Wollo University

College of Agriculture
Department of Forestry
Hound out
Biodiversity Conservation and Management
Chapter 1: Introduction to Biodiversity
History: In the context of conservation science the term ‘biodiversity’, a contraction of

'biological diversity', is relatively young. ‘Biological diversity’ in its current sense began to
be used in the early 1980s, with interest in the concept elevated by publications such as
‘Limits to Growth’ which discussed the implications of unrestricted population and
economic growth on the environment . Use of the term has ranged from a focus on species
richness (number of different species in a location/sample) to greater emphasis on
ecological and genetic diversity.
Initially the term biodiversity was used more in political forums than scientific ones, progressing
over time to become a term used to symbolize the concept of the "richness of life on earth".
Importantly biodiversity does not exclusively refer to species richness. It also encompasses
diversity at a wider scale meaning that differences in the genetic makeup of populations are
important. Endemism has a key role to play in this context because endemic species are restricted
to small areas and provide pockets of particularly high genetic diversity.
Concepts: The global fossil record shows that the groups extinctions in the geological past, each
of which is estimated to have caused the loss of 50% to 90% of all species and required 5 to 10
million years for recovery to the same number of species as before. The currently documented
global rate of bird and mammal species extinctions, with supporting evidence from large global
losses of major terrestrial ecosystems, strongly suggests that Earth is entering some group’s
extinction. This event is qualitatively different from the others because it is related to the
activities of humans rather than to abiotic factors. The global particularly developing countries
have experienced large losses of natural grassland ecosystems to agriculture. Much more
Prepared by Berhanu G.
recently, large scale urban and semi-urban development in the world has resulted in rapidly
increasing loss of natural grassland, shrub land, and forest ecosystems. The most important
threats to current global biodiversity are natural ecosystem loss and degradation (including
pollution and habitat fragmentation), non-native (“exotic” or “alien”) species, and
overexploitation of plant and animal species (e.g., large-scale removal of old growth forest trees
and excessive harvest of marine mammals). These threats are, in turn, driven by human
population expansion, large per capita increases in human consumption, and development of
modern technologies that permit massive changes in natural ecosystems and their conversion to
other uses.
The concept of biodiversity continues to evolve and more recently it has been included in the
idea of ecosystem services in that it is a form of ‘natural capital’ and thus underpins the
functioning of ecosystems. Biodiversity itself is not generally considered an ecosystem service
but rather supports environmental functions.
The term biodiversity encompasses variety of biological life at more than one scale. It is not only
the variety of species (both plant and animal) but also the variety of genes within those species
and the variety of ecosystems in which the species reside.
Definition of Biodiversity
The term biodiversity describes the immense variety of all living things: ‘bio’ = living;
‘diversity’ = variety. Biodiversity is the variety of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the
genetic information they contain and the ecosystems they form. It is usually considered at three
interconnected levels: genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. Biodiversity
stresses the connectedness of the living world.
Biodiversity is short for biological diversity. Biodiversity is a compound word derived from
‘biological diversity’ and therefore is considered to have the same meaning. The Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD), which was developed and signed by 157 governments at the 1992 Earth
Summit and today has 193 Parties, defines biodiversity in the following manner:
Biodiversity is defined as “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part;
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this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.” The importance of this
definition is that it draws attention to the many dimensions of biodiversity. It explicitly recognizes that
every biota can be characterized by its taxonomic, ecological, and genetic diversity and that the way these
dimensions of diversity vary over space and time is a key feature of biodiversity. Thus only a multidi -
mensional assessment of biodiversity can provide insights into the relationship between changes in
biodiversity and changes in ecosystem functioning and ecosystem services. In short, the term is used to
refer to life in all its forms and the natural processes that support and connect all life forms.
Biodiversity is not easily defined because it is more than just the sum of its parts, as all of its
elements, regardless of whether we understand their roles or know their status, are integral to
maintaining functioning, evolving, resilient ecosystems. Complex concepts such as biodiversity
are often easier to grasp if reduced to their component pieces. While this approach does not give
a complete picture of how these pieces interact and combine to create biodiversity, it helps us
understand different aspects of biodiversity.
Biodiversity includes all ecosystems—managed or unmanaged. Sometimes biodiversity is

presumed to be a relevant feature of only unmanaged ecosystems, such as wild-lands, nature
preserves, or national parks. This is incorrect. Managed systems are they plantations, farms,
croplands, aquaculture sites, rangelands, or even urban parks and urban ecosystems-have their
own biodiversity. Given that cultivated systems alone now account for more than 24% of Earth’s
terrestrial surface, it is critical that any decision concerning biodiversity or ecosystem services
address the maintenance of biodiversity in these largely anthropogenic systems.
Biodiversity itself is a complex, perhaps amorphous (vague) concept, extending from genes to
Ecosystems and biomes, and to interactions and processes.
