the water falls, collects by gravity, fails to evaporate,
infiltrate and runs off via common outlet.
• Is a topographically delineated area that is drained by a
water system.
• A watershed is an area with a fixed drainage (water)
divide as a boundary and drained through a common
outlet of creek/stream/river or drained to common
place, such as lake (Sthapit, 1998).

7
 Contd…
• The term drained basin is commonly used in A
mer-
ican literature to mean the watershed, while its
British meaning is ‘catchment’.
• However, a watershed is differentiates from a
river basin in that a river basin, whose main
stream leads to the sea, may encompass
hundreds of watersheds and many other types
of land formation (Sheng, 1990 )

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 Watershed management
• The concept of watershed Management was originated in
the temperate region of USA and later on developed in
many countries of Asia and Africa.

• This integrated approach was started by UNDP in 1960's

while in Nepal in 1970's.

• Watershed management integrates various aspects of

hydrology, ecology, soils, climatology and other sciences
to provide guidelines for choosing acceptable management
alternatives within the socio-economic context taking into
consideration the interactions and implications among land
resources and the linkages between upstream and
downstream areas (Brooks et al., 1991; Sen et al., 1997).
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 Integrated watershed management
• Integrate means combine into whole i.e. complete
• Integration of socio-economic, biophysical, institutional, human
and cultural components.
• It is a comprehensive multi resource management and planning
process, involving all stakeholders within a watershed who
together as a group, cooperatively work toward identifying the
watershed resources issues and concerns, as well as develop and
implement a watershed plan with solution that are
environmentally, socially and economically sustainable (Botero,
1986; UNEP, 2004).
• IWM encompasses the holistic approach to managing watershed
resources that integrates forestry, agriculture, pasture and water
management, which can be broadened to rural development
with a strong link to the livelihoods of the local people.
• In simple form IWM is management of 5 'J' i.e. Janata, Jal, Jamin,
Janawar and Jungle (People, Water, Land, Animal and Forest).

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 Contd…

https://conservationontario.ca/policy-priorities/integrated-watershed-management/ 11
 Scope of watershed management
• Narrow focus, such as management of upland wild-
land associated with water resource
development (Protection focused).
• Broader focus, such as management of agriculture,
forest and grazing lands associated with
water resource development (Production focused).
• Rural development focus, such as management of all
lands associated with their potential for
social and economic development including all
components, e.g. agricultural, forest, grazing,
health, education, market, transport, credit, etc (Rural
development focused) (Sathpit, 1998).

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 Contd…
• Holistic Approach: A holistic approach is widely
accepted for successful SCWM program.
• In a holistic approach, the entire range of activities;
from resource conservation to rural infrastructure
development, need to be included depending on the
physical, socio-economic conditions of the watershed.
• The holistic approach realizes that for a successful
SCWM program, it is better to emphasize on all types
of measures like forestry measures, agronomic
measure (including silvi-pasture management), and
engineering erosion control measures rather than
emphasing on one specific measure approach.

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Upstream & downstream linkage
Upstream conservation Downstream effect
WATER FISH
W Water harvesting F Flood havoc
minimized
A Adoptive action I Infrastructure
research protected
T Torrent control S Siltation
decreased
E Evapo- H Household
transpiration income
management increased
R Recharge of
water

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 1.2 The watershed as a management unit
• Watershed literally means shed water. Therefore, a watershed
is an ideal natural unit over which hydrological processes are
integrated and for which a water balance may be constructed
to show the disposal of precipitation into a number of
subsequent forms, e.g. interception, soil moisture and ground
storage, evapo-transpiration and run-off. Energy balance is
maintained (precipitation input, erosion output).
• A watershed allows assessment of the environmental effects
and impacts of development including land-use activities both
upstream and downstream.
• The effects of landuse activities and disturbances in upstream
such as road construction, quarrying, logging, etc., which oft
en results in a chain of downstream consequences, which can
be readily examined and evaluated at any point within a wat
ershed.
1
 Contd…
• The watershed is a management unit, but the management
objectives of these watersheds varies in great extent. These
management objectives guide the approach of watershed.
• The management objectives may be many such as soil
conservation, water supply, forest management, rangeland
management, hydro-electric dam/reservoir, agriculture
production etc.
• However, the single objective approach may not be
appropriate and multiple objectives will be necessary in
such a way that they are environmentally and economically
sound and socially acceptable.
• Therefore, a watershed is an ideal unit for the planning and
implementation of water resource development and soil
conservation programs.

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 1.3 Watershed charactertics
• Biophysical & socioeconomic features
prevalent in a watershed i.e. soil, geology,
climate, land-use, land capability, socio-
economic, geomorphology are important
characteristics of watershed.
1.3.1 Soil:
• S=surface of the earth, O=organic matter,
i=inorganic matter, l=living things

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 Contd….
• Soil type
• Soil depth
• Soil organic matter
• Soil infiltration capacity
1.3.2 Geology
• Geology is the study of the structure of the Earth, especially
its rocks, soil, and minerals and its history and origins.
Weak geology of the watershed combines with rainfall lead
to various forms of landslide in the watershed.
• Lithology is an study of rock type and understanding of
mechanical properties of rock joints, planes, faults, joints,
slope gradient, orientation etc. are structural characteristics
of geology. Lithology and structural characteristics of
geology need to be identified, which influence landslide in
the watershed.
4
 Contd….

• For example, the rock types like gneiss, mica

schist, phyallite, limestone, sandstone are said
to be susceptible to landslide based on their
formation and orientation of joints, planes
and folds.
• In Nepal it is estimated that about 75 % of the
landslides in the watersheds is due to the
weak geology combined with human
activities.
• Eg. Pokhara valley
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 1.3.3 Climate
• Climate encompasses the statistics of
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure,
wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count
and other meteorological elemental
measurements in a given region over long
periods.
• High intensity rainfall influence both rate and
volume of runoff which ultimately leads to
erosion. Similarly temperature affects climatic
type which has direct effect on agriculture
production as well ground cover in watershed
which helps to decrease erosion and landslide in
watershed.
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1.3.3.1 Climatic zones of Nepal (DoF, 2002)
• Tropical zone: This zone extends throughout the Terai,
the Bhabar and the flat floors of Dun valleys and low
lying river beds and terraces (Tar). It lies between the
altitudes of 70-1000m. It has a hot summer and the
mean annual temperature does not fall below 20 C and
the annual monsoon rainfall varies from 1000-1500
mm with a prolonged dry season.
• Sub-Tropical zone: This is a hot monsoon zone lies
between the altitude of 1000-2000 m. It occupies the
lower portion of the main Himalaya, the middle
portion of Mahabharat range, and the upper portion of
the Siwalik range, in which summer is hot and wet and
winter mild and dry.

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 Contd…
• Temperate zone: This type of climate prevails in the higher
and lower middle mountains up to an elevation of 2000-3000
m. The summer is warm, mild and wet and winter is cool and
dry. This zone is diverse in term of landscape, forest habitats
or agro-ecological zones. Over 40 % of the vegetation types of
Nepal occur in this zone.
• Alpine zone: This zone falls in the high mountains, up to an
elevation of 3000-5000 m. Low atmospheric pressure; low
temperature provides environment conditions for alpine
vegetation. The summer is cool and the winter is extremely
frosty
• Arctic or Tundra zone: This type of "arctic or tundra" climate
prevails in the high Himalaya above 5000 m, the snow-line
where there is perpetual frost, snow and low precipitation.

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 1.3.3.2 Agro-climatic zones of Nepal
• Temperature, rainfall and altitude are major factors for
classifying Agro-climatic zones of Nepal.
• Growth of the crops and growing season are governs by these
factors.
• In Nepal, temperature is varied according to altitude.
Agriculture production is based on these factors.
• For example crops growth is very slow in zone having low
temperature and rainfall and crops growth is very fast in zone
having high temperature and rainfall.
• Based on the mean monthly air temperature, altitude and
annual rainfall Nepal’s agro-climatic zones are divided into
seven different zones

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Zone Altitude Mean Annual Rainfall in mm Agriculture
in m Temperature crops

Lower subtropical <800 >21 >1000, irrigated 3 crops

Monsoon ( 2 paddy, 1 other)

Upper Subtropical 800-1200 19-21 >1000, irrigated 3 crops

Monsoon ( 1 paddy, 2 other)

Warm Temperate 1200-1900 15-19 >1000 2 crops

Monsoon irrigated ( 1 paddy, 1 other)

Cool Temperate 1900-2800 10-15 >500 2 crops

Monsoon irrigated or <500 ( No paddy, 2 other) or
1 crop (no paddy)

Sub-alpine 2800-4100 3-10 >500 1 crop

Monsoon irrigated or <500 ( no paddy, 1 other) no
crop

Alpine Monsoon 4100-4700 0-3 - no crop but monsoon

grazing

Arctic >4700 0 - no vegetation

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 1.3.3.3 Factors Affecting micro–climate

• A microclimate is a local atmospheric zone where the

climate differs from the surrounding area. The term
may refer to areas as small as a few square feet (for
example a garden bed) or as large as many square
miles.
• Microclimates exist, for example, near bodies of water
which may cool the local atmosphere
• Eg. Daman
• Due to variety of land form and physiographic, there is
variety of microclimate found in Nepal. There are
several factors affecting micro climatic condition of a
given area.

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 Contd…
• Light/ Radiation : Southern aspect receive more light
and radiation than northern aspect. Reaching light and
radiation also vary in east west faces and ridges
• Slope : Steeper the slope, more pronounce are the
variation of light and radiation,
evapo-transpiration, soil moisture content and so on.
• Soil : Stand of vegetation and types differs according to
the condition of soil. As
vegetation patterns changes, there will be change in
micro climate

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 Contd..
Air/wind :
• In deep valleys and shallow basins , the drainage
of air/wind is limited or poor and fluctuates .
• These areas are usually foggy and temperature
also tend to fall than the normal mountain slope.
• Local wind in mountain region varies, which
affects temperature in the areas and there by
affects the suitability of crops

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 Contd..
Vegetation: Vegetation patterns changes as micro
climate changes and vice versa.
• Areas having vegetation and water source are
generally cool and humid than the area where
vegetation and water source are absent.
• Temperature, humidity also differs and makes the
area different from other
Frost/ hailstone : Occurrence and frequency of frost
and hailstone is different and random in different
physiographic zones, districts, valleys and bottoms
which also affects micro climate.

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 1.3.4 Land-use
• Land use is the human use of land. Land use involves the
management and modification of natural environment or
wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures,
and settlements.
• It has also been defined as "the arrangements, activities
and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover type to
produce, change or maintain it" (FAO, 1997a; FAO/UNEP,
1999).
• Land has been one of the major natural resources for the
developing countries like Nepal.
• More than 90 % of the population of the country is based
on land resource. Therefore, it is very important to manage
and use this resource effectively and efficiently.

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16
17
18
 Contd…

http://rds.icimod.org/ 19
 Forest
• Renewable resources
• Extensive, visible and open resources
• Multiple use
• Product and benefit multiplicity
• Long rotation times

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 Agriculture land
• Gentle slope or terrace
• High or low productivity
• Agriculture intensification
• Environmental degradation i.e. land
degradation and water pollution
• Short rotation

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 Contd…
• Agriculture is still the largest economic sector that
solely contributes more than 30% of National GDP
(DVN, 2018).
• 76% of population still engaged in agriculture
• Rice, maize and wheat constitute
more than 80% of cereal area and production. Rice
solely contributes to 20.8% of AGDP and is the
major cereal crop (DVN, 2018).
• Rise of conventional farming
• Agricultural land is increasingly being diverted to non-
agricultural purposes.
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 Grassland
• Profitability
• Maintain forage vigor
• Grazing distribution
• Maintain ground cover
• Reduce environmental and soil degradation
• Water quality protection

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 Features of industrial area
• Industrial regions are those areas, where concentration
of industries has occurred due to favorable geo-
economic conditions.
• These are areas within which manufacturing industry is
carried out on a relatively large scale and employs a
relatively large proportion of population.
• Large population engaged in industrial pursuits,
• Large industrial complex in hierarchical order,
• Integration of some main industries with a group of
subsidiary industries,
• Large banking and credit facilities,
• A network of communication lines, and
• A large market for labour supply, etc.
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 Urban area
• An urban area is the region surrounding a city.
• nonagricultural jobs.
• Very developed i.e. houses, commercial buildings,
roads, bridges, and railways
• Nepal is one of the fastest urbanising countries in
South Asia.
• Economic hub
• In the face of extreme weather, cites and towns are
most vulnerable places.
• Urbanization refers to the process of growth in the
proportion of population living in urban areas.

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 1.3.5 Land Capability

• Land capability is the foundation of proper land use.

• The concept of land capability classification was first
introduced by soil conservation services of USDA in
1930s.
• Use of land without knowing its Capability and suitabili
ty lead to degradation of land and entire watershed.
• The land capability is the use of land within its
capability.
• For a given piece of land with its physical and climatic
characteristics such as soil, slope, geology, climate etc.
only certain land-use type can be adopted without
degrading the land.
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 Contd…
Therefore, land capability
classification is very important for :
• Knowing the best/proper use or practice
• Intensity of use for the best practice
• Precaution to be used for management
• Conservation measures required
• Limitations of use
• Risk of adopting the use

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 1.3.5.1: Land Evaluation
• Land evaluation may be defined as the
process of prediction of land performance
when the land is used for specified purposes.
• Land evaluation may be defined as “the
process of assessment of land performance
when [the land is] used for specified
purposes” (FAO, 1985), or as “all methods to
explain or predict the use potential of land”
(van Diepen et al., 1991).
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 1.5.3.2 Land Capability Classification

• Capability class: general degree of ‘goodness’ in the

sense of ‘possible intensity
of use’: 1 = best, 8 = worst. For some reason the origin
al system used roman numerals I, II, ….VIII.
• In land capability classification, factors generally need
to be considered are: slope, climate, geology, soil
type/depth, stoniness,
rockiness, wetness, gully dissection, frequent erosion
/landslide/ flooding etc.
• Land capability and suitability are sometimes
exchangeable, however, the land capability is to
prevent the land from degradation and abuse and land
suitability is the fitness of a given type of land for a
defined use
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USDA Land Capability Classification

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 Contd…
• USDA's eight broad land capability classification is
based on the potential of soil, limitation for sustained
production, risks of soil damage and erosion hazard.
• Class I : Soils having few limitations that restrict their
use
• Class II : Soils having some limitations that reduce the
choice of crops or require moderate conservation
practices
• Class III : Soils having severe limitations that reduce the
choice of crops or require special conservation
practices or both
• Class IV : Soils having severe limitations that restrict
the choice of crops or require very careful
management or both 31
 Contd…
• Class V : Soils having little or no erosion hazard but have
other limitations that are not practical to remove and limit
their use largely to pasture, range, woodland or wildlife and
natural cover.
• Class VI : Soils having severe limitations that make them
generally unsuitable for cultivation and limit their use
largely to pasture or range, woodland or wildlife and
natural cover.
• Class VII : Soils having very severe limitations that make
them unsuitable for cultivation and that restrict their use
largely to grazing, woodland or wildlife
• Class VIII : Soils having limitations that prevent their use for
commercial plant production and restrict their use to
recreation, wildlife or water supply and aesthetic purposes
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 Land capability classification by LRMP
• LRMP’s Land capability classification is based on soils, la
ndform characteristics and climatic factors.
• Class i : nearly level (slope<1 ). Deep soils, erosion and
mass wasting not problem. Limited use for arable
agriculture or forestry development.
• Class ii: Gentle slope (slopes 1-5), deep and moderately
drained soils. No limitations for forestry and pasture
development. Conservation measures are necessary
when use for arable agriculture.
• Class iii: moderate to steep slopes (5-30), deep and well
drain soils, mass wasting and erosion can be problems if
not well managed. Limitation for forestry development.
Grazing can not be encouraged. Conservation terraces
are need if used for arable agriculture.
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 Contd…
• Class iv: too steep slope for terracing, soil depth is more
than 20 cm deep, well drained , prone to erosion, mass
wasting and flooding, too cold to be cultivated. Suitable for
forestry development activities with adequate vegetation
cover.
• Class v: slopes are >30, soils are more than 20 cm deep,
frequently flooded, too cold or dry to support forestry
activities. Land is limited for the use of pasture with
controlled stocking rates. Alpine and rain shadow regions
above 3000 m. and flooding alluvial plain falls within this
class.
• Class vi: steep slopes m, soil depth less than 20cm.
chances of severe erosion.. Land considered to have many
limitations. Minimum use for food and fiber productions.
Land should be maintained under vegetation cover.
• Class vii : Rocky and icy. Rugged topography and terrain.
Exposed bed rock and severe cold. Limited use for upland
pasture. 34
 1.3.6 Social, Cultural and Economic Factors

Socio- cultural and economic information is highly

essential in watershed management and planner.
It generates information on social structure and
condition, economic condition and activities,
demographic situation (male female population,
population growth rate), land ownership, settlement,
farming practices, community development, culture
education, health people need, occupation, job, social
learning, market availability, local institutions, migration
pattern, labor availability, ethnicity, knowledge and
awareness education, demand and supply information of
watershed resources, insecurity, uncertainties etc.