Importance: Biodiversity is nature’s insurance policy. It is about life supporting life.

Biodiversity helps to maintain important ecological processes such as oxygen production,
pollination, and flood control that, in turn, help support all life on earth.
Biodiversity provides us with clean air and water, soil for crops and forests and to sustain the
productivity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Potential products of the future include
sunscreens from corals, light and high tensile fibers from spider silk (e.g. bullet proof vests) and
instant adhesives from velvet worms or barnacles. Biodiversity allows for important recreation
activities such as bushwalking, fishing, and camping. It also generates significant income for
Australia in terms of tourism. The growing ecotourism industry is dependent upon maintaining
the natural environment. Biodiversity also provides inspiration and provokes curiosity and
imagination, often expressed through art, music and poetry.
All species have the right to exist and no generation has the right to destroy the environment and
resources on which future generations depend. If you were to ask a dozen biologists or
sociologists to explain why a high level of biodiversity is important, you’d probably get a dozen
different perspectives. However, you’d hear one message loud and clear: The quality of our lives
depends on it. Biodiversity does more than provide a variety of products and resources; it also
keeps the planet livable for us and for all other species.
Biodiversity helps maintain the atmosphere, keep the soil fertile, purify water, and generally
keep the world running smoothly. In this section, we’ll explore the many ways biodiversity
enriches our lives and why we’re so dependent on it. In the process, we’ll focus on some of the
complex ecological interactions that make up life on Earth.
Biodiversity viewed at genetic, species, and ecosystem levels
One of the hottest topics in environmental science today is biodiversity. Biodiversity can be
defined and therefore measured in three ways, or the levels of organization of biodiversity
include ecosystems, species and genes.
1. Ecosystems include living (e.g. plants, animals) and non-living (e.g. minerals, soil,
water) components, which can be defined in terms of distinguishing characteristics (e.g. a
wetland ecosystem, a freshwater ecosystem, a terrestrial ecosystem, a forest ecosystem,
etc.). Ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities
and non-living (abiotic) elements, all interacting as a functional unit. An ecosystem’s
character changes as community members and physical contexts change, sometimes
crossing a threshold of tolerance within the system that results in its inability to return to
its previous form.
2. Species are a complete, self-generating, unique ensemble of genetic variation, capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. They (and their subspecies and
populations) are generally considered to be the only self-replicating units of genetic
diversity that can function independently. The most common definition of biodiversity is
species diversity. This is the number of different species in an ecosystem. Species
diversity -- how many different types of organisms (plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria)
live in an area -- is what people most commonly think of when talking about biodiversity.
In general, an ecosystem is said to be healthy if there is a greater diversity of species.
This does not necessarily mean large numbers of organisms. In fact, an ecosystem that
has large numbers of organisms all of the same species is often considered to be less
diverse (think of a cornfield).
3. Genes are the working units of heredity; each gene is a segment of the DNA molecule
that encodes a single enzyme or structural protein unit. Genetic diversity is the foundation
of all biodiversity. Genetic variation permits populations to adapt to changing
environments and continue to participate in life’s processes. The third type of
biodiversity is genetic diversity. Someone studying genetic diversity looks at the
variation within a single species. Very small populations with very little genetic diversity
are at greater risk of extinction than populations with more genetic variation. Imagine a
pond where all of the amoebas are genetically identical and perfectly adapted to a pH of
6.8. If acid rain causes the pH of the pond to be lowered to 6.3, all of the amoeba will die.
If the fish in the pond are genetically varied where most of them are adapted to pH 6.8,
but some can survive in higher pHs and some can survive in lower pHs, some will
survive a change in the pH of the pond. The population will not become extinct.
Considerations of genetic variability are particularly important in the conservation of
extremely small populations of endangered species.
Three primary attributes of biodiversity are composition, structure and function.
A. Composition is the identity and variety of an ecological system. Descriptors of
composition are typically lists of the species resident in an area or an ecosystem and
measures of composition include species richness and diversity of species.
B. Structure is the physical organization or pattern of a system, from habitat complexity as
measured within communities to the pattern of habitats (or patches) and other elements at
a landscape scale.
C. Functions are the result of one or more ecological and evolutionary processes, including
predation, gene flow, natural disturbances and mycorrhizal associations as well as abiotic
processes such as soil development and hydrological cycles. Examples of functions
include predator-prey systems, water purifications and nutrient cycling.
Each of these attributes is multi-scalar and incorporates both spatial and temporal dynamics. As a
result, these attributes may also be examined at different scales including regions, landscapes and
ecosystems.
Table 1 provides examples of some of the linkages between the primary components and
attributes of biodiversity.
Component Composition Structure Functions
and attribute
Ecosystem Ecosystems in an area Patch size Connectivity
Species Species richness in an area Abundance Predator/prey dynamics
Genetic Number of unique genes in a Relative abundance of Adaptation
population each unique gene in a
population
The Value of Biodiversity to Humans
Biodiversity is the foundation of a vast array of ecosystem services essential for human well-
being. Ecosystems support all forms of life, moderate climates, filter water and air, conserve soil
and nutrients and control pests. Species (animal and plant) provide us with food, building
materials, energy and medicines. They also provide vital services such as pollination, waste
assimilation, water filtration and distribution of seeds and nutrients. Genetic diversity enables us
to breed higher-yield and disease-resistant plants and animals and allows the development or
natural evolution of breeds and races that thrive under a variety of environmental conditions. For
instance, genetic variability in a species allows adaptation over time to changing climatic
conditions. The cultural services that ecosystems provide include recreational, aesthetic and
spiritual values that are vital to individual and societal well-being.
Key public concerns about human impacts on biodiversity include effects on rates of extinction,
future options, productivity of ecosystems, and loss of economic opportunities. Retaining a
variety and abundance of individuals and species permits the adaptability that sustains ecosystem
productivity in changing environments and promotes further diversity (future adaptability and
options), thereby potentially sustaining desirable economic and environmental opportunities and
maintaining future options for the benefit of human communities.
In addition, many people believe that all life forms have an intrinsic value and that humans have
a moral obligation to protect them and ensure that they survive for their own sake apart from
their potential value to future human generations.
World people demand for Ecosystem Services or Natural resources are valued by us in many
different ways:
Use values
 For their direct use covers outputs that can be consumed or processed directly e.g. food,
materials, medicines, fuel, fibre, commercial goods)
 For their indirect use like flood regulation, nutrient retention, pollination services for
crops, water purification services, grazing for livestock, coastal protection
 For the options covers the value placed on keeping future options open for direct or
indirect use of biodiversity and ecosystems in future, bearing in mind that some uses may
not yet be known (e.g. medicinal or food properties of plants).
Non-use or existence values
 It refers to the intrinsic, spiritual, aesthetic or cultural values of natural landscapes,
ecosystems and biodiversity, irrespective of their use.
Distribution
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Biodiversity is not evenly distributed; rather it varies greatly across the globe as well as within
regions. Among other factors, the diversity of all living things (biota) depends on temperature,
precipitation, altitude, soils, geography and the presence of other species. The study of the spatial
distribution of organisms, species, and ecosystems, is the science of biogeography.
Diversity consistently measures higher in the tropics and in other localized regions such as the
Cape Floristic Region and lower in Polar Regions generally. Rain forests that have had wet
climates for a long time, such as Yasuni National Park in Ecuador, have particularly high
biodiversity.
Terrestrial biodiversity is up to 25 times greater than ocean biodiversity. Although a recent

discovered method put the total number of species on Earth at 8.7 million of which 2.1 million
were estimated to live in the ocean, however this estimate seems to under-represent diversity of
microorganisms.
Latitudinal gradients
Generally, there is an increase in biodiversity from the poles to the tropics. Thus localities at
lower latitudes have more species than localities at higher latitudes. This is often referred to as
the latitudinal gradient in species diversity. Several ecological mechanisms may contribute to the
gradient, but the ultimate factor behind many of them is the greater mean temperature at the
equator compared to that of the poles.
Even though terrestrial biodiversity declines from the equator to the poles, some studies claim
that this characteristic is unverified in aquatic ecosystems, especially in marine ecosystems. The
latitudinal distribution of parasites does not follow this rule.
2. Biodiversity Dynamics: Loss, Threats

2.1 Biodiversity Assessment
In spite of many tools and data sources, biodiversity remains difficult to quantify precisely. But
precise answers are not often needed to devise an effective understanding of where biodiversity
is, how it is changing over space and time, the drivers responsible for such change, the
consequences of such change for ecosystem services and human well-being, and the response
options available. Ideally, to assess the conditions and trends of biodiversity either globally or
sub-globally, it is necessary to measure the abundance of all organisms over space and time,
using taxonomy (such as the number of species), functional traits (for example, the ecological
type such as nitrogen-fixing plants like legumes versus non-nitrogen-fixing plants), and the
interactions among species that affect their dynamics and function (predation, parasitism, compe-
tition, and facilitation such as pollination, for instance, and how strongly such interactions affect
ecosystems). Even more important would be to estimate turnover of biodiversity, not just point
estimates in space or time. Currently, it is not possible to do this with much accuracy because the
data are lacking. Even for the taxonomic component of biodiversity, where information is the
best, considerable uncertainty remains about the true extent and changes in taxonomic diversity.
The term alpha diversity (α-diversity) was introduced by R. H. Whittaker together with the
terms beta diversity (β-diversity) and gamma diversity (γ-diversity). Whittaker's idea was that the
total species diversity in a landscape (gamma diversity) is determined by two different things, the
mean species diversity in sites or habitats at a more local scale (alpha diversity) and the
differentiation among those habitats (beta diversity).