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 1.3.6.1 Socio-cultural
• Demographic is the characteristic of a human
population or part of it, especially its size, growth,
density, distribution, and statistics regarding birth,
marriage, disease, and death part of population such as
age sex, age, occupation etc.
• In a given watershed, when we are doing marketing of a
products, a part of population could be identified as a
group, especially as a target for sales or advertising.
• Nepal's demographic concerns include rapid population
growth, imbalanced population distribution, rapid and
haphazard urbanization, increasing migration, high
fertility and mortality.

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 Contd..
• Population in the context of the use and
condition of natural resources systems,
sustained economic growth, and sustainable
development
• The interrelationship among population,
resources, environment, and socioeconomic
development are too complex and of a
multidisciplinary nature to be amenable to a
simple analytical treatment

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 Cultural obstacles
• In order to manage the watershed, we need to
consider the socio-cultural taboos hindering the
management and development of a particular
watershed.
• Cultural information of watershed is very
important for the development of watershed
management, since watershed management
programs can bring cultural
transformation in the society.
• But cultural transformation may sometime be
dangerous in the majority of people inhabiting
the watershed
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 Contd…
• To consider local culture in planning is to
minimize possible resistance in future
implementation
• E.g. Slash and burn shifting cultivation, use of fire
to clear fields
• Muslim and Brahmin communities do not want to
raise swine or pig, while other castes may be
willing to promote it.
• Planting trees (Ficus spp for religious purpose is a
good practice for both watershed management
and human health, but may have limit on
livelihood income
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 Awareness and Knowledge

• Awareness and knowledge on particular issues of

the watershed is very important for keeping god
watershed health and income benefits to poor p
eople.
• Watersheds are the homes to people of diverse
ethnic and caste affiliation, age, sex and
educational attainment.
• The awareness of particular issues is directly
related to people’s knowledge, which is mostly
gained through some formal teaching or training.
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 Contd…
• People’s schooling and social environments det
ermine their perception and attitude towards r
-esources and management.
• These might appear insignificant, however, they
might play very important roles in the use and
management of resources.
• For example: farmers decision applying
chemical fertilizers would largely depend on
their level of education and awareness.

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 Contd..
• Some people set fire on forests maintaining that
litter would obstruct the growth of grass and on
the other hand people ‘s having land below the f
orest would get benefits from the ash collected
and deposited in their farmlands.
• Such destructive practices actually arise from pe
ople’s unawareness of the value of forest resour
ces and partly from their selfish motives.

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 1.3.6.2 Economic

• Increasing of production watershed resources is

the main focus of watershed management
• However, availability of markets to sale the
products is a problem in rural areas.
• Farmers should be able to sale their products at
the price more than the opportunity cost i.e. cost
for labor and land
• Access to market centers and mode of
transportation play decisive roles in determining
the land use and cropping pattern, in general and
the degree of commercialization of agriculture
and forestry , in particular.
43
 Contd..
• Farmers living in remote village without any modern
bulk of transportation facilities for carrying products to
market would usually not take up commercial fruit
farming despite favorable physical condition.
• Similarly, Farmers living close to market centers would
try to shift to commercial vegetable farming, provided
the soil is suitable and irrigation facilities are available.
• Thus, market availability plays an important role in
watershed management as long as there is continuous
demand for the local produce.
• However, establishment of co-operative will solve
market problem.
44
 Economic Class Stratification
• People wellbeing level is very important factor
influencing watershed management.
• The poor economic class people generally have s-
mall farm and animal holdings.
• Too small or too large land holding sizes are
obstacles to watershed management.
• Too small size of land holdings is unlikely to be
managed and utilized properly as the return
obtainable would not facilitate the investments.
• Too large size landholding is also prone to poor
management owing to farmers inability to benefit
of the appropriate inputs, particularly the labor
and finance.
45
 Contd..
• Above all, the level of earnings (economic status), is
one of the most important factors determining
watershed management.
• Any farm management practices require capital
investment to manage quality of farmlands.
• The amount of earning determines a farm household’s
ability of switching from the use of conventional to the
use of commercial type of farming.
• The economic condition of farm households thus is the
most important criterion in a assessing the feasibility of
alleviating pressure on forest and pasture resources.

46
Outward Migration and Labor Availability

• The operation of any agricultural system is highly depe

ndent on human and animal labor.
• Particularly activities like plowing fields, construction
of terraces and digging ditches mostly require male
labor, since the female and elderly would not be
physically able to do those heavy works.
• Similarly, collection of fodder and firewood, and
planting rice seedlings are the works of female labor.
• Though both of these activities can be performed by
either sex.

47
 Contd..
• Given these reasons, the sizes of household
labor force are very crucial factors
determining the adoption and application of
soil management and conservation measures.
• Thus, in areas where labor forces of any
category above have migrated either for
seasonal work or permanent work, the
watershed management activities will be
severely affected.

48
 Contd…
• Outward migration of youth is lack of job
opportunities.
• These increasing trends of migration of
local people have resulted in shortage of man
power in rural areas for planning, decision
making, participation, implementation and
monitoring of soil conservation and watershed
management programs

49
 Tourism Impacts on Local Resource Use

• Tourism is one of the major industries and

income source of both government and local
people.
• However, unsustainable use of forest product
of tourism is causing sever environmental
problem.
• Tourism often grows into masstourism. It lead
s to the over consumption, pollution, and lack
of resources.

50
 Contd…
• E.g. solid waste problem due to trekkers
• We can see it is a great challenge to make a pr-
ofitable business running tourism in an area wi
thout some negative effect to the local commu
nities

51
 1.3.7. Topography and geometry of watershed
Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces.

The topography of an area could refer to the land forms and features themselves, or
a description (especially their depiction in maps).

The form of land; hills, valley, plains, and other features that influence where and
how water will flow

Topography of a watershed also determines the steepness of the land surface and
stream channels. We also know this steepness as slope, grade or gradient. The
height and steepness of the hills, floodplains and channels contribute to the erosive
power of the water in a watershed and its stream channels.

Watershed geometry is represented by a series of planes and channels in cascade

52
 Drainage Basin/Watershed
• The Stream Order, Drainage Pattern, and
Drainage Density have a profound
influence on watershed as to runoff,
infiltration, land management etc.
• It determines the flow characteristics and
erosional behavior.

53
Contd…

54
Contd…

55
 Drainage Density
• This relates to the number of streams in a
particular drainage basin and can be
measured by dividing total length of all
streams in a basin (L) by its area (A).
• The higher the drainage density (D) the more
quickly water drains to a river.
• D = total L/A

57
 Contd
Characteristics of high and low-density drainage basins:

Impermeable land surface, steep slopes,

limited vegetation cover, limited rainfall,
High density (+2km per km2)
gentle slopes, large channel frequency
(tributaries).

Permeable rock, for example, chalk, much

Low density (-2km per km2) vegetation cover, limited rainfall, gentle
sloes, lower channel frequency.

https://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/geography/river-profiles/revise-it/drainage-basins 58
 Stream order
• Stream ordering is a method of assigning a
numeric order to links in a stream network.
• This order is a method for identifying and
classifying types of streams based on their
numbers of tributaries.
• First order streams: original, single source
tributaries.
• Second-order streams: the joining of two first
order streams.
• Third order streams: the merging of two-second
order streams.
59
 Contd
• Streams of different order may join together for
example a second and third order stream.
• The order given is that of the highest order
stream.
• Rule : when a stream of a given order receives a
tributary of lower order, its order does not
change.
• An entire drainage basin is named after the
highest order stream found within it. E.g. fourth
order drainage basin.
60
Strahler number or Horton–Strahler number or Strahler stream order

61
Contd..
First and Second order streams
generally form on steep slopes and flow
quickly until they slow down and meet
the next order waterway.
 First to Third Order Streams generally
found in upper reaches of watershed
Streams that are classified through 4th
to 6th are called as medium streams
If Stream order is larger than 6th is
considered as river.

62
 Bifurcation Ratio
• Bifurcation Ratio of any given stream order is the
ratio of the number of stream of the given stream
order to the number in the next higher order.
Rb= Nu / Nu + 1

• Where, Nu = Number of streams of given order U

Nu + 1 = Number of streams of next
higher order U+1

63
 Contd…..
Stream order No of stream Bifurcation ratio Mena Rb
(Rb)
1st order 25 25/9=2.78 8.78/3=2.73
2nd order 9 9/3=3
3rd order 3 3/1=3
4th order 1

64
 Contd…
• When geology is reasonably homogeneous
throughout a watershed, bifurcation ratio
usually range from 3.0 to 5.0 (Strahler, 1964).
• If the ratio is high then shorter will be the
time taken for the discharges to reach outlet
and higher will be the peak leading to higher
probability of flood.

65
 Length of Overland flow
• Length of overland flow is the distance over
which runoff will flow before reaching into
permanent channels.
• It occurs when soil becomes saturated, and any
additional precipitation or irrigation causes runoff
or groundwater table is high.
• Length of overland flow is one of the most
important independent variables affecting both
the hydrologic and physiographic
development of drainage basins.

66
 Length of overland flow
Lu= 1/2Du (1-Sc/Sg) 1/2 = 1/2Du
Where, Lu = Length of overland flow of a given
stream order u
Du = Drainage density of the given stream
order u
Sc = Average channel slope of stream of order u
Sg = Average ground slope

67
Watershed delineation, parameterization

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=roryIlOEWlI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v3Ajg6W8Rj8
https://opengeospatialdata.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40965-019-
0068-9
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bGKghgBF5Q
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ajF0DsuuY4k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7aVNyVMO5g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3i9FwgFBIPc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bFhJ1Zle3r4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wKsGaqNd2xo

68
Morphometric analysis (tools and techniques)

Morphometric may be defined as the mathematical analysis of the earth’s surface

that describes its topographic reliefs (Clarke 1966; Pakhmode et al. 2003).

Morphometric analysis gives a comprehensive interpretation about the hydrologic

response such as surface run of generation, infiltration capacity and even
groundwater potential (Singh et al., 2021).

Morphometric analysis could be of great help in evaluation of drainage basin,

analysis of food frequency, management of natural resources and its conservation
and nonetheless erosion controls (Tukura et al. 2021).

Morphometric studies were first initiated in the middle of the twentieth century
using conventional approach based on manual analyses of topographic maps
(Horton 1945; Strahler 1952, 1964; Schumm 1956).

Use of GIS and computational technologies make this analysis more easier (Singh
et al., 2021).
69
Morphometric parameters

Singh et al.,
2021

70
Singh et al.,
2021

71
Singh et al.,
2021

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01483-5

Watershed-based Morphometric Analysis: A

Review - IOPscience 72
 1

Watershed Management

Unit 2. Management Approaches

B.Sc. 3rd year/2nd semester

Menuka Maharjan, PhD

 2

UNIT 2:APPROACH TO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT (5)

Introduction to the watershed management approaches
Management approach
Line agency implementation / participatory - decentralized approaches
Sectoral / integrated (holistic) approaches
Conservation in individual farm / community lands
River basin / watershed / sub-watershed / micro-watershed / political unit
Model farmer / group approach
Project / programme approach
Development strategies to enhance local management capacity
Ownership building
In-situ institution
Networking and linkages
Management in changing context
Springshed management (Importance, issues and management approach)
 3

Introduction (History) to the Watershed Management

Approaches

• An approach is kind of strategy or processes which attempt to minimize

the problems of watershed

• It helps to avoid and accelerate natural problems to the extent possible

with good planning framework

• Approaches may be varied depend on capacity and available resources

and type of problems, nature and severity of problems

• Suitable to local situation and institutional context

• Flexible enough to adapt to changing patterns of resource use and

climate.
 4

Watershed Management approaches in the 1970s and 1980s

• The watershed management approach became prominent in developing
countries in the 1970s in programs designed to improve upland natural
resource management in order to protect downstream resources and
infrastructure.
• In the 1970s and 1980s, an “engineering” approach characterized the first
generation of watershed management programs.

• A top-down planning approach was generally adopted.

• Watershed planning was based on land capability rather than on the

capacities and needs of local people who lived there.

• The projects were often managed from centralized units.

• Projects often ignored crucial inter sectoral linkages, resulting in lack of

collaboration and communication across sectors.
 5

• There was little involvement of the communities in planning and

implementation, which often resulted in weak commitment to the project.

• By the end of the 1980s, the comparative failure of the “engineering-led”

approach.

• The disappointing results and the poor sustainability of the “engineering

led” approach led to the search by national and international agencies for a
better approach to watershed management.

• The challenge was to develop management practices that, while not

excluding engineering solutions where appropriate, were at once
ecologically sustainable and economically attractive, with a sound
institutional basis that would ensure their continuation (Magrath and
Doolette 1990; Farrington, Turton, and James1999).
 6

The Integrated and Participatory Watershed Management

Approach of the 1990s
• The 1990s represented a new departure for watershed management
programs supported by the international community in developing
countries.

• Watershed management programs supported by the international

community in developing countries from the 1990s not only sought to
conserve soil, water, and vegetation, but also targeted increases in
productivity of resource use in ways that were ecologically and
institutionally sustainable and that benefited the local population and
reduced poverty (Kerr 2002b).