Just as there are many different ways to define biodiversity, there are many different measures of
biodiversity. Most measures quantify the number of traits, individuals, or species in a given area
while taking into account their degree of dissimilarity. Some measure biodiversity on a genetic
level while others measure diversity within a single habitat or between ecosystems.
Measuring biodiversity on the genetic level requires that researchers map the genes and
chromosomes of an individual organism and then compare them to the genetic make-up of the
larger population. It is genetic diversity which causes tulips to be different colors and different
heights. Typically, researchers measure genetic diversity by counting how often certain genetic
patterns occur. Another method of measuring genetic diversity works in the reverse: researchers
evaluate the differences in physical appearance between individuals then attribute these traits to
the most likely genetic roots. Mapping diversity at the genetic level is currently the most accurate
measure of biodiversity, although it can be costly and time consuming and, thus, impractical for
evaluating large ecosystems. It is most often used to examine managed populations or
agricultural crops which can allow for selective breeding of the most desirable traits.
Measuring the diversity of a species generally incorporates estimates of "richness." Also referred
to as alpha-diversity, species richness is a common way of measuring biodiversity and involves
counting the number of individuals - or even families - in a given area. Researchers have created
several indices which measure species biodiversity; the most popular are the Simpson Index and
the Shannon Index. These indices focus on the relative species richness and abundance and/or
the pattern of species distribution.
The Simpson Index takes into account the number of species present and their relative
abundance in proportion to the total population.
The Shannon Index, originally developed for use in information science, accounts for the
order or abundance of a species within a sample plot. The Shannon Index is often used
for identifying areas of high natural or human disturbance.
There are also many challenges when measuring species diversity. The greatest of which is a
lack of available data. Conducting a full count of the number of species in an ecosystem is nearly
impossible, so researchers must use sample plots at a variety of sites but must avoid repetitive
counting. Oftentimes, information is not compiled in one specific place, a problem that can lead
to an overlap in the naming of species. Another limitation is an inconsistency in treating the
definition of species: what one scientist may classify as a new species another may not
At the ecosystem-level, measures of biodiversity are often used to compare two ecosystems or to
determine changes over time in a given region. Describing changes in biodiversity within or
between ecosystems is called beta-diversity. Measures of beta-diversity indicate the difference
in species richness between two different habitats or within a single community at different
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points in time. The resulting number indicates to researchers whether there is any overlap in the
species found in each group.
Gamma-diversity, on the other hand, estimates the total biodiversity within an entire region. To
arrive at a total estimate, researchers may set up sample plots around the region and count all
species within the plots. The sizes of the plots can vary depending on the physical characteristics
of the locale. For example, plots in northern forests may be as large as a hectacre whereas
in dense rainforest a plot might only be a few meters. Another indicator of biodiversity which
researchers often track and measure are keystone species, which are integral to ecosystem
processes.
Measuring biodiversity on an ecosystem level is thought to be a better way of looking at the

health of the entire system, rather than the health of a particular species. However, it faces many
of the same challenges measuring species and genetic diversity do - primarily in cost and the lack
of standardization. Researchers have only begun taking measurements; this further limits their
ability to identify trends since ecosystems tend to change slowly over time. This absence of long-
term scientific data remains a particular challenge.
Biodiversity can be measured and monitored at several spatial scales.
Alpha Diversity = richness and evenness of individuals within a habitat unit. For example in the
figure below, Alpha Diversity of Site A = 7 species, Site B = 5 species, Site C = 7 species.
Beta Diversity = expression of diversity between habitats. In the example below, the greatest
Beta Diversity is observed between Site A and C with 10 species that differ between them and
only 2 species in common.
Gamma Diversity = landscape diversity or diversity of habitats within a landscape or region. In

this example, the gamma diversity is 3 habitats with 12 species total diversity.
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Site A = 7 Species A vs B = 8 species
Site B = 5 Species B vs C = 4 species
Site C = 7 Species A vs C = 10 species
There are many measures of biodiversity; species richness (the number of species in a given
area) represents a single but important metric that is valuable as the common currency of the
diversity of life—but it must be integrated with other metrics to fully capture biodiversity.
Because the multidimensionality of biodiversity poses formidable challenges to its measurement,
a variety of surrogate or proxy measures are often used. These include the species richness of
specific taxa, the number of distinct plant functional types (such as grasses, forbs, bushes, or
trees), or the diversity of distinct gene sequences in a sample of microbial DNA taken from the
soil. Species- or other taxon-based measures of biodiversity, however, rarely capture key
attributes such as variability, function, quantity, and distribution—all of which provide insight
into the roles of biodiversity. (See Box 1.1.)