• Participatory and demand-driven approaches implemented at the

decentralized level. Farmers were to be given more control over the choice
of technologies, with a broad menu of technical options. Within this
approach, the promotion of low-cost vegetative techniques for erosion
control replaced or complemented the previous “mechanical” techniques
that had relied on heavy construction and had proved expensive to build
and difficult to maintain.
 7

Watershed Management Approach/activities in the context of Nepal

• It was the 3rd Five Year Plan (1965-1970), in which the watershed
management was first apprehended in Nepal.
• An autonomous Bagmati Zone Afforestation Office was established
under the guidance of Department of Forest, in which pilot
demonstration programmes on watershed management were lunched in
Trisuli, Panchkhal and Sunderjal Watershed.
• In the 4th Five Year Plan (1970-1975), the Department of Soil and
Water conservation (DSWC) was established to organize the soil
conservation works systematically and institutionally, within Ministry of
Forests in 1974.

• In the 5th Five Year Plan (1975-1980), Shivapuri watershed Area

development Board (1976) was created, Nepal remote sensing centre
(1979) established in DSCW, concepts of integrated watershed management
introduced, Regional development concept in soil conservation and
watershed management was introduced and 14 watershed management
projects with the support from government and development partners were
implemented in the four regions of the country. River control works in the
watersheds were also continued from DSWC.
 8

• In the 6th Five Year Plan period (1980-1985), the initiation of

Environment Impact Assessment of development project was first
initiated by DSWC in Nepal by running a Environment Impact Study
Project. The name of DSWC was changed into DSCWM, river control
works were transferred to Ministry of water resources and the name of
Ministry was changed to Ministry of forest and soil conservation. The Soil
conservation Act, 1982 and Regulation, 1985 came into effect.
High level National resource Conservation Commission( NRCC) formed
under MoFSC.

• In the 7th Five Year Plan(1985-1990) period, DSCWM emphasized on

integration of water resource, agriculure and forest development
works to maintain a balanced environment through the conservation and
improvement of natural resources. This was initiated by lunching several
integrated watershed management projects in the country. Master Plan
for the Forestry Sector considered the watershed management as
a primary programme. People’s participation and people’s
awareness programme in watershed management were visualized.
 9

• The 8th Five Year Plan Period (1992-1997), was in fact a turning
point in people’s participation in watershed management. People
participation guidelines with the provisions of formation of users
groups and partnerships with NGOs and CBOs in watershed management
was developed. DSCWM established its territorial offices in 35 districts.
Conservation of churia hills, promotion of bioengineering practices
and conservation education in watershed management were focused.

• In the 9th Five Year Plan Period (1997-2002), the Nepal

Environment Policy and Action Plan –II ( NEPAP) enunciated
policies of involving local communities and civil society and promoting new
technology in cropping pattern, agriculture and land use system in
watershed management . The protection of churia hills considering the
vulnerability to erosion and landslides of chure regions was
emphasized. The 9th plan also recognized watershed management as as
supporting other programmes in poverty reduction.
 10

• The 10th Five year Plan (2002-2007), was the continuation of activities of
9th plan regarding involvement of private sectors and civil society in improving
the livelihoods of the rural poor and strengthening the institutional governance
process. Participatory and integrated sub-watershed planning
approach and networking of watershed management stakeholders were
emphasized. The DSCWM expanded its territorial offices to 55 districts.

• The 11th Three Year Interim Plan (2007-2010), emphasized the

livelihoods improvement and poverty reduction of poor, dalits,
disadvantaged groups, women through the implementation of participatory
and income generation activities in watershed management. The territorial
office of DSCWM expanded to 56.

• The approach paper of Three Year Interim plan (2010-2013), has

focused on development of watershed management through the basin and
landscape concepts. More focus has been given to livelihoods improvement,
environment protection, income generation, participation and poverty reduction
of poor, marginalized community, women and dalits(Pandit,2011).
 11

Management Approach
Line agency implementation / Participatory - Decentralized
approaches

• Watershed Management is the management of all the natural resources

available within the watershed.
• So watershed cannot be managed alone. Integration of all concerned line
agencies are needed to make successful watershed management plan.
• One organization takes as a role of lead agencies for coordination and
integration and other agencies should act as line agencies and support the
integrated programme by implementing their responsible activities in
integration.
• For example DSCWM acts as lead agency where as the Department of
Forests, Department of Agriculture, Department of Irrigation or Water
resources and other responsible agencies act as line agencies.
• This approach was adopted by DSCWM for more than one decades of its
implementation
 12

• But the difficulty was raised due to lack of effective coordination among line
agencies which affected the watershed programme.
• Lack of people's participation couldn't address the people's demand.
• Later DSCWM realized that it should adopt the participatory and decentralized
approach in watershed management to address the local development need by
mobilizing local resources including local participation and act collectively by
communities in order to make a difference in their lifestyle and living standards.
• Eighth Plan was a turning point in the history of people's participation in
watershed management.
• The department brought out implementation strategy and people participation
guideline, which provisioned for formation of users groups and their involvement
in planning, implementation and decision making.
• Now the department is implementing all the watershed management programmes
in the districts through participatory approach forming and mobilizing users
groups/ users committee.
 13

Sectoral / Integrated (Holistic) Approaches

• Sectoral approach to watershed management has specific geographical area,

goal, objectives and programme components.

• Sectoral approach gives emphasis on specific sector or subsector. E.g. in

WM, forestry is taken as main sector and ignore other line agencies.

• This approach isn't suitable in WM because WM is the integrated

management of all the natural resources available within a watershed. For
successful WM, there should be coordination among line agencies also but
it couldn't address this part.

• The main demerit of this approach is that it doesn't' not address all the
dimensions of watershed degradation problem (it is sector specific).
• But there is some advantages/merit of this approach. They are followings:
Less overlapping and duplication of programmes
Easy to coordinate
cost-effectiveness
 14

Conservation in Individual farm / Community Lands

• DSCWM had practiced of doing soil conservation work in individual

farm/community lands.

• Terrace improvement, agro-forestry, conservation farming, grass planting,

planting fruit crops etc were applied to improve the productivity of land and
increase income of the household/community

• Government provided some subsidy to encourage farmers who are

interested to carry out such conservation programme on their field.

• The concept of Model farmer is developed after to support the conservation

in individual farm.
 15

Basin/Watershed/Sub-watershed/Micro-
watershed/Political
• River Basin, Watershed, Sub-watershed, Micro-watershed, catchments, drainage
basin are interchangeable and used commonly as per management objectives.
• However, a watershed is differentiates from a river basin in that a river basin,
whose main stream leads to the sea, may encompass (to include large no of)
hundreds of watersheds and many other types of land formation ( Sheng, 1990 ).
• DSCWM is trying to focus watershed management into a river basin management
approach which is shifting form micro level (sub watershed) to macro level (basin
level) .
• In the basin approach, major focus will be given to the sustainable management
of environment rather than utilization and management of the basin as a whole.
• 4 river basin namely Koshi, Gandaki , Mahakali, and karnali
• The institutional structure and the functions of Basin management at center and
local levels will be developed by DSCWM during the course of preparation of the
plan .
 16

Model farmer / Group approach

• Soil Conservation and watershed programs place high priority on farmers which
improve productivity of their land as well as increase their income.
• DSCWM has provided training to local farmer and their user group on
appropriate land use management at farmer's field level. This approach helps to
generate innovative farmers in local level.
• These innovative farmers are taken as Model Farmers who have significantly
contributed for conservation and utilization of natural resources within a
watershed. E.g. application of soil conservation technique in individual farm
field.
• Model farmers develop their farm as model farms which become the
demonstration sites to other farmers that help to encourage other. E.g Surya Pd
Adhikari, Agro forestry in private land , Kaski.

• Model farm served as field laboratory. E.g Anarbaje, Promenogramate,

Ramechap
 17

Project / Programme Approach

• Programme approach is a process that helps governments to formulate

national priority development objectives and to realize these objectives
through corresponding national programmes formulated and implemented in
a coherent, coordinated and participatory manner to ensure sustainability.

• The critical principle that the approach should always support national
programmes or national programme frameworks or policy. E.g. Chure
Rastapati programme

• Programme approach is an integrated national multi-sectoral programmes,

which are normally and have a variety of funding partners.

• It is an appropriate mechanism for building strong development partnerships

through broad national ownership, coordination and co-financing.
 18

Some advantages of programme approach

• Support national programme and policies
• Promotes participation governments, communities, academic institution
• Brings national ownership holistic thinking participation of multi-sector
• Not donor driven

Some disadvantages much time

• Lengthy procedure to is implement programme
• Require greater capacities to implement programme
• Difficult to coordinate among diverse organization.

Project approach:
• Project approach is a process to formulate and implement the programmes
that focus on specific sectors or subsectors and whose components or sub-
projects are also tied together in a coherent, coordinated fashion.
 19

• In this approach, projects are designed and managed independently and are
placed under a single programme to achieve greater simplicity and flexibility in
the allocation of funds, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.
• Projects are designed and implement without any linkages among line agencies
and concerned stakeholders at central and district levels.
• Project approach merely supports the national programme and policies.
• Project approach is more segmented, focused on particular programme and set
objectives and time line.
• It ties up with one or two government institutions and implement the programme
directly.
 20

Some advantages of project approach:

• Result oriented
• Have fixed time period
• Clear vision , goal , objectives and mile stone
• Requires relatively less time to design a project
• Comparatively easy to implement

Some disadvantages
• Sustainability is the big issues in the project approach
• Donor driven approach to development
• Less supportive to national programme, policies and priorities
 21

Development Strategies to Enhance Local Management

Capacity
Ownership building
• Ownership building is a means by which individuals or institutions have
legal rights of possession or control over property or regime (any kind) or it
is a felling of own responsibility and entrust other in the management and
preservation of development endeavors.
• Tragedy of common and Everybody's property is nobody's property.
• Similarly in case of WM, there must be people's participation only then
local people feel their ownership management programme.
• Then they fulfill responsibility to get right over the benefit after successful
completion programme.
• Eg: Community forestry programme
 22

There are some elements which will help enhance the ownership
building of the individuals or groups or commons or institutions.
They are :
• Build confidence in the individuals/groups/commons/institutions by
communication with individuals/involving them in the programme
• Empower the individuals/group/institution
• Creating mutual trust by communicating with individuals /
group/institutions
• Generate benefits to meet their own needs
 23

In-situ Institution
• In-situ Institutions are non government, autonomous and independent
institutions to plan, participate, facilitate and act as connecting point to bridge
the gaps between local people, government, donors and others.
• These institutions sometime act as pressure groups to the government, donors
and other institutions.
• These institutions are at grass root, regional and national levels.
• Most of these institutions are engaged in programming, planning,
implementation, evaluation and monitoring and social inclusion in the
development activities.
• Government, donors and INGOs also provide capacity development
programmes to such institutions to strengthen their capacity in mobilizing local
resources, decision making process, fund management, participatory learning
and social inclusion and sensitizing poor, dalits, disadvantaged groups and
women of the communities in local development activities.
• Examples of some of the grass root level in-situ institutions are: CFUGs, CBOs,,
self help groups and local NGOs.
 24

Networking and Linkages

• Networking and linkages basically means forming formal and informal
partnerships and ties with organizations in different areas of mutual interest
and /or benefits.
• In other words, it is an interconnected group or system of organization,
institutions or individual working together for a set of common goal and
objective to manage their resources.
• Creation of networks and linkages are an essential component of any
development program and provide synergies ( extra energy , power or success
that is achieved by working together) for the program to build upon from a
point of advantages to a pt of strength.
• There are many types of networks such as NGOs network, grass root
organization's network, environment forum, indigenous people networks
multiple stakeholders network's, national /sub national
/regional/international networks, CFUGs networks, WM network/User
group etc.
 25

Networking and linkages are important for the following reasons:

• Technology transfer, share and dissemination can be facilitated between the
networked organization and among the respective partners
• There is no duplication of effort because they have common goals, objs and
programmes
• Sharing of knowledge, skills, expertise and experiences helps in improving
the effectiveness and efficiency
• Networking among groups can optimize the use of time resources
• Develop advocacy with the concerned parties for its own agenda
 26

Management in changing context

•Transboundary river basin approach

•Climate-induced disaster risk (DRR/M) approach

•Watershed management in federal system (federal, province, and

local)

https://www.iofpc.edu.np/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/pape7.pdf
https://www.preventionweb.net/news/five-key-lessons-watershed-management-and-disaster-risk-reduction
Paudel. Adjustment of watershed management towards federal system. Ban ko Jankari
 27

Springshed management (Importance, issues and management approach)

•Springsheds are sources of ground or spring water.

https://www.icimod.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Initiative-Flyer_Springshed-Management-in-the-Himalaya.pdf
 28

Importance

•Springs are major

source of water for
drinking and domestic
purposes (Gurung et al.,
2019) especially in the
mountainous region
(Tripathi et al., 2015).

•Almost 80% of the 13

million people in hill and
mountain of rural areas
depends on springs to
fulfill their primary water
demand in Nepal(CBS,
2012; Tambe et al.,
2012)
https://www.icimod.org/initiative/rms/springshed-revival-and-management/
 29

Issues
• Drying up of springs has increased water insecurity for many
communities in the Himalayan Region (NITI Aayog (2018).
• Mostly springs are drying and also quality of spring water is also
declining.
• Drying up of springs not only affects rural water security, but also
river flows, riparian and wetland ecosystems, and biodiversity.
• Climate change is further intensifying these problems.
• The majority of rainfall in mountainous areas escapes as runoff and
does not saturate the aquifers, preventing groundwater from being
recharged and causing natural springs to dry up.
• Reduced water availability as a result of climatic conditions,
anthropogenic causes, development infrastructures, geography,
deforestation, soil, declining rainfall, etc..

https://www.icimod.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Initiative-Flyer_Springshed-Management-in-the-Himalaya.pdf
 30

Application of Eight-step Methodology for Reviving Springs and

Improving Springshed Management

Shrestha, RB; Desai, J; Mukherji, A; Dhakal, M; Kulkarni, H; Mahamuni, K; Bhuchar, S; Bajracharya, S. (2018). Protocol for re viving springs in
the Hindu Kush Himalayas: A practitioner’s manual. ICIMOD Manual 2018/4. Kathmandu: ICIMOD
31
32
UNIT 3 LEGAL ASPECTS (3)