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Box 1.1. Measuring and Estimating Biodiversity: More than Species Richness
Measurements of biodiversity seldom capture all its dimensions, and the most common measure—species
richness—is no exception. While this can serve as a valuable surrogate measure for other dimensions that
are difficult to quantify, there are several limitations associated with an emphasis on species. First, what
constitutes a species is not often well defined. Second, although native species richness and ecosystem
functioning correlate well, there is considerable variability surrounding this relationship. Third, species
may be taxonomically similar (in the same genus) but ecologically quite distinct. Fourth, species vary
extraordinarily in abundance; for most biological communities, only a few are dominant, while many are
rare.
Simply counting the number of species in an ecosystem does not take into consideration how variable each
species might be or its contribution to ecosystem properties. For every species, several properties other than
its taxonomy are more valuable for assessment and monitoring. These properties include measures of
genetic and ecological variability, distribution and its role in ecosystem processes, dynamics, trophic
position, and functional traits.
In practice, however, variability, dynamics, trophic position, and functional attributes of many species are
poorly known. Thus it is both necessary and useful to use surrogate, proxy, or indicator measures based on
the taxonomy or genetic information.
Important attributes missed by species or taxon-based measures of diversity include:
■ Abundance—how much there is of any one type. For many provisioning services (such as food, fresh
water, fiber), abundance matters more than the presence of a range of genetic varieties, species, or
ecosystem types.
■ Variation—the number of different types over space and time. For understanding population persistence,
the numbers of different varieties or races in a species or variation in genetic composition among
individuals in a population provide more insight than species richness.
■ Distribution—where quantity or variation in biodiversity is occurs. For many purposes, distribution and
quantity are closely related and are therefore generally treated together under the heading of quan tity.
However, quantity may not always be sufficient for services: the location, and in particular its availability
to the people that need, it will frequently be more critical than the absolute volume or biomass of a
component of biodiversity.
Finally, the importance of variability and quantity varies, depending on the level of biodiversity measured.
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Level Importance of Variability Importance of Quantity and Distribution
Genes adaptive variability for production and resilience local resistance and resilience to environmental
change, pathogens, and so on
Populations different populations retain local adaptation local provisioning and regulating services, food,
and fresh water
Species the ultimate reservoir of adaptive variability, community and ecosystem interactions are enabled
representing option values through the co-occurrence of species
Ecosystems different ecosystems deliver a diversity of roles the quantity and quality of service delivery
depend on distribution and location
Activity 1: Joe’s Jungle

After completing these activities, you will be able to:
1. Determine the number of species in a defined area,
2. Statistically analyze biodiversity,
3. Statistically compare the biodiversity between two ecosystems.
Joe is the horticulturalist. He maintains the greenhouse plant collections and grows plants used in
research. In order to learn how to compare plant biodiversity in the winter, Joe has created a
series of jungles for us to examine. On your worktable, you will see one of Joe’s jungles.
This will be the ecosystem you are sampling. The first thing to do in sampling an ecosystem is to
define the sampling technique and the area to be sampled. A line transect is used to sample
large areas. The researcher runs a string (rope) for 10-100 meters in a random direction from a
random starting point and then measures all of the plants that touch the string. Smaller samples
can be studied by setting up grids. These can be done using 10x10 cm to 10x10 meter areas. The
researcher then maps and counts all of the plants in that grid.
These are also randomly placed in the ecosystem to make sure that the researcher doesn’t bias
her samples. Since you are working in a model system, the area is already defined. You will
count the number of plants of each species in your jungle. Choose one member of your group to
serve as the botanist. This person will be responsible for describing and naming each unique
species in your jungle /tropical forest/. This person will have to communicate with the rest of the
scientific community about the species. Careful records are critical. A second member of your
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group will be the recorder and the third member will serve as the sampling specialist. Record
your data in the table provided on the data collection and analysis page. Make sure that everyone
has the data. You will need it to successfully complete the statistical analysis. A set of sample
data is given to you in Table 1.
Table 1. Sample data collection for Joe Jungle Q
Species Number of organisms
1.Coconut tree 6
2. Fern 45
3. Lily 4
4. Palm 2
5. Bromeliads 18
Total number of species = S Total number of organisms (all species included)
S= 5 =N
N= 6+45+4+2+18 = 75
Measuring Species Richness (S)
The simplest measure of biodiversity is a count of the number of different species in a defined
area. This number is called Species Richness and is represented by the letter S.
S= the number of species in the sample area.
You can see from the set of sample data that the S, species richness, for Jungle Q is 5. Five
different species were identified.
To compare S, species richness, between two different areas, a researcher must try to insure that
the sample areas were close to the same size and that the sampling techniques were similar. In
our sample data, we only looked at plants. There are more species in the area than just the ones
you can see. If one sample includes bacteria and the other doesn’t there will be a vast difference
in S.
Measuring Dominance (d): Looking at the number of species alone is a good first step in
studying biodiversity, but it may not give the entire picture. A cornfield with six different weed
plants would have an S value equal to 6. A meadow with approximately even numbers of six
different wildflowers would also have an S value equal to 6. Simply looking at species richness
tells us that these two ecosystems are exactly the same. Yet, we know that they are very
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different. In order to statistically show this difference, we need to include a measure of the
relative numbers of each species in the ecosystem. Analysis that includes relative numbers of
organisms and indicates the abundance of the most common species is referred to as dominance.
While there are many different methods to calculate dominance, one of the simplest is called the
Berger-Parker Index. This index is represented by the letter d. This measures the proportion of
the most abundant species relative to all of the organisms in the sample area. (The Berger-Parker
Index is best interpreted by looking at a reciprocal. For the purposes of this activity, we will
provide only the reciprocal equation and not the actual d.)
 To calculate d you simply divide the total number of organisms (N) by the number of
organisms in the most abundant species (Nabundant ).
d = Total number of organisms (N)
Number of most abundant organisms (Nabundant )
In our example, the total number of organisms is 75. The most abundant species is fern, which
has 45 organisms. So d = 75/45 = 1.7. If there were only one species in the sample then d would
equal one. Any number greater than one indicates greater diversity. The larger d is, the greater
the diversity.
Comparing two ecosystems – calculating the Sorenson number
The analysis tools described above all describe a general comparison of two ecosystems. Many
statistical tools can be used to do a beta analysis, which is an analysis that is able to compare two
ecosystems. We will use the simplest test called the Sorensen number.
To do this comparison, first make a list of all of the species from each ecosystem you are
comparing. Next, you need to know three things. (1) You need to know how many different
species were found in the first ecosystem; this number is referred to as a. (2) You need the
number of species in the second ecosystem; this number is b. (3) You also need to know how
many species were common to both ecosystems. This number is c. Now we do a simple
comparison of the number of common species to the total number of species in both a and b. If
this number is equal to 1, that means that all of the species are found in both ecosystems and they
are identical. If the number equals 0, there is no similarity. The closer this value is to the number
one the more similar the ecosystems.
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 This number is called the Sorensen number and is calculated as follows.
The Sorensen number = 2c
(a+b)
Here is a simple example of calculating the Sorensen number:
Table 1. Sample data collection Joe Jungle Q
Species in ecosystem a Species in ecosystem b

Coconut tree Coconut tree
Fern --
Lily Lily
Palm Palm
Bromeliads --
-- Orchid
-- Focus
-- Rubber tree
5 total species in a 6 total species in b
By looking at this table you can see that a = 5 and b = 6.
(Remember a and b are simple species richness).
Of all the species in a and b, three of them are found in both ecosystems. This means that c = 3.
To solve for the Sorensen index you insert these numbers in the equation.
Sorensen = 2 x 3 = 6 = 0.55
5+6 11
Data Collection and analysis page (the student must be collect data from Tossa Mountain)
Species Number of organisms
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Total number of species = S Total number of organisms (all species
included) = N
Calculate the Berger-Parker index (d) for your sample:

d = total number of organisms (N)
Number of most abundant organisms (Nabundant )
Fill in the following table of class data.
Jungle name S N Nabundant d
Which jungle is the most diverse?

Now compare your jungle to the adjacent jungle using the Sorensen index.
Names of Species in Names of Species in Names of species
your jungle the common
adjacent jungle to both jungles
Total (a) = Total (b) = Total (c) =
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Sorensen number = 2(c) =
a+b
How similar are the two jungles?
2.2. Patterns of biodiversity
The patterns of species diversity in an area or at any one time are set by some combination of
three factors: chance, history and necessity.
Chance: random processes of birth, death and migration. A lizard might arrive unpredictably on
a remote island, for example, because the log it was on happened to float in the right direction.
History: correlation through time as a function of reproduction. In other words, if a species was
abundant in the near past, chances are that it will be abundant today. Also, progeny tend to
cluster near the parents, therefore, we tend to find organisms in "pockets" rather than evenly
distributed in space.
Necessity: The laws of growth, competition and interaction. Different species flourish in
different conditions. The number of species that can coexist will depend on how complex the
environment is and on how strongly they compete with one another. And, of course, the number
of species of herbivores, predators and parasites will depend on the number of plants, prey and
hosts.
In order to understand the processes that drive biodiversity, it must be recognized that there is
diversity in space and diversity over time. We can sample a large tract of forest to determine how
plant species are distributed over the entire area of that large tract or we can sample a smaller
patch of forest to determine how the species distribution changes over many years or even
several seasons. Both scenarios are addressing patterns of species biodiversity.
In the long term, the total number of species belonging to any particular group will be governed
by processes of speciation and extinction.