Menuka Maharjan, PhD

 Course of study

• Land Tenure
• Water laws in Nepal
• Soil and Watershed Conservation Act, Regulation, and Guidelines
• Other legislation related to water and land resources in relation to
watershed management (e.g. water resource strategy, national water plan,
protected areas, and forest)
• Land use policy and practices in Nepal
 Land tenure
• The history of land tenure in Nepal is very old
• Land Tenure means “to hold a tenant” is
simple one who holds.
• Land tenure has to do with land-man-and the
rights.
• It may be expressed as the mode of holding
the land property and is frequently based on
social structure and religious belief.
 Land Tenure in Nepal
• Land tenure and security existed without land
registration and cadastral survey in old age.
• It could often be enjoyed without any evidence of title.
• The users used to use the land once a year or once in
two years, shifting agricultural system was common.
• Depending on the condition and tradition, land
tenure(s) were gradually developed as customary
tenure.
• The customary tenure was converted to case and
enacted law.
• Major customary tenures are Raikar, Birta, Jagir,
Rakam, Guthi and Kipat.
 Contd…
• Raikar: land on which the state levies taxes
• Tax paying and listed in the official records
• Land belonged to the state but let out to
“tenants” and regularity in the payment of the
land tax or arrears (payment of annual land
revenue) is the prime condition for holding
land
 Birta
• Birta: granted land to individuals to enable
them to make living
• Had no absolute ownership rights.
• The policy for abolition of Birta system and
conversion of all Birta holdings into raikar
after enactment of Birta Abolition Act 1959
 Jagir
• Jagir: assigning Raikar land to government
employees and functionaries. This practice was
followed by the government until 1951.
• It was the policy of the government to pay the
salaries of civil and military employees in the
form of Jagir assignments as far as possible.
• The assignments were made until the death or
termination of employment of the employee
concerned.
• All Jagir holdings then reverted to the state.
 Rakam
• Rakam: originated from the assignment of
land as the remuneration for the performance
of specific functions, mostly to carpenters,
bricklayers, mail carriers, musicians (Kusule),
caretakers of religious places
• Temporarily assignment and lasted until the
death or termination of service.
• Abolished in 1955 and converted into Raikar
lands.
 Kipat
• Kipat: a form of communal tenure and certain ethnic
groups are permitted to own land.
• Especially to Limbus of Dhankuta and Ilam.
• The subgroups are Yakha, the Athapriya, the Bhote, the
Majhiya and the Tamangs.
• Also found in East No. 1 and 2 districts, Palpa, Accham
and Dailekh.
• Kipat land can not be alienated to individuals outside
the community.
• If Kipat holders settle people of other tribes, the land
becomes Raikar.
• Kipat system was abolished in 1964 when land reform
campaign was launched.
 Guthi
• ‘Guthi’: assigned for charitable, religious or
philanthropic institutions came under Guthi tenure.
• There are different forms of Guthi lands.
• Majority of cases come under state administration
called “Rajguthi”.
• Sometimes Guthi lands are privately operated but
grants are registered in the official records called Darta
Guthi, and those not registered and generally used for
religious purpose are Duniya Guthi.
• Guthi land may also be owned by monasteries.
 Jimidari
• Jimidari: system of collecting the revenue
under the law and depositing, or causing to be
deposited, such revenue with Government of
Nepal, by making agent in the name of
Jimidar, Patawari, Talukdar, Jimmawal,
Mukhiya, Thari, Dware or in any other name,
and includes the Kipat system
 IMPROVEMENT OF LAND TENURE
SYSTEM AFTER 1964
• The type of land tenure(s) are:
– Private land with absolute ownership: This type of
land can be hold by the owner himself or may lease or
mortgaged.
– Public and Government: Public land belongs to the
government but is used by the public or community
where as Government land is handled by itself.
– Trust land or Guthi land: There are numerous types of
Guthi land specifically Rajguthi, Nigiguti, Chutguthi,
Guthi Tainati and Guthi Adhinastha.
 Contd….
• The security of land tenure is reliable in Nepal.
• Security to land has been provided by the
Constitution, Acts and Rules.
• Any changes in the ownership and use can not
be done without the consent of owner.
 Classification of land
According to Land Act 1964 (2021)
• (a) Abal : irrigated paddy land, 2 or more
crops, no stone mixed good soil
• (b) Doyam : irrigable during rainy, 2 crops can
be grown,stone mixed good soil
• (c) Sim: no irrigable only one crop during rainy
season, sandy stony soil
• (d) Chahar : only one crop bringing water for
long time, sandy stony dry soils
 Contd..
• The eighth amendment of Land Act 1964 in
2001 and Land Rules 2002 has improved the
grading system based on the land use and
classified in two areas as:
– Agricultural Area
– Commercial and Residential Areas
 Contd..
• The Act has made provision to:
– impose a ceiling on land ownership, acquire land
in excess of ceiling and allot such land to others
– abolish Jamindary System
– give security to tenants-farmer and to regulate the
rent payable by them, and collect savings
compulsorily and make arrangements for loans
and credit operations.
The land act 1964 has fixed an overall
national ceiling per family

Homestead (1964) Agricultural land Homestead

Teari and inner terai 10 bigha 1 Bigha
Kathmandu valley 25 ropani 5 ropani
Hill region other than 70 ropani 5 ropani
Kathmandu Valley
 Water Laws in Nepal
• Water Resources Act, 2049 (1992)
• Water Resources Regulation (1993)
• Water Resource Strategy - Nepal 2002
• National Wetland Policy (2003)
• National Water Plan (NWP) 2005
• Irrigation Policy (2003)
• Land use policy 2015
 Water Resources Act, 2049 (1992)
• Water Resource Act (WRA) is an umbrella act that was
enacted to regulate all forms of water resources in
the country for their rational utilization,
conservation and management
• Beneficial use and equity in access are the important
principles adopted by this Act in the allocation and re-
allocation of water resource in the country.
• WRA affirm the State has been vested with absolute
ownership over all the water resources within its
territory.
• Water right is confined to the “right to utilize water
resource”.
 Contd…
Priority Order on the Utilization of Water Resources:
• (a) Drinking water and domestic users;
• (b) Irrigation;
• (c) Agricultural uses such as animal husbandry and
fisheries;
• (d) Hydroelectricity;
• (e) Cottage Industry, industrial enterprises and mining
uses,
• (f) Navigation;
• (g) Recreational uses;
• (h) Other uses
 Contd…
• A license is mandatory for utilizing any water resource, but it
is exempted when it is the individual or collective use for the
purposes of drinking and domestic supply and irrigation or in the
case of surface water, for running water-mill or water grinder
as cottage industry and for the use of boat on personal basis
for local transportation.
• For collective use of water resource, there is a provision of
Water Users’ Association (WUA), which is treated as a Corporate
body
• WUA has brought under regulation the aspects of prevention and
protection of water resources from pollution and protection of
environment from adverse impact from utilization of water
resources
• The State has the power to fix water quality standards for different
uses of water and to formulate relevant rules and regulations
related to this effect
 Water Resources Rules, 2050 (1993)
• Consumers Association
• Persons, who interested to use the water
resources on institutionalized basis, may form
a consumer's association consisting of at least
Seven persons as officials and members.
• Submit an application to the District Water
Resources Committee
 Contd…
• Formation of Water Resources Committee:
There shall be a Water Resources Committee in
each District for the purpose of issuing license in order for
the utilization of Water Resources
• Water Resources Utilization Inquiry Committee:
If any dispute arises on, while utilizing the
water resources, there shall be a Water
Resources Utilization Inquiry Committee to
settle such disputes
• Provision relating to acquisition of house and land
and compensation
 Water Resources Strategy 2002
WRS has mentioned following nine activities relating to management of
watersheds and aquatic ecosystems:
1. Improve environmental database system.
2. Map important, critical and priority watersheds and aquatic
ecosystems.
3. Develop water and wastewater quality standards and regulations.
4. Implement a water conservation education program.
5. Implement watershed and aquatic ecosystem protection,
rehabilitation and management programs.
6. Develop and implement Strategic Environmental Assessment in water
resources management.
7. Ensure compliance with environmental regulations.
8. Promote community participation.
9. Enhance institutional capacity and coordination.
 National Water Plan 2005
• The NWP recognizes the broad objectives of the WRS and lays
down short-, medium- and long-term action plans for the water
resources sector, including investments and human resource
development.
• Recognizes need for Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) and River Basin Management (RBM)

• The NWP attempts to address environmental concerns, which is

reflected by the incorporation of the Environmental Management
Plan in the document which will contribute to maximizing positive
impact and minimizing or mitigating adverse impact in line with the
environment sustainability concerns.

• Doctrine of NWP: Integration, Coordination, Decentralization,

Participation within good governance and equitable distribution
National Wetlands Policy, 2059 (2003)
• Nepal has shown its commitment to wetlands
conservation, specially the conservation of
waterfowl habitats of international
importance, by signing the Ramsar Treaty
1971.
• The primary goal of the National Wetlands
Policy is to conserve and manage wetlands
resources wisely and in a sustainable way with
local people’s participation.
 Contd…
• The major objective of the policy is to involve local
people in the management of Nepal’s wetlands and
conserve wetlands biodiversity with wise use of
wetlands resources.
• Identify Nepal’s wetlands and prepare detailed
management plans
• Conserve and manage wetlands according to the needs
and on the basis of scientific knowledge and
technology
• Promote women’s participation for the conservation,
management and wise use of wetlands
• Prevention, Control and Management of Invasive
Species
 Irrigation policy 2003
• Irrigation systems developed so far are limited
to run-off river system.
• Now, it is necessary to develop the storage
type irrigation systems for making round the
year irrigation system to encounter the
problem of low flow of rivers in the winter
seasons.
 Objective
• To provide round the year irrigation facility to
the irrigation suitable land by effective utilization
of the current water resources of the country.
• To develop institutional capability of Water Users
for sustainable management of existing system.
• To enhance the knowledge, skill and institutional
working capability of technical human resources,
water users and non-governmental association /
organization relating to development of irrigation
sector.
 Contd….
• For expanding year round irrigation, water reservoirs,
rainwater harvests and ground water resources shall be
developed, conserved, promoted and utilized as
supplementary sources to the seasonal rainfall
• Master plan shall be prepared for Trans-basin water
transfer and management from water-surplus large
river basins to the water deficit area.
• Available ground water resources shall, be developed
and utilized as like the surface water reservoirs, and
arrangements shall be made for conservation,
promotion and control in quality.
• Involving private sector in construction, operation and
management of the irrigation system
Soil and Watershed Conservation Act,
2039(1982)
• To make legal provisions on the land and
watershed conservation by controlling natural
calamities such as flood, landslide and soil
erosion and maintain convenience and economic
interests of the general public
• Power to declare as conserved watershed
area:
• If GoN considers it necessary for the soil and
watershed conservation, may declare any area
of Nepal as a conserved watershed area,
specifying the borders thereof.
 Contd….
• Acts permitted to be carried out in conserved
watershed area
– To construct, look after and maintain a prevention or
control dam, check dam, embankment, terrace
improvement, ditch, feeder ditch or diversion
– To arrange for trial plots and look after and maintain the
same,
– To carry out plantation, plant grasses, weeds or other
vegetations, and look after, maintain and grow the same,
– To conserve, look after, maintain and support the
forests, weeds, grasses and other natural vegetations in
the lands where landslide may occurs and in the sloppy
lands,
 Contd…
• Farming to be done by following land use system
• Provision of technical knowledge and service and
financial assistance
• Provision of compensation
• Prohibited acts in land vulnerable or likely to be
vulnerable to natural calamity:
-no person shall, without permission of the
watershed conservation officer, carry out any of the
following acts in such land, out of the lands within a
conserved watershed area, a land that is vulnerable
or likely to be vulnerable to floods or landslide or soil-
erosion or soil-cutting
 Contd…
• To block or collect in any way the water of any stream,
canal, rill, lake or reservoir or ground water or divert the
blocked or collected water elsewhere
• To cut or otherwise destroy any such trees, plants or
other forest products
• To carry out any act causing the collection or dumping of
stone, sand mud, etc.
• To throw away solid wastes or similar other detritus
contaminating the environment
• To establish an industry, business or settlement of
habitation
• To carry, keep or graze cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats,
chicken and similar other domestic animals and birds.
 Contd…
• Powers to shift industry, business and
settlement of habitation
• National resources conservation commission
– to render advices and opinions to GoN in matters
pertaining to soil and watershed conservation.
• District soil and watershed conservation
committee:
• GoN may, form a district soil and watershed
conservation committee in order to coordinate
the implementation of activities pertaining to
soil and watershed conservation in the district
 Soil and Watershed Conservation
Regulation, 1985
• Declaration of protected watershed area
• For the purpose of declaring Protected
Watershed Area, Conservation officer after
making necessary investigation, study and
survey and obtaining the advise of the
committee, send request to Department
specifying the area and boundary of an area
which is deemed necessary to declare as a
Protected Watershed Area
 Contd…
• Classification of Land
• Classify the land within a Protected Watershed Area
specifying the area and boundary of the land and the works
to be undertaken in such land
• Cultivation under land use system
• Aid for cultivation under land use system
• Relinquishment of ownership on land by landowner
• Transfer of ownership on land to GoN
• Land to be prescribed where nature calamity may occur
• Permission to be obtained
• Power to prohibit the work which may cause soil erosion or
washout
 Contd…
• Functions duties and power of the National
Resource Conservation Commission
• Provide opinion to GoN for determining the
policy, objectives, priority and target relating to
soil and watershed conservation and to control
the natural calamity such as flood, landslide and
soil erosion
• To maintain coordination between the projects
implementing the soil and watershed
conservation works
 Contd..
• To submit reports to GoN related to evaluation
and review of the soil and watershed
conservation
• To establish an international contact for soil
and watershed conservation
• Secretariat of the commission: DSCWM
 Contd..
• Functions, duties and power of the District soil
and watershed conservation committee
• To assist in conducting the works relating to the
soil and watershed conservation in the district
• To help in solving the local problem in the
execution of the projects
• To establish coordination between different
agencies to make available necessary people
participation
• To constitute the sub committee according to
necessity
 National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation Act, 1973
• to make arrangement for the management
of national parks, conservation of wildlife and
their habitat, regulate hunting and to
conserve, promote, develop, and make
appropriate arrangements for and the use
of places which are of special importance
from the point of view of natural beauty
and to maintain good manners and welfare
of the general public
 Contd…
• GoN may declare national park, reserves or conservation
area
• Buffer zone may be declared
• Management and conservation of the buffer zone
• Compensation may be given
• In case any house or land of a local resident located
inside a buffer zone falls within the existing natural
boundary of a national park or reserve as a result of
flood or landslide, and if such inhabitant’s house is
destroyed, the concerned national park or reserve, on
the recommendation of the user committee formed ,
shall pay a reasonable compensation to him from the
amount allocated for community development
 Contd…
• Restriction on entry into national park
• No person shall be allowed to enter into a
national park or reserve without obtaining an
entry permit as prescribed or a written
permission from the authorized official
 Contd…
• Prohibited actions within national park or reserve
• a.To hunt wildlife,
• b. To construct or possess house, hut, shelter, or any other
structures of any material,
• c. To occupy, clear, reclaim or cultivate any part or grow or
harvest any crop,
• d. To graze any domestic animal or bird, or feed water to it,
• e. To cut, clear, fell, remove or block trees, plants,
bushes or any other forest resources, or do anything to
cause any forest resources dry, or set it on fire, or
otherwise harm or damage it,
• f. To dig mines, stones or remove any mineral, stone,
boulder, earth or any other similar material,
 Contd…
• g. To cause damage to forest resources or wildlife or
birds or any land,
• h. To carry arms, ammunition or poison, or use them,
• i. To take any domestic or any other kind of animal
or trophy by persons other than government
employees on deputation or visitors of the public
paths within the national park or reserve, and
• j. To block, divert any river or stream flowing
through national park or reserve, or any other source
of water, or use any harmful or explosive materials
therein
 Contd…
• Protected wildlife
• The wildlife mentioned in Schedule-1 of this
Act shall be considered as the protected
wildlife and their hunting is prohibited (26
Mammals, 9 birds, 3 reptiles)
• Prohibition to hunt without a license
• Obtaining license for the collection of
specimen
 Contd…
• Management of conservation area
• Government may, entrust the management of any
conservation area to any institution established with
the objective of conserving nature and natural
resources for the certain period
• User committee
• The warden, in co-ordination with local authorities,
may form a user committee for the management of
fallen trees, dry wood, firewood and grass in a
national park, reserve, conservation area or buffer
zone
 Contd…
• Trophy have to be produced before the licensing
authority
• Prohibition to possess trophies without a certificate
• Prohibition to sell, supply or conduct trade in trophies
without license
• Punishment
• Any person who illegally kills or injures, sells, purchases
or transfers or obtains trophies of any protected wildlife,
shall be punished with a fine ranging from fifty to one
hundred thousand rupees or an imprisonment ranging
from five years to fifteen years or both
• Punishment for accomplice
 Contd…
• May be expended for the community
development
• Up to thirty to fifty percent of the amounts
earned by a national park, reserve or
conservation area may be expended, in co-
ordination with the local authorities for
community development of local people
 The Muluki Ain (General Code) 2074
• Water shall not be available for others unless and
until the requirements of the person who has
constructed the ditch (irrigation channel) at his or
her own expense or with his or her own physical
labor.
• Dams, canals or irrigation channels may be
constructed by any one on any land, whether
cultivated or uncultivated to bring water for the
cultivation of land, and no one shall make any
obstruction with it
 Contd..
• On Construction of Buildings
• No one shall make encroachment on the road
or drain in the course of constructing a
building. No one shall keep a water
channel/pipe (Dund) which may cause water
to drop on the road.
Land use policy and practices in Nepal
• Land use policy 2015
• Land use Policy (LUP) is a policy document
relating to limits and protection of Land and Land
Resources (LLRs), optimum use and effective
management thereto.
• Legal and institutional management for Lands
and Land Resources (LLRs), and protection, use
and management thereon are done under this
Policy
 Contd…
Mission/Goal
The mission/goal of this Policy is to manage lands in a sustainable
manner by developing a specific land use system through Land Use
Plans (LUPs).
Objectives
• To categorize/classify entire lands of the country into various Land
Use Zones (LUZs);
• To devise of level wise (Federal, Provincial and Local) Land Use Plans
(LUPs);
• To ensure of the use of Land and Land Resources(LLRs) on the basis
of land use plans (LUPs) for protection of agricultural land, hygienic,
beautiful, well-facilitated settlement and sustainable urbanization,
and for forests areas including natural heritages, biodiversities and
historical, cultural and religious, archaeological and areas of
strategic importance;
 Contd…
• To mitigate natural and human created-disastrous hazards;
• To assess and apply minimum property valuation and
progressive tax system on lands on the basis of specific use
after getting prepared of plot based records.
• Policy 1 : Entire lands of the country shall be basically classified
into following Land Use Zones (LUZs)
• Agricultural Zone
• Residential Zone
• Commercial Zone
• Industrial Zone
• Mines and Minerals Zone
• Cultural and Archaeological Zone
• River and Lake-Reservoir Zones
• Forest Zones
• Public Use and Open Space Zone
• Building Materials (Stone, Sands, Concrete) Excavation Zone
• Other Zones as specified as per necessity.
• Policy 2 : According to federal structure, level wise
(Federal, Provincial and Local Levels) Land Use Plans
(LUPs) shall be devised of and be executed.
• Policy 3 : The use of Land and Land Resources (LLRs)
shall be ensured of on the basis of Specific Land Use
Zones (SLUZs) and Land Use Plans (LUPs)
• Policy 4 : Level wise Land Use Plans (LUPs) compatible
with physical infrastructure development projects shall
be devised of and be implemented.
• Policy 5 : Optimum use and protection of arable lands
shall be ensured of upon discouraging of non-
agricultural use of arable lands and the trend of
keeping land fallow and rampant fragmentation
 1