1. Speciation
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A species can be defined as a group of individuals that can mate with one another but not with
members of other groups. New species of organisms therefore arise when they become sexually
incompatible with other groups. Some organisms are difficult to define as a species using this
definition - for example, self-fertilizing or asexual.1wa
Recent changes in the composition of plant and animal communities occur on ecological rather
than geological time scales as the result of processes such as immigration, competition and
predation. The overall diversity of a particular region will depend on its capacity to support life -
its size and productivity - and on the variety of habitats that it includes.
Speciation can occur gradually via geographic speciation (allopatric) or competitive speciation
(sympatric) or abruptly through mechanisms such as polyploidy (sympatric). These three models
are explained below.
Geographical Speciation: a barrier restricts gene flow between populations so that they evolve
separately and eventually become different species. The barrier may break down and the isolates
may again interact but they do not interbreed.
The dynamics of speciation will depend on two processes: 1) the rate at which geographical
isolates are formed and 2) the rate at which these isolates evolve into separate species.
A. Rates of isolate formation are influenced by spatial factors

a) Geographical circumstance: archipelagos and mountain ranges are very effective
isolating barriers. Once something does overcome the barrier to colonize these areas,
speciation tends to occur relatively rapidly. Therefore, mountains and archipelagos will
tend to increase rates of speciation there.
b) Geographical range: size of the geographical range of an organism makes it more or less
likely to include a barrier. A range can be too small, making it unlikely that a barrier will
pass through it. A very large range may wholly encompass a barrier, so that individuals
(or propagules such as pollen or spores) can pass around it. Therefore, intermediate-sized
ranges are most likely to be divided by a barrier (knife-shaped).
B. Rates of speciation following isolate formation are influenced by two factors:
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a) sexual divergence: the isolates may evolve different mating behaviour, for example, by
flowering at different times of the year
b) Ecological divergence: natural selection will cause different isolates to evolve differently
because no two places are exactly alike.
Speciation is more likely to occur in large populations than in small populations because they
contain more variation. This variation cannot be selected effectively, however, if the population
is completely interbreeding. The most likely situation for divergence to occur, therefore, is when
a relatively small and unrepresentative group (a "propagule") is split off, or isolated, from a large
("parent") population.
Competitive speciation: it occurs when one portion of a population exploits a new ecological
niche or opportunity (food, life history attribute, habitat, etc.) that was previously unexploited
and becomes sufficiently different as to be considered a new species. This is the most
controversial mode of speciation.
The place where a population lives may contain two (or more) different kinds of resource, for
example, two species of food plant. Some individuals may use one plant more effectively, and
some the other plant. These specialists are likely to be more successful than individuals who are
not as effective in using either plant. Specialists who mate among themselves will be
exceptionally successful, because their offspring are likely to inherit their specialization. The
evolution of appropriate mating preferences may then lead to the appearance of two separate
groups, who in time become so strongly isolated that they become different species.
The problem with this explanation is that random mating among the different phenotypes and
genetic recombination break up any adaptive combinations of genes faster than they can be
selected. For sympatric speciation to work, therefore, some strong force has to hinder
recombination. In other words, something would have to prevent an individual suited to
environment A from mating with an individual suited to some environment in between A and B,
even though they are the same species and in the same location.
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Polyploidy: Most familiar organisms have two sets of chromosomes, inheriting one set from
each parent. Such organisms are called diploid. Polyploidy individuals have more than two sets.
They arise through cytological irregularities during cell division or through the fusion of
abnormal gametes. Once formed, they are often sexually isolated from their parent population.
For example, a tetraploid individual (having four sets of chromosomes) forms diploid gametes.
When these fuse with the haploid gametes produced by normal individuals, they give rise to
triploid progeny (3 sets of chromosomes), which are sterile. This is why polyploidy can result in
instant, or abrupt, speciation.
Which type of speciation is most prevalent? Polyploidy series of related species are easy to
identify and can be common, especially among plants. More generally, most speciation probably
requires isolation, followed by divergence: good examples of sympatric speciation are hard to
find.
2. Extinction
Exotic species introduced into foreign ecosystems can threaten native species through
competition for resources, predation, and disease. Extinction of a species or a population will
occur for one of two reasons: as a result of accidents (environmental fluctuations) or because
of population interactions.
a) Accidents: events that trigger extinctions for no predictable reason - volcanoes, rising sea
level, an ice storm, any environmental circumstance that wipes out an ecological niche.
b) Population interactions that are not neutral processes: predation and competition can result
in negative growth rate and ultimately, extinction. However, on their own, predation and
competition rarely cause extinctions directly; they cause population densities to become very low
and then a random accident may drive the vulnerable population to extinction.
The probability that environmental or population fluctuations will cause an extinction depend on
how abundant the organism is and how large its range is.
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Student should be further read about the cause extinction depend on abundance and range,
Neutral processes that regulate species diversity and Processes in variable environments.