Watershed Management

Menuka Maharjan, PhD

 2

UNIT 4. WATER INDUCED DISASTER

MANAGEMENT (2)
• 4.1 Components-Mitigation, preparedness,
response and recovery (Source: introduction to International Disaster
Management. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817368-8.00007-5 )

• 4.2 Disasters risk reduction strategies and

measures
• 4.3 Communities involvement to manage water
induced disaster risks
• 4.4 Problems in disaster management in Nepal
 3

Hazard vs disaster

https://edurev.in/question/238472/what-is-the-difference-between-hazard-and-disaster
4
 5

Annual numbers of climate-and

Comparison of different types of disaster water–related disasters by hazards,
triggered by natural hazards, 1960-2019 1960-2019

Source: International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,

Geneva, 2020
Contd… 6

• Asia: 40% of

all disaster

events,

• 49% of the

total number

of deaths

• 66% of the

total number

of people

affected

(EMDAT, 2021)
 Contd.. 7

Human Impact: Total affected

(EMDAT, 2021)
Contd… 8

(EMDAT, 2021)
Contd… 9

(EMDAT, 2021)
Contd… 10

(EMDAT, 2021)
11
 12

Disaster/hazard in Nepal
•Climate risk: 11 rank (German
Watch, 2019)

•30th rank: flood risk

respectively (MoHA, 2016)
•Flood is the second most
recurrent hazards in Nepal
(Nepal et al., 2018)
•Flood caused 4796 death,
more than 4 million
affected, more than $9
billion economic loss
between 1990-2019(EmDat, 2019)
 13

4.1 Components-Mitigation, preparedness, response and

recovery

• Mitigation includes any action or sustained effort carry

out to reduce a risk, hazard, by reducing the probability
and/or the consequence component of that hazard’s risk.
• Mitigation try to find either to prevent a negative
situation from occurring or to reduce the
negative effects if it were to occur
• Mitigation methods depends on availability of resources,
the expected social and physical consequences of such
actions, and the nature of the geographic environment
into which the measure will be applied.
 14

• Mitigation techniques are expensive as the actual level of risk

reduction increases

• Hence, depending on the nature of the risk, several different

mitigation options may need to be considered and applied

Types of mitigation
structural mitigation: a risk reduction achieved through the
construction or alteration of the physical environment by applying
engineered solutions.
Nonstructural mitigation: risk reduction achieved through
a modification in human behavior or natural processes that
occurs without using engineered structures or solutions.
 15

• Structural measures are generally expensive, and effectiveness

depends on a range of design, construction, regulation, compliance,
enforcement, inspection, maintenance, and renewal issues.
• E.g.Relocation, Construction of community shelters , Construction
of barrier, deflection, and retention systems, Physical modification
(Slope terracing (landslides, mudflows, and erosion), Treatment
systems (Water treatment systems), Redundancy in life safety
infrastructure (Emergency management infrastructure)
• Nonstructural mitigation involves a reduction in the likelihood or
consequence of risk through modifications in human behavior or
natural processes, without using the use of engineered structures.
• Less costly and easier for communities with few financial or
technological resources
• E.g. Community awareness and education programs (early warning
sytem), Behavioral modification
 16

Obstacles to mitigation
• Cost
• low levels of political support or buy-in
• lack of capacity

Mitigation options selection: The STAPLEE Method

-US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
-STAPLEE guides the assessment of mitigation options by
applying a systematic approach
- STAPLEE(Acronyms): Social, Technical, Administrative,
Political ,Legal ,Economic, Environmental
 17

• Social: Socially acceptable mitigation options

• Technical: technically feasible
• Administrative: Staffing ,Funding, Maintenance
• Political: Use of local funds and using local services, require permits
and permissions from community including involve a certain
amount of risk for the political leaders who authorize the actions
• Legal: Require legal authority to be lawfully conducted
• Economic: mitigation options must prove to be cost-effective to the
community
• Environmental: No negative effect on natural environment
 18

Preparedness
• Goal is knowing what to do in a disaster’s aftermath, knowing
how to do what needs to be done, and being equipped with the right
tools and information.
• the process of becoming adequately prepared is called capacity
development for country or community.
• Preparedness, involves identifying and assessing existing
capacity, comparing that to what is required, and making
improvements and enhancements as needed.
• Minimize the adverse effects of an emergency or disaster event once
it occurs.
• Effective precautionary measures allow stakeholders to organize and
deliver effective response and relief
• Preparedness consider the broad range of possible “all-hazard”
threats that exist, and thus focuses on general functional capacities
and capabilities rather than specific scenario responses
 19

Obstacles to disaster preparedness

• Insufficient understanding or appreciation of needs
• Overreliance on training and education
• A lack of access to or existence of facilities, programs, or resources
to support awareness, knowledge, and skills
• Limiting access to or support for preparedness capacity
development to agencies with an obvious disaster management
mandate (neglecting line and supporting agency)
• Insufficient availability of resources (human, technical, financial,
other)
• Little or no local ownership of programs and projects
• A lack of understanding of existing legal system
• Insufficient focus on sub-national capacity (federal, provincial,
local)
• Lack of general awareness and knowledge of risk drivers and the
role stakeholders play in societal disaster risk reduction (including
at the local level and among the public)
 20

Emergency operation Plan (EOP)

• Exercise
• Education and training
• Acquisition: Acquisition of equipment, resources,
supplies, and other items helps response agencies to
reduce the numbers of injuries and deaths and the
amount of property damaged and destroyed as a result of
a disaster event.
• Authority: Government offices and individuals, elected or
otherwise, must have the legal and procedural authority
to act when they are engaged in an emergency response or
recovery effort.
Public preparedness
Public education, Awareness, Behavior change, Warning
 21

Response
• Response is the most complex which is the high-
stress time-constrained, and information-limited
environment in which it is conducted.
• The response function expected at limiting injuries, loss of
life, damage to property and the environment, and
economic impacts that are taken before, during, and
immediately after a hazard event.
• Response processes begin as soon as it appears that
hazards events is coming up and last until the emergency
is declared to be over.
• Hesitant confidence and unnecessary delay can transform
directly into tragedy, suffering, and destruction during
response
 22

• Response includes skills, resources, system,

procedures to be in place to allow the coordination
and support of such activities.
• Many response activities must occur in unity depending on
criticality and interdependency.
• E.g. opening transportation routes, restoring
communications and electricity, and ensuring food and
clean water distribution together with search and rescue
and logistics
• The probability of response effectiveness is increased when
stakeholders try to prepare. E.g. exercises and training
improve responders’ skills and knowledge
• The quality of response depends on availability the
accurate information and effective coordination
 23

• Search and Rescue

• First aid medical treatment
• Evacuation
• Information management and exchange n and
Shelter-in-Place
• Provision of water, food, and shelter
• Health, Sanitation, Safety and security
• Donation, volunteer work
 24

Recovery
• Disaster recovery is the emergency management
function by which countries, communities, families, and
individuals repair, reconstruct, or regain what has been
lost due to a disaster and ideally reduce the risk of
similar catastrophe in the future.
• Recovery actions may begin as early as during the
planning processes and activities, long before a disaster
occurs.
• Once the disaster strikes, planned and unplanned
recovery actions are executed and may extend for weeks,
months, or even years.
• Recovery is very costly
• Limited study on disaster recovery results to many
haphazardly managed recover
 25

Short-term and long-term recovery

• The short-term recovery phase: immediately after
hazard event
• temporary
• Try to stabilize the lives of affected people
• Guided by response plans and are often uncoordinated.
• E.g. Relief, temporary housing, distribution of
emergency maintenance food and water rations,
restoration of critical infrastructure, and clearance (but
not removal or disposal) of debris.
 26

• Long-term recovery: begin after the emergency phase of the

disaster has ended other than where planning is concerned.
• Rebuilding and rehabilitation
• Continue for years
• Economic renewal is challenging
• Development assistance, assistance, insurance payouts,
special budgetary appropriations, disaster fund payments,
and other sources, more funding is dedicated to recovery
than to any other emergency management phase (for a
given disaster).
• Long-term recovery operations: require a strong
coordination and planning if they are to be successful.
 27

Components of recovery
• Planning
• Coordination
• Information: the damage assessment
• Money and supplies
• Personnel

Types of recovery
• Government (public sector) recovery
• Infrastructure recovery
• Economic and livelihoods recovery
• Individual, family, and social recovery
28
 29

https://www.preventionweb.net/terminology/disaster-risk-
management?utm_source=Facebook&utm_campaign=PreventionSavesLives&fbclid=Iw
AR0OjbkocV8lHPHUOKSg2Y4hVijSyelGG2NKlRwMCo5wL4zb6AhM-RTGgKk
 30

• Disaster management is a continuous and integrated

process of planning, organizing, coordinating and
implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for:
• 1. Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster;
• 2. Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity
or consequences
• 3. Capacity-building;
• 4. Preparedness to deal with any disaster;
• 5. Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or
disaster;
• 6. Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster;
• 7. evacuation, rescue and relief;
• 8. Rehabilitation and reconstruction 9. Evacuation, rescue and
relief.
 31

4.2 Disasters risk reduction strategies and

measures

• Read the national policy (related to strategies

and risk reduction) attached together with this
note

• Policies are in Nepali language so very difficult

to translate so I kept as it.
 32

4.3 Communities involvement to manage water

induced disaster risks
• Community-based disaster risk reduction approach is considered to
be an important pillar of disaster risk reduction and
disaster management (Sharma, 2012; Victoria, 2012; Fabricius
and Koch, 2004; Jones et al., 2014).
• Community-based disaster risk reduction is a process in which
communities at risks of disasters are actively engaged in the
identification, analysis, treatment, monitoring and evaluation of
disaster risks in order to reduce their vulnerabilities and enhance
capacities (Asia Disaster Preparedness Center, 2006).
• The review of literature demonstrated that community-based
disaster-related activities/ responses are termed with different
terminology (Victoria, 2012; Sharma, 2012; Nakagawa, 2012;
Comfort and Wukich, 2012).
 33

Contd..
• Community-based disaster management (CBDM) is very popular
term in later 1980s and 1990s, which gradually evolved to
community-based disaster risk management (CBDRM) and then, to
community-based disaster risk reduction (CBDRR) (Pariyar, 2019)
• CBDRM and CBDRR are often used with similar meaning, with
enhanced focus on “risk”. However, there still exists a thin line of
distinction (Habiba, Shaw and Abedin, 2013).
• The CBDM focuses mainly on disaster management in the line of
Hyogo Framework of Action (2005–2015) whereas the concept of
CBDRM focuses on both disaster and risks management and relates
to the Sendai Framework of Action (2015–2030).
• In CBDRM, the community members are the main actors to sustain
the disaster risk reduction process and pursue disaster risk
management activities (Victoria, 2012). It provides a platform of
inclusive participation for building resilient communities and
sustainable community development.
(Pariyar, 2019). Community Based Disaster Risk Management: A Case Study of Mahakali River Basin, Kanchanpur. The Geographic Base Vo. 6: 77-
86, 2019
 34

• CBDRR commence in Nepal when Nepal

Government made commitment to the
international document the Hyogo Framework for
Action 2005.

• The Hyogo Framework of Action (HFA) 2005-2015

is a consensus document adopted at the UN World
Conference on Disaster Reduction, Kobe in 2005,
towards achieving the stated goals of DRR within
the stipulated time frame (NSDRM, 2009)
35
 36

• In 1990s, United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster

Reduction highlighted the need for proactive activities of
preparedness, mitigation and prevention recognizing the significant
role of local communities in disaster risk management to correct the
defects of the top-down approach in disaster management and
development planning (Pandey, 2018).
• This initiated the critical role of community-based approaches or
community participation with the names of community-based disaster
management (CBDM) or community-based disaster risk management
(CBDRM) (Pandey, 2018).
• Sensitizing the community about their capacity and duty toward
Disaster risk management (DRM) process is the initial stage of the
process and raising a community which is trained, has system in place
and is capable to take on minor localized disasters at their own and
can also trigger and support the government system for prompt action
in case of a major disaster are the other stages identified by Oxfam
and ADPC (2014).
• Oxfam and ADPC (2014) divide CBDRM into five stages, which are
adapted and shown in the Figure 1.
 37

Pandey, 2018. Making communities disaster resilient Challenges and prospects for
community engagement in Nepal. al is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0965-3562.htm
 38

CBDRM in Nepal (Pandey, 2018)

• In Nepal, the community-based disaster risk reduction and management
informal practices are historical.
• Government of Nepal key actor in disaster management especially
focusing on managing post disaster situation highlighting short-term
actions such as rescue and relief distribution after Natural Calamity
(Relief) Act 1982.
• However, the act was missing the imp important components of disaster
risk reduction and management i.e. preparedness, response, recovery and
reconstruction including short-term responses of rescue and relief
distributions.
• In 2015 post-earthquakes period demonstrated that government and
most NGOs located in urban settings were not able to reach earthquake
affected people in rural areas i.e. Gorkha for weeks
• Hence, this highlights the importance of community involvement in
disaster management
 39

• In this context, United Nation Development Program (UNDP) and National

Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET-N) formally piloted
CBDM Program in Sarlahi, Sindhuli, Tanahu and Syangja for 2
years

• Under this program, local people were trained to enhance their

capacity to reduce their risk from natural hazards along with the
central and local government levels. The focus of these pilot activities
particularly appears to be disaster mitigation (UNDP, 2008).

• The NSET-N activities were focused in urban areas i.e.Kathmandu valley

with main aim of enhancing disaster safety of selected communities through
awareness campaigns, trainings and institutionalization of the method in
the local governance system.

• Although the CBDRM is important for diaster is reduction and management,

it has not well capitalized in both governmental policy and
practice aspects except some bits and pieces of practice aspect has been
piloted by a few international organization and non-governmental
organizations (Pandey, 2018).
 40

http://flagship4.nrrc.org.np/sites/default/files/documents/practical-
approaches-cbdm.pdf
 41

Institutions provisioned by GoN (2017)

Pandey, 2018. Making communities disaster resilient Challenges and prospects for
community engagement in Nepal. al is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0965-3562.htm
 42

https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/disaster-resilience/concepts/what-is-disaster-
resilience/
 43

Bhandari et al., 2020. Disaster risk

reduction and management in
Nepal: Delineation of roles and
responsibilities
 44

4.4 Problems in disaster management in Nepal (Tuladhar, 2012.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN NEPAL – POLICY ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS.

• Lack of adequate attention in the field of pre-disaster works while

preparing disaster risk reduction plans and policies.
• Lack of awareness about natural disaster among people
• Limited studies on identifying the most vulnerable places and types
of disasters
• Prioritized hazards and their preparedness and mitigation efforts
are completely lacking.
• The pre, during and post disaster activities for different hazards are
yet to be recognized.
• Lack of proper policy and legal environment is the biggest
impediment for an effective disaster management system in Nepal.
 45

4.4 Problems in disaster management in Nepal (Tuladhar, 2012.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN NEPAL – POLICY ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS.

Other major problems can be pin pointed as following:

• (i) Limited resources
• (ii) Remote, rural and difficult geo-physical condition of the country
(iii) Inadequacy of infrastructure facilities
• (iv) Low literacy rate, lack of public awareness and the
misconception of the people
• (v) Absence of sufficient modern technology i.e. early warning
systems
• (vi) Ineffective coordination
• (vii) Reactive approach
• (viii) Lack of private sector involvement in in disaster preparedness,
mitigation and rehabilitation works
• (ix) Rapid urbanization and unplanned settlements.
 46

Solution of problem(Tuladhar, 2012. DISASTER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN

NEPAL – POLICY ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS.

i) Avail adequate funds and resources

(ii) Infrastructure development
(iii) Mass education, literacy and awareness campaign in order to
educate and aware the people.
(iv) Advancement in technology including the development of early
warning systems
(v) Effective coordination among disaster related agencies
(vi) The Act should be amended or revisited in order to make it
proactive
(vii) A separate agency should be constituted to address the whole
cycle of disaster preparedness, mitigation, response and
rehabilitation works
(viii) NGOs Need to be Motivated to Work in the disaster affected
remote Areas
(ix) Planned settlements are needed. Building code should be strictly
implemented.
 1

Watershed Management

Menuka Maharjan, PhD

 2

UNIT 5. MAJOR ISSUES IN WATERSHED

MANAGEMENT (3)
• 5.1 Physical problem
• 5.2 Resource use and socio-economic problem
• 5.3Land fragmentation, fallowing and food security
• 5.4Road erosion risk
• 5.5Water quality and sedimentation
• 5.6Upstream and downstream connectivity mechanism
• 5.7 Collaboration among line agencies and multiple
stakeholders
 3

5.1 Physical problem

-Land degradation
-Soil erosion
(water/wind)
-Water scarcity
-Multiple
hazards/disaster:
landslide, flood,
drought
-Loss of biodiversity
-Climate change:
fluctuation on rainfall,
Image Credit: Anette Stumptner 2007 after Tidemann 1998 global warming
https://www.geo.fu-berlin.de/en/v/iwm-network/learning_content/management-and-
measures/planning_cycle/identify_problems/index.html
 4

5.2 Resource use and socio-economic problem

• Poverty and unemployment,

• Food insecurity, hunger,
• poor health, illiteracy,
• Corruption/greed
• Migration, conflict, Crime
• Gender disparity
• Over exploitation of resources
 5

5.4 Road erosion risk

 6

• Poorly functioning road drainage is common on roads which are due for
maintenance and improvement as these roads were either constructed with
inadequate drainage system or the system is not functioning w
• The watershed above the road with more intensive land utilization and
deforestation resulting in increased runoff exceeding the capacity of the
drainage systems.
• Such roads degrade more quickly than anticipated, leading to expensive
maintenance and repair expenses as well as considerable soil erosion
damage to nearby property, frequently with the formation of enormous
gullies.
• Lack of timely reporting including lack of policy direction, uncertainty over
the apportioning of responsibilities further intensify the problem

Mr. Arne Eriksson & Eng. Asfaw Kidanu. 2010. GUIDELINES FOR PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION
IN ROAD WORKS
 7

According to the unique characteristics of their erosion problems and the

necessary mitigation strategies, soil erosion problems associated with road
improvements are typically divided into three categories.

Mr. Arne Eriksson & Eng. Asfaw Kidanu. 2010. GUIDELINES FOR PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION
IN ROAD WORKS
 8

Upper catchment: the area above the road servitude that is draining towards
the road.
Runoff from the upper catchment areas often leads to excessive erosion in the
road reserve damaging drainage structures.
Road Reserve: Typical Soil erosion problems on the roads servitude include:
- gullying in side drains, on culvert outlets
- Siltation of culverts and drains
-Slope failures on embankments
Lower Catchment: the area below the road servitude that is receiving water
from upper catchment and the road itself. This is where most soil erosion
problems occur with serious damage on land and other properties.
Typical soil erosion problems in the lower catchment areas include:
-gullying of culvert outfalls,
-- flooding and silt deposition causing damage to crops and property

Mr. Arne Eriksson & Eng. Asfaw Kidanu. 2010. GUIDELINES FOR PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION
IN ROAD WORKS
 9
In the road reserve, the road drainage system (consisting of road camber, side drains,
culverts, mitre drains) should be constructed in accordance with set road
specifications and should as much as possible aim at avoiding or reducing the
concentration of water flowing out of the road servitude.

Road structures should also be designed and constructed taking the rainfall pattern
and intensity, as well as the terrain of the area into consideration.

In this respect, Engineers should consult with the local communities, during the
formulation and construction of soil erosion control structures, in order to tap into the
local knowledge on historical runoff patterns in the areas under consideration.
In the road reserve, the road drainage system (consisting of road camber, side drains,
culverts, mitre drains) should be constructed in accordance with set road
specifications and should as much as possible aim at avoiding or reducing the
concentration of water flowing out of the road servitude.

Road structures should also be designed and constructed taking the rainfall pattern
and intensity, as well as the terrain of the area into consideration. In this respect,
Engineers should consult with the local communities, during the formulation and
construction of soil erosion control structures, in order to tap into the local knowledge
on historical runoff patterns in the areas under consideration.
 10

Outline of the Guideline for mitigating road erosion:

1.the design and construction of waterways and soil erosion control

measures in the road drainage systems
2.soil erosion control measures needed in the upper and lower catchment
areas to reduce soil erosion and mitigate against anticipated damages from
the road drainage discharge
3.The use of Vetiver grass to stabilize and heal erosion damages, and
4.Indicative cost of soil and water conservations measures for planning
purposes

Mr. Arne Eriksson & Eng. Asfaw Kidanu. 2010. GUIDELINES FOR PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION IN ROAD WORKS
11
12
 13

Unpaved roads are essential infrastructure components of cropland and non-

cropland systems, but are significant sediment sources, especially during heavy
storms (Nosrati & Collins, 2019; Zhang et al., 2019).

Some research has even reported unpaved road erosion as the dominant source of
sediment in selected watersheds (Cao et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2019).

The combined effect of soil compaction resulting in reduced infiltration capacity of

road surface and the vehicle induced increase in the sediment yield leads to an
increase in surface runoff (Sidle et al., 1985; Cao et al., 2011; McGroody et al.,
2013).

River monitoring, sediment determination methods and road erosion models are
widely used to estimate the road-induced erosion.

Road failures can contribute both fine and course sediment to streams, and
accumulated road failures in large storm events can have catastrophic effects,
such as filling inhttp://www.krisweb.com/watershd/roads.htm
pools and reducing habitat complexity.
 14

• Roadways might contribute between 50 and 80 percent of the sediment

entering streams (Hagans et al., 1986).
• Guo et al. (2020) reported unpaved road erosion could reach 10.8-57.5
times that of background erosion rates in a semi-arid loess area
• factors impacting unpaved road erosion : road gradient, drainage area,
road surface soil properties, and rainfall characteristics, have also been
used in road erosion-related models (Anderson & Macdonald,
15
 16

5.5.Water quality and sedimentation

• Sediment is the loose sand, clay, silt and other soil particles that settle at the
bottom of a body of water by air and water.
• Sedimentation occurs when water carrying eroded soil particles slows long
enough to allow the particles to settle out.
• The smaller the particle, the longer it stays in suspension. Larger, heavier
particles such as gravel and sand settle out sooner than smaller, lighter particles
such as clay.
• Clay may stay in suspension for very long periods, contributing significantly to
water turbidity
• Sediment can come from soil erosion or from the decomposition of plants and
animals.
• EPA lists sediment as the most common pollutant in water bodies i.e. rivers,
streams, lakes and reservoirs.
• In USA natural erosion produces nearly 30 percent of the total sediment while
accelerated erosion from human use of land accounts for the remaining 70
percent.
• Annually, sediment pollution causes $16 billion in environmental damage.
Source: www.marc.org/Enviroment/Water A typical watershed system or call 816/474-4240
https://www.ljea.org/2018-state-lake-james-watershed/erosion-and-sedimentation/importance-erosion-and-sedimentation-water-
quality/
.
 17

• Sediment entering water bodies degrades the water quality for drinking,
wildlife and the land surrounding streams in the following ways:
• Water polluted with sediment becomes cloudy, preventing animals from
seeing food including prevent natural vegetation growing in the water
• Sediment in stream beds disrupts the natural food chain by destroying
the habitat where the smallest stream organisms live and causing
massive declines in fish populations.
• Sediment increases the cost of treating drinking water
• Sediment can clog fish gills, reducing resistance to disease, lowering
growth rates, and affecting fish egg and larvae development.
• Nutrients transported by sediment can activate blue-green algae that
release toxins and can make swimmers sick.
• Sediment deposits in rivers can alter the flow of water and reduce water
depth, which makes navigation and recreational use more difficult.
• Sediment can also carry pesticides—such as herbicides and insecticides—
that may be toxic to aquatic plants and animals.
Source: www.marc.org/Enviroment/Water A typical watershed system or call 816/474-4240.
 18

https://www.gvsu.edu/wri/isc/lower-grand-watershed-interactive-tool-wit-sediments-202.htm
 19

• Reduced road erosion

• Less fertilizer/compost/chemical in the field
• Prevents washing these areas results in sediment and other
pollutants running off into streams, rivers and lakes.
• Notify local government officials when you see sediment entering
streets or streams near a construction site.
• Either wash your car at a commercial car wash or on a surface that
absorbs water, such as grass or gravel.
• Preventing run off from mining and construction work to water
bodies
 20

5.3 Land fragmentation, fallowing and food security

• Land fragmentation: the division of land into a great number of distinct plots
(Dovring et al., 1960).

• It is also a process of decreasing in the average size of farm holdings; increasing

in the scattering of each farmer's land; and decreasing in the size of the
individual plots in a farm holding (Agarwal, 1972).

• A phenomenon which exists when a household operates a number of owned or

rented non-contiguous plots at the same time (Wu et al., 2005).

• A common feature of agriculture in many developing countries and leading to

inefficient farm management (Sundquist, 1988).

• Inheritance; population growth; land markets; (Niroula and Thapa, 2005; Tan et
al., 2006; Van et al., 2007) are main triggering factors for land fragmentation
 21

Disadvantage of land fragmentation

• Inefficiencies in crop productivity due to increase transport and labour costs due
to scattered plots
• Time consuming
• Require more fencing, boarder construction and paths and roads (Rose &
Richard, 2002).
• Difficult to grow high profit crops due to small fragmented land
• Difficult to use machinery (Cicek, 1996).
• Part of land will be wasted (due to irregular shape) thus becomes fallow at the
margins of the parcels (Karouzis, 1977; Burton, 1988).
• Due to land market, often fertile land becomes fallow

Advantages of land fragmentation

• Low risk of crop failure
• Multiple crop rotation (Bentley, 1987).
• Low risk of disaster and disease due to spatial separation (Li, 2010).
• Diversity in agriculture production
 22

Land fragmentation in Nepal

• Common characteristic of agricultural land in Nepal
• Land Inheritance system, growing population pressure, haphazard housing
and urbanization, land markets, loosely-enforced policies are major reason
behind land fragmentation in the country (CRSC, 2012; Dhakal and Khanal,
2018).
• A total of 3.2 million hector land is cultivated and is divided into 3.7 million
house holdings, (CBS, 2014).
• 44,96,226 small holding
Nepalese families could not feed themselves year round from the product
what they get from the land they own (CBS, 2012).
• Nepal imported food stuffs worth about 10 billion NPR in the year of
2015/016 (Ministry of Agriculture Development, 2016).
• The existing agricultural infrastructures and extension services provided
either is insufficient or unsustainable (Shrestha and Pokhrel, 2016)
• Therefore, majority of Nepalese farming families, about 76.7 per cent,
(NLSS, 2013) neither wish to continue the conventional farming nor have
alternative livelihood opportunity (Shrestha and Pokhrel, 2016).
 23

• According to the Ministry of Agricultural Development (MoAD), nearly 30

percent of the cultivated land in the country is fallow and this data is
only rising up (Upadhaya, 2018).

• With youth especially men migrate aboard, their families i.e. wife and children
move to town for better education and health facilities leading to abandoning
their arable farmlands (Upadhaya, 2018).

• With a gradual reduction in farming activities, arable land has decreased by

more than 50 percent from 0.19 ha in 1960 to 0.09 ha in 2010 causing
to decline overall food production and resulting food deficit country
(Upadhaya, 2018).