Patterns of Species Biodiversity
In discussing the processes that regulate species diversity, we have already presented some
spatial patterns of diversity, for instance, how species diversity increases with area (species-area
curves), how it peaks in areas with intermediate productivity or intermediate rates of disturbance.
Below are additional examples of patterns of species biodiversity in space and time.
1. Patterns in space
Latitudinal Gradients: Scientists have observed that species diversity declines with increasing
distance from the Equator, either north or south. There is no doubt that the tropics are very rich
in species diversity. And this pattern is ancient; it has existed for thousands, if not millions, of
years, across many taxa, from trees to fossil foraminifera.
Habitat Variety: The more variable the habitat, the greater the species diversity within it. This
pattern was offered as one of the reasons why there are more species in a bigger area (more area
covers a greater variety of habitat).
2. Patterns in time
Seasonal patterns: diversity of species can vary during different seasons of the year. Good
examples of organisms whose diversity varies seasonally are birds and insects. Insects have very
different life history stages so if an area is sampled for diversity, the time of year at which
sampling occurs may dramatically affect the diversity estimates. For example, some terrestrial
beetles have larval stages that are underground and they only emerge to the surface as adults.
The same problem can occur when estimating stream diversity since many adult forms of stream
insects will emerge from the water which can affect diversity estimates depending on the season
sampling occurs. Birds are another problematic taxon because many are migratory and the bird
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diversity of an area may be affected by the absence of seasonal breeders and the presence of
migrants passing through. These seasonal patterns are most noticeable in temperate areas but are
also documented in the tropics. Seasonal patterns can occur in both terrestrial and aquatic
habitats.
Successional patterns: after a disturbance (such as fire or agriculture), plant and animals species
begin to reoccupy the habitat, grow, and get replaced or out-competed by other species. This
pattern of gradual temporal shift in the species composition of a community is called succession.
It results from a variety of processes including migration, dispersal, growth, competition and
environmental change. For plants, diversity increases with succession until woody species (trees
and brushes) establish, whereby diversity then decreases. For animals, diversity generally
increases with succession (this has been observed for birds and insects).
Evolutionary patterns: over 600 million years, the number of different types of organisms has
been increasing. Some clear patterns of increasing diversity have been established over
evolutionary time. Patterns of increasing diversity over evolutionary time scales have been
plotted for plants and marine invertebrates using fossil evidence. However, there have been
many studies showing that diversity of organisms has not followed an increasing pattern over
evolutionary time scales but has only fluctuated.
What are the causes of biodiversity loss, and how are they changing?
The drivers of loss of biodiversity and the drivers of changes in ecosystem services are either
steady, show no evidence of declining over time, or are increasing in intensity.
In the aggregate and at a global scale, there are five indirect drivers of changes in biodiversity
and ecosystem services: demographic, economic, sociopolitical, cultural and religious, and
scientific and technological. Although biodiversity and ecosystem services changes due to
natural causes, current change is dominated by these anthropogenic indirect drivers. In particular,
growing consumption of ecosystem services (as well as the growing use of fossil fuels), which
results from growing populations and growing per capita consumption, leads to increased
pressure on ecosystems and biodiversity.
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The most important direct drivers of biodiversity loss and change in ecosystem services are
habitat change—such as land use change, physical modification of rivers or water withdrawal
from rivers, loss of coral reefs, and damage to sea floors due to trawling—climate change,
invasive alien species, overexploitation of species, and pollution. For virtually all these drivers,
and for most ecosystems where they have been important, the impact of the driver currently
remains constant or is growing. Each of these drivers will have important impacts on biodiversity
in the twenty-first century:
Habitat transformation, particularly from conversion to agriculture. Cultivated systems (areas

where at least 30% of the landscape is in croplands, shifting cultivation, confined livestock
production, or freshwater aquaculture) now cover one quarter of Earth’s terrestrial surface. A
further 10–20% of grassland and forestland is projected to be converted primarily to agriculture.
While the expansion of agriculture and its increased productivity is a success story of enhanced
production of one key ecosystem service, this success has come at high and growing costs in
terms of trade-offs with other ecosystem services, both through the direct impact of land cover
change and as a result of release of nutrients into rivers and water withdrawals for irrigation
(globally, roughly 15–35% of such irrigation withdrawals are estimated to be unsustainable (low
to medium certainty)). Habitat loss also occurs in coastal and marine systems, though these
transformations are less well documented. Trawling of the seabed, for instance, can significantly
reduce the diversity of benthic habitats, while destructive fishing and coastal development can
lead to losses of coral reefs.
Overexploitation (especially overfishing). For marine systems, the dominant direct driver of
change globally has been overfishing. Demand for fish as food for people and as feed for
aquaculture production is increasing, resulting in increased risk of major, long-lasting collapses
of regional marine fisheries. Over much of the world the biomass of fish targeted in fisheries
(including that of both the target species and those caught incidentally) has