• Decline in the food production not just affects the income from agriculture, but
also the household food security and nutrition (Upadhaya, 2018).
 24

Food Security (Ndirangu et al., 2017)

• “The right for everyone to access, at all times, sufficient, safe and nutritious
food for an active and healthy life “(FAO World Food Summit, 1996)
• 4 dimension of food security(FAO, 2006):Availability (supply) , Accessibility
(physical and economic), Use (food safety or nutritional value/quality),
Stability (combination of previous three dimension), which refers to time.
• Land fragmentation is extensive in mostly developing countries due to
increasing population pressure (Cohen, 1999)
• Land size has significant impact on quantity of food production and the
amount of farm income generated which contribute household food security
(Obonyo et al., 2016)
• Negative impact of land fragmentation on the agricultural activity and the
food availability because agriculture production from the farms cannot
sustain the households up to the next season harvest meaning perennial
famine in the region (Obonyo et al., 2016)
• Thus, land fragmentation is one of the major causes of food insecurity
(Odingo , 1985; wabeza & Gaynor ,2002).
 25

Fig . Dimension of Food security. Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/10439187/

26
27
28
 29

https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-
0000140700/download/?_ga=2.36759968.1047378604.1659359908-
426316949.1652022089
 30

https://www.globalhungerindex.org/nepal.ht
ml
 31

https://www.globalhunge
rindex.org/nepal.html
 32

Fig ; Food secrutiy situtaiton in Nepal (Source: NeKSAP, undated

http://neksap.org.np/allmaps/food-security-phase-classification-map-mid-november-
2015-to-mid-march-2016-)
 33

• Nepal Living Standard Survey 2011 found that 38 percent Nepali people
are living with less than minimum daily requirement of calories required for
a healthy life.
• Compared to terai (24 percent), the population living with insufficient
calorie intake is higher in hilly (36 percent) and mountainous (38
percent) areas.
• In mountain or Himalaya region, complex geography, climate, infrastructure
development facilities and natural disasters leads food insecurity causing
serious malnutrition problem.

Fig . Malnutrition problem in Bajura. Source:

https://www.nepalmountainnews.com/drought-famine-plague-malnutrition-in-mid-west-far-west/
 34

5.6 Upstream and downstream connectivity mechanism

 Watersheds provide a wide range of goods and services to both urban and
rural population and play an important role in supporting urban life and
development.
 Watersheds in developing countries are highly populated with numerous
subsistence farmers
 Upstream and downstream linkage is a unique feature for the
management and utilization of watershed resources.
 The downstream community usually prefers more conservation and protection
work in upstream area.
 People in the upstream watershed wish more development works in watershed.
 Those downstream people (including urban dwellers, policy makers and
planners) are mostly involve in decision making about how the watershed
should be managed or developed.
 Involving local, upstream people in the planning process is utmost for successful
WM project, however, something only done recently.
 Concept of PES can solve the upstream and downstream problem.
35
 36

Payment of Environment Services

 PES is an innovative market-based mechanism, which has at least five

component i.e. a voluntary transaction; a well defined ecosystem
service; at least one buyer of services; at least one provider of
services and well defined promised service (Wunder, 2005).

 PES has twin principles: those who benefit from environmental

services should pay to those who provide environmental services
(World Bank, 2007).

 PES intends to achieve two objective i.e. sustainable economic growth

and ecological restoration.

 PES scheme should be as a voluntary based i.e. willingness to pay and

willingness to accept
 37

• Feasibility of PES: 1. Economic valuation of Ecosystem services (ES) 2. the

legal and institutional framework for PES transaction; 3. the level of organization
of stakeholders; and 4. the capacity to pay of beneficiaries and providers. The
financing structure of any PES must provide a “win–win” opportunity for both the
buyers and seller.

PES in Nepal
 PES is at an evolutionary stage in Nepal.

 Payment schemes are at pilot scale, with limited geographical coverage and less
involvement of government stakeholders.

 Poor commitment to ES, limited buyers of services, less willingness to pay, poor
economic conditions of buyers and sellers, poor policy/legislative and instructional
arrangement are key challenges for PES in Nepal.

 However, The Three Year Plan (2010/11-2012/13) and the Thirteenth Plan
Approach Paper (2012/13-2013/14) have permitted high priority for generating
sustainable conservation finance through the selling of ecosystem services such
as tourism, carbon and water resources (ICUN, 2013).
 38

• Besides, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC) formulated the

guidelines that hydropower companies running inside protested areas must
deposit 10 percent of their royalty fees for environment conservation and
community development (ICUN, 2013).

• PES for use of ecosystem services, specially on drinking water, irrigation

and tourism already exists in Nepal (Joshi, undated and ICUN, 2013).

• Most of PES schemes implemented in Nepal are localized, facilitated by

intermediately organizations, but do not obey the fundamental principle of
PES.

• Due to growing environmental awareness and higher economic valuation of

ES, PES has great opportunity.
 39

PES in Kulekhani watershed:

• The Kulekhani watershed is located 50 km southwest of Kathmandu and is the
source of water for the Kulekhani reservoir, and built in 1970s which supplies
water to two hydropower plants.

• After completion of reservoir construction in 1982, The life span was estimated
100 years ( Joshi, undated).

• Due to high erosion rates and landslides in the watershed, its life expectancy
reduced to a third in a single day (Joshi,undated)

• In the mid-1980s, participatory watershed conservation programs in Kulekhani

watershed was launched with assistance of the government and donor
agencies .

• By 2001, forest cover increased because trees planted in the mid- to late
1980s began to mature by the late 1990s.

• Additionally, rate of sedimentation to the Kulekhani reservoir had declined by

the late 1990s.
 40

• Analysis showed that water-flow to the reservoir increased as the forest cover
increased during dry-season.
• In 2003, the RUPES programme of ICRAF, in collaboration with Winrock
International, initiated work to establish a PES scheme between the upland
communities in the Kulekhani watershed and the Kulekhani hydropower plant.

• According to 1992 Electricity Act, hydropower developers have to pay certain

percent of their electricity revenue as a royalty to the central government.

• Besides according to local Self-Governance Act (1999), the central government

has to share 12 percent of such royalty with the local government

• Hence, the Makawanpur District Development Committee (DDC) receives 12

percent from central government (Joshi, 2013)

• The DDC must now spend half of the 12 percent royalty in the hydropower
plant-affected area, while the remaining half can be used in other areas of the
district which is Known as the Hydropower Royalty Distribution and Use
Directive 2062
 41

• Based on the work of Winrock International and RUPES, the Makwanpur

DDC passed a regulation how to spend the allocated 12 percent of
royalty.

• The regulation further specifies that of the 50 percent allocation to the

affected area, 20 percent is for the upstream watershed area
(catchment), 15 percent for the surrounding area (affected by power
plant infrastructure) and the remaining 15 percent for the downstream
area (because of reduced water in the river due to the water diverted
to the turbines) (Joshi, 2013)

• As a result, the upstream catchment community, receives a bigger

proportion of the royalty than the other areas.

• The money is deposited in Environmental Management Special Fund

(EMSF), managed by the DDC which was established in 2006 (Joshi, 2013)
 42

• The EMSF received about USD 3, 000 in 2006-2007, about USD 5,000 in
2007-2008 and about USD 10, 000 in 2008-2009. However, due to local
conflict, there was interruption of allocation of money in 2009-2010
(Joshi, undated)

• The 2009-2010 Makawanpur DDC directive has since bee accepted and
circulated by the government to be implemented in all districts of the
country (Joshi, undated).

• Established with support from RUPES, the Kulekhani Watershed

Conservation and Development Forum established with support from
RUPES was active in raising awareness amongst local people about
ecosystem services and the role of communities.

• Besides, creating awareness on how government introduced previous

plan/activities now affecting livelihood of people.
 43

• E.g. plantation of pine tree gains criticisms because pine are less useful for
fodder for livestock.

• The Kulekhani experience shows that PES can be implemented in

community level.

• Community forest management was major strength in this PES

implementaiton in Kulekhani.

• The indirect payment scheme mediated by government body (Makwanpur

DDC). This in turn makes the project vulnerable to local conflicts, resulting
political instability as a major weakness.
 44

PES schemes implemented in Nepal

 45

5.7 Collaboration among line agencies and multiple stakeholders

• Multistakeholder approaches are newly emerging governance

approaches in the area of natural resources, including urban water
resources.
• Multiple natural resource management in watershed management
• Diverse stakeholders
• Need of collaboration among stakeholder for conservation and
management of natural resources
• Sharing visions and agendas among stakeholder
• Biases among stakeholders
• The history and dynamic of stakeholder positions and interests must be
ensured before any form of collaboration is initiated.
• Reaching consensus on the ground rules is fundamental to success.
• Monitoring and evaluation of the quality of collaboration

Source: WWF. 2000. Stakeholder Collaboration Building Bridges for Conservation

 46

Source: WWF. 2000. Stakeholder Collaboration Building Bridges for Conservation

 47

Source: WWF. 2000. Stakeholder Collaboration Building Bridges for Conservation

 1

Watershed Management

Menuka Maharjan, PhD

 2

land use planning

Land Use Development Planning
Land use plans are the basis for rational utilization and management of
watershed resources. These plans are prepared by following the departmental
guidelines.

The main activities carried out under this program are:

a) Sub-watershed prioritization
b) Watershed management planning
c) Sub-watershed management planning, and
d) Technical service for land use development
 3

Fig 1: Raduwa Khola sub-watershed,

Dadeldhura - An example of SCWM Working
Unit
 4

Sustainable land management/ Productivity

Conservation
• Productivity conservation programs are those which help to develop and
improve productivity of the land through appropriate land use management
on the basis of land capabilities. E.g.
• On-farm conservation,
• Terrace improvement,
• Degraded land rehabilitation,
• Sloping agricultural land technology (SALT),
• Agroforestry,
• Fruit tree planting, fodder / grass plantation and
• Grazing management
 5

Fig 2. Grass plantation on terrace Fig 3. Pine plantation

riser, Kumpur, Dhading

Fig 4.Degraded land rehabilitation, Pereni, Dang

Source: DSCWM, undated
 6

Disaster Risk Reduction and Natural Hazard Preventation

• Natural hazard prevention programs aim to protect life, property and
natural resources from natural hazards.
• Application of both vegetative and structural measure.
• E.g. Gully treatment
• Landslide inventory and documentation
• Landslide treatment,
• Torrent control,
• River/Stream bank protection,
• Degraded land rehabilitation
• Conservation pond construction
• Run-off harvesting dam construction
 7

Fig 5.Gully control measure using locally available material, Indrayani, Kathmandu

Fig 6. Landslide and Gully treatment, Kulekhani watershed

 8

Development Infrastructure Protection

• Development infrastructure protection programs are those which help to

protect and stabilize the basic development infrastructures with the aim of
improving the economic life of the development infrastructure.
• E.g. Road slope stabilization,
• Irrigation channel improvement,
• Trail improvement,
• Stream bank protection,
• Shelterbelt
• Buffer strips
• Water source protection

Fig 7. Trail improvement

 9

Conservation Extension
• These programs are intended to raise the awareness level of community
members, develop their knowledge, skills and motivate them to participate
in SCWM activities.
• E.g.Demonstration site management,
• Micro-catchment demonstration establishment,
• Study tour and training
• Conservation exhibition: events for farmers and use groups for selling
product, audio-video show, distribution of materials
• School conservation education: talk program, film sow, contest etc

Fig 8. School students involved in plantation

 10

Community mobilization, capacity development and

livelihood improvement

• Main purpose of this program is to raise the economic status and

livelihoods of the local community by introducing various income
generating activities in the private and community lands.
• E.g. various forms of agroforestry practices,
• planting fruit trees,
• coffee and improved variety of grass on marginal lands own by individual
farmers and community.
• Fish farming
• Eco-tourism/home stay/hotels
• Boating
• Bee-keeping,
• private nursery,
• mushroom growing/vegetable growing
• Providing training for capacity building and creating network and linkage
•
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Climate change adaptation/resilience development

• Resiliency is the ability to recover from a negative event i.e. climate change
including the preparations beforehand and strategies for recovery (i.e.
adaptations), as well as populations that are more less capable of developing and
implementing a resiliency strategy (i.e. vulnerable populations) are essential.
• Resilience encompasses to absorb shock as well as to self-renew.
• The key focus of climate resilience efforts is to address the vulnerability that
communities, states, and countries currently have with regards to the
environmental consequences of climate change.
• Climate resilience efforts include social, economic, technological, and political
strategies that are being implemented at all scales of society.
• From local community action to global treaties, addressing climate resilience is
becoming a priority, although it could be argued that a significant amount of the
theory has yet to be translated into practice.

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_resilience
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Churia conservation activities and programme

• Chure Conservation Master Plan (20 Year)

• Integrated River System Management Programme
▫ tree plantation in high lands,
▫ productive agricultural cultivation etc.
• Identification and Treatment of Vulnerable Areas
▫ keep data of landslids and vulnerable areas of landslides in the hills and
▫ treat the areas that may cause threat to human settlement by developing
appropriate technologies.
• Research and Technology Development
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• Improvement in Agriculture System and Income of Chure Area

Communities
▫ empowerment of communities,
▫ improvement in agriculture system,
▫ modernization in animal husbandry and
▫ improvement in pasture land, fruits and conservation cultivation,
▫ promotion of private forests,
▫ promotion of herb cultivation,
▫ infrastructure development for village tourism,
▫ skill development for productive business, management of capital
market and
▫ modern and green house sources management etc
 14

Relationship between climate resilience, climate change, adaptability,

and vulnerability
• Thus, for psychologists, ‘‘Resilience’’ is a trait, reflecting a general ability to
master challenges, whereas ‘‘Adaptation’’ is a state, reflecting how individuals
deal with specific stressors. Resilience includes the ability to acquire new
capabilities, perhaps emerging stronger from the struggle, whereas Adaptation
entails preserving existing resources
• Resiliency is the ability to recover from a negative event, in this case climate
change, then talking about preparations beforehand and strategies for recovery
(i.e. adaptations), as well as populations that are more less capable of
developing and implementing a resiliency strategy (i.e. vulnerable populations)
are essential.

• Climate change - together with unsustainable practices in the management of

land and soils, including deforestation, overgrazing and excessive application of
chemical inputs - is also among the main drivers of land degradation processes.
The loss of soil quality results in turn in decreased agricultural productivity,
and may lead to severe social and economic losses
(http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/thematic sitemap/theme/spi/climate-
change-resilience-in-africa-agpme-projects/en/)
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Watershed Management

Menuka Maharjan, PhD

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Course of study
7.1 Introduction to integrated watershed management
planning
7.2 Data required and their collection methods for
watershed planning
7.3 Sub-watershed prioritization using landuse, land system
and demographic data
7.4. Watershed project planning
7.5. Watershed management planning practices in Nepal
7.6. Evaluation and monitoring of the watershed
management program
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7.1 Introduction to Integrated Watershed

Management Planning
• Planning is the process of thinking about the activities
required to achieve a desired goal.

• Planning is a continuous process

• Planning is
▫ a process of finding alternative solutions to a problem
▫ a process oriented predominantly towards the future
▫ a process of formulating comprehensive policies and
programs
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Contd…
• Integrated planning is defined as “a planning process
with the objectives of developing more than one resource
with due consideration of their relations and interaction
among the respective components”

• Watershed management planning is the process of

formulating and carrying out a course of action involving
the use of resources in a sub-watershed to provide
desired goods and services without adversely affecting
the soil and water base.
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Contd….
For an integrated watershed management, three levels
planning have been identified by department of soil
conservation and watershed management. They
are :

• Reconnaissance level planning

• Semi-detail level planning
• Detail level planning
 6

Contd..
Reconnaissance level planning
• This is a very general or board planning. Various
possibilities and priorities are determined by acquiring
general and qualitative
information.
• This is done at national/regional levels for the period of
10 to 25
years.
• This level of planning is a kind of project proposal.
 7

Contd..
Semi-detailed level planning :
• This is some how specific.
• In this planning, some
semi-quantitative and semi-qualitative information of
district or watershed are
collected.
• In this planning, project feasibility and prioritization of
district or
watershed are made.
• Planning is usually done for 5 to 10 years.
 8

Contd..
Detail level planning
• In this planning process, very specific information both
qualitative and quantitative are collected.
• Based on the detail information,
watershed/sub-watershed is prioritize.
• Possibility of project examined and Project
formulation will also be done at this level for the period
of 1 to 5 years.
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Level of planning
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Basic planning steps

• Problem tree assessment
• Establish the objectives
• Data collection
• Analysis
• Plan formulation
• Plan implementation and Monitoring &
evaluation
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Data required and their collection methods

for watershed planning
• While collecting data and information following
questions should be kept in mind :
• Where is the area ?
• What do we know ?
• What information or data need to be collected ?
• How information or data should be collected ?
• How reliable is information or data collected ?
• Is there any gaps in information or data ?

Whatever data we collect that should be problem oriented

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Contd…
• Data collection or survey should be problem oriented.
Watershed problem can generally be
found into many categories as follows (Sheng, T. C., 1985)
• Physiographic problems (e.g. steep slopes, heavy rains,
excessive runoff, problem
soils, etc.)
• Resources use problems (e.g. shifting cultivation, forest
destruction, fire, overgrazing, uncontrolled mining, poor road
construction, etc.)
• End problems (e.g. erosion, sedimentation, flood, water
pollution, water storage etc.)
• Socio-economic and other problems (e.g. illiteracy, low
acceptance of innovation,
labour shortage, land tenure, poor infrastructures etc.)
 13

Contd..

Physiographic data
• This includes location, elevation, area, soil
type, structure, texture, etc. to predict soil loss,
• Soil depth to assess capability of the area,
• Nature of rock and its orientation to evaluate
stability of the area,
• Aspects, geology, landforms, land capability,
• Slope gradient, slope type, slope length,
• Erosion potential, watershed condition
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Contd…
Bio-physical data : this includes forest types,
use and condition, agriculture and cropping
pattern, crop yield, livestock, bio-diversity
Land use data: area of forest land,
agriculture land, barren land, range/grazing
land, waste land, water bodies etc. Land use
maps and field verification
 15

Contd…
• Climatic/hydrological data : Total
precipitation, Rainfall intensity, humidity,
snow, wind, evapo-transpiration, floods,
sediments, stream flow, drainage pattern,
Maximum and minimum temperature, runoff
volume and silt content, etc.
• Socio-Economic Data
• Population census and description:
Total population; Sex ratios; Age structure; Rate
of growth; Migration patterns.
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Contd…
• Behavioural and Social characteristics:
Family pattern; Family size; Reaction to innovation;
Educational level; Traditions;
Religious sects; Village organisations; Health schemes;
Details on communal
administration.
• Economic and Marketing Factors:
Land tenure pattern; Marketing arrangements; Patterns
of cultivation; Crops surveys;
Farming practices; Yield of crops; Shifting cultivation;
Labour settled and migrant;
Transport system; Local use and export use; Industry;
Forest and range; Infrastructures;
e.g. roads, schools, banks, co-operatives etc.
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Contd…

• Management Oriented Data (Sheng, T.C., 1985):

Watershed problems; Environmental impacts; Land
management Technique;
Treatment needs; Infrastructure requirements; Research
needs; Unit cost; Sectoral cost;
Cash flows; Work schedule; Financial management;
Expected benefits and results.
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Participatory Rural Appraisal

• Primary information: RRA/PRA and

household survey, field measurement
• Secondary information: Various offices,
departments, line agencies
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Principles of PRA
• Reversal of learning; learning from people
• Learning rapidly and progressively: exploration, flexible
methods, adaptable
• Offsetting bias: to be receptive rather than pre-conceived
ideas
• Optimizing tradeoffs: understanding the usefulness
information
• Triangulating: Crosschecking and approximation
• Sharing
(Raut, undated)
 20

Contd…
• The approach aims to incorporate the knowledge and
opinions of rural people in the planning and
management of development projects and programmes.
• In 1983, Robert Chambers, a Fellow at the Institute of
Development Studies (UK), used the term rapid rural
appraisal (RRA) to describe techniques that could bring
about a "reversal of learning", to learn from rural people
directly.
• By the mid 1990s, the term RRA had been replaced by a
number of other terms including participatory rural
appraisal (PRA) and participatory learning and
action (PLA).
 21

Contd…
Some PRA tools
• Mapping: social, resource, transect walks,
• Diagram: Seasonal Calendar, Venn diagram, Timeline,
Matrix scoring/ranking
• Interviewing: Focus group discussion, semi-structured
interview
• Key informant survey
• Surveying and sampling, e.g. transect walks, wealth
ranking
• Direct observation
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Resource Mapping

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Resource-map-of-Khanpara-the-base-
village-Source-Fieldwork-data_fig3_235339854
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Participatory mapping

Jackson and Ingles, 1995

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Focus group discussion

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Direct Observation

Jackson and Ingles, 1995

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Seasonal calendar
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Sub-watershed prioritization using landuse, land system

and demographic data

• Soil and water conservation is the key issue in watershed

management while demarcating watersheds.
• While considering watershed conservation work, it is not
feasible to take the whole area at once.
• Thus the whole basin is divided into several smaller
units, as watersheds or sub-watersheds, by considering
its drainage system.
• In Nepal, sub-watersheds prioritization is generally
carried out using criteria cutting across land use, land
system and socio-economic parameters using Remote
Sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS).
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Why is Prioritization?
• Prioritization is selection of Most Needed Area for
investment of limited available resources for the
implementation of Soil Conservation and Watershed
Management Programme in sequence.
• Due to limited budget, programs and technical manpower in
developing countries, it is not possible to implement
watershed development and management programs in all
the areas at a time.
• Hence the concept of prioritization plays a key role in
identifying areas which need immediate attention.
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Guidelines and Methodology for Sub-watershed

Prioritization in Watershed Management Planning -1997

• Identify suitable and simple sub-watershed prioritization

methodologies easily adaptable by District Soil
Conservation Offices and watershed management
projects
• The size of a functional sub-watershed is presumed to be
that which can be managed by users, approximately
1500 to 2500 hectares.
• The first task is to delineate all sub-watersheds within a
district.
 34

Contd…

The principal criteria adopted for prioritization of sub-

watersheds are as follow (Sthapit, undated):
 Erosion condition of the area: Priority is given to those
sub-watersheds that are in a critical
condition in terms of potential soil erosion.
 On the basis of potential erosion, a land use
and land system erosion potential value (LULSEPV) is
estimated for each sub-watershed.
 Population to benefit: Sub-watersheds inhabited by a
large number of people would demand
more attention than less populated areas.
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Contd..
• Need of the local people: The local people are the key
component in the planning and
execution of the sub-watershed plan.
• Their needs and priorities are considered in selecting
soil conservation and watershed management activities.
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Prioritization methodologies
• Step 1. Get a 1: 125,000 scale district map and delineate the
sub-watersheds (SWs)
tentatively.
• Get a 1: 50,000 scale topographical map (LRMP, 1984) use
this
map to verify and confirm the SWs boundaries.
• The delineation of SWs is
carried out to cover the area of 15- 25 Sq,Km.
• The SW should cover the ridge
to the valley floor, if the area is toolarge, it should be
longitudinally divided
along the sream course as one of the boundaries.
• In this way base map of SWsis prepared on transparent
sheet. Area of every SW is measured.
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Contd…
Step 2. Preparation of Land Use Erosion Potential ( LUEP)
map
• Get a land utilization map of 1:50,000 Scale
(LRMP,1984), which gives the
information on the erosion potential for different land
uses broadly classified
into High (H), Moderate (M), and Low (L) erosion
potential areas depending
upon agriculture land and forest crown density.
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Contd…
• Super impose the base map
over the land utilization map at exact place and location
as delineated SW.
• Give the alphabatical symbols like H or M or L to
indicate high, moderate and
low erosion potentials as indicated in the legend.
• In this way, Landuse Erosion
Potential Map ( LUEP) is prepared
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Contd…
Step 3. Preparation of Land System Erosion Potential (
LSEP) Map
 Similarly, get a Land System Map of 1 : 50,000 scale.
Super impose the base map
over the Land System Map at exact location and place as
delineated SW. Mark
high, moderate and low erosion potential areas in the
base map with alphabetical
symbols, h or m or l as given in the legend of the map.
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Contd..
Step 4. Preparation of Erosion Potential Composite (EPC)
Map
EPC map is prepared by overlaying LUEP map on LSEP
map.
Common area
overlapped by these two maps is traced out or marked on
the third sheet.
These
overlapped areas are given double alphabet symbols taken
from LUEP and
LSEP.
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Contd..
• The symbols always started from the LUEP map. For
Example, when
LUEP is M and LSEP is l, then the symbol given in the
EPC map is Ml. The
double alphabet symbols of the EPC map are converted
into single alphabet to
indicate very high, high, moderate low and very low
erosion potentials. This will
be done using following conversion table
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Double Single
alphabet alphabet
symbol of symbol of
(LULSEP) (LULSEP)
Hh Very high(H)
Hm, Mh High (h)
Hl, Mm, Lh Moderate (M)
Lm, Ml Low (L)
LI Very low (l)
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Contd…
Step 5. Calculation of erosion potential areas
The composite map ( EPC of step 4.) and base map of sub-
watershed (Step 1)
are overllaid on each other. The very high, high, moderate
low and very low
LULSEP areas for each sub-watersheds are calculated with
the help of
planimeter or dot grid
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Contd..
Step 6. Estimation of Landuse Land System Erosion
Potential value ( LULSEPV)
• Very high, high, moderate low and very low LULSEP
areas are given 8, 6,4,2,1
numerical values to compare erosion potential of sub-
watershed quantitatively

LULSEPV = (Very high area × 8 + high area × 6 +

moderate area × 4 + low
area × 2 + very low area × 1) ÷ Total Area of the sub-
watershed .
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Contd…
Step 7. Estimation of sub-watershed bio-physical value (
SWSBPV)
SWSBPV = ( LULSEPV -1) × 60 / ( LULSEPV, highest -1)

Step 8. Population Characteristics

Sub-watershed Population Density Numerical Value
(SWSPDNV=( PD / APD ) × 20 where as ,
PD = Population density of the sub-watershed
APD = Average population density of the district
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Contd..
• when the population density of the sub-watershed is
higher than the
average population density of the district :
SWSPDNV = ( PD - APD ) / (HPD - APD) × 20 + 20
where as
PD = Population density of the sub-watershed and
HPD = Highest population
density of the sub-watershed in the district.
APD = Average population density of the district
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Contd..
• Combining Bio-physical and population Characteristics
to prioritize
sub-watershed: Estimation of Sub-watershed cumulative
value (SWSPCV)

• SWSPCV = SWSBPV + SWSPDNV

Priority Ranking :
The sub-watershed priority ranking is done based on the
SWSPCV. The values are arranged in descending order for
the prioritizing ranking.
The priority is given to the sub-watershed with higher
SWSPCV.
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Watershed management planning practices in

Nepal

Watershed planning is a
• Systematic management of resources
• Influence/control changes in the socio-economic
variables
• Specific period of time
• Definite goals, targets or objectives.
 49

Contd…
• Basis of planning :
1. demand based on users or beneficiaries
2. supportive to achieve five year plan
3. supportive to DDC periodic plan and district watershed
management plan
4. consider the NPC and ministry's criteria, norms and
guidelines
5. consider present available resources both human and
finance
6. consider past learning and experiences and volume of
expenditures
7. focus poor, gender, socially inclusive and poverty
8. consider participation and emphasize on geographical
coverage
 50

Contd..
• Five Year Planning Process :
The five year planning process of government includes:
1. Review the outcome and progress of previous five year
plan.
2. Identify problems and constraints encountered in the
past during the
implementation of the plan.
3. Identify the challenges and opportunities.
4. Identify national priorities and needs.
5. Based on previous experiences, national needs and
priorities established
long term vision.
 51

Contd…
• 6. Based on long term vision set goals, objectives and
strategies
7. Prepare guidelines and directives to be followed for
the preparation of the five year plan.
8. Circulate the directives and guidelines to the sectoral
ministries and other institutions for the preparation
their five year plan.
• 9. Sectoral ministries conduct interactions, meetings and
consultations at district, region and central levels to
identify issues, constraints, challenges and opportunities
about their sectoral programmes
 52

Contd..

10. Sectoral ministries draft their respective Five Year Plan

in a format provided by national planning commission.

11. Plan should contains yearly programs, budget (both

development and administrative costs), funding sources,
expected outputs, beneficiaries, implementation
mechanism, monitoring and evaluation plan
 53

The Annual Planning Processes of Government

includes
• 1.built common understanding among staff members
2. conduct field level coaching to the users
3. identified users need and priorities through field level
meeting and interactions
with users
4. organize cluster level or VDC level planning
workshops and set priorities
5. organize district level planning workshops involving
district level stakeholders (DSCO,, Civil socity,
concerned line agencies and local political parties).
 54

Contd…
• 6. organize Regional levels planning workshops
involving all concerned
stakeholders and development partners.
7. draft a annual plan and endorsed from regional
planning workshops and finally get approval from DDC.
8. submit the plan to National Planning Commission
through ministry.
 55

Evaluation and Monitoring of the Watershed Management

Program

Monitoring is the periodic task beginning in the project planning phase of

project

It is an important phase that that helps to ensure that the project is on
track, or of not, helps to quickly identify changes from the project plan

To get answer the question whether you’re doing the right things in the first
place.

Involves collection of information from projects and programmes

Monitoring allows to document the results, process and experiences which
can be used for decision making process and future reference

It is integral to evaluation. During an evaluation, information from previous

monitoring processes is used to understand the ways in which the project or
programme developed.
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• There are always some uncertainties about the SCWM

project activities:
• that they will be carried out exactly as planned based on
climatic condition focusing the water induced disaster;
• that they have the exact effects on the resource and on
other human activities as anticipated;
• that the resource, environmental and other changes
brought about by the project will effect human welfare in
the way anticipated.
• Because of these uncertainties it is necessary to closely
monitor and evaluate watershed development
program/activities:
• their effects on resource and environment,
• their impact on human welfare
• to determine what changes in policies, practices and
activities may be required to meet the desired goals.
 57

Contd..
• The monitoring and evaluation of soil conservation and
watershed management program gives the information
on programs/ activities, input/output indicator, and
ongoing results/effects etc.
• The monitoring and evaluation program is most
essential to maintain the quality and quantity of any
implemented activities of the soil conservation and
watershed management programs.
• Evaluation and monitoring of watershed management
program is a process within a system, which allow
watershed beneficiaries to continuously share in
assessing their own progress periodically, evaluate
themselves to learn from past mistakes
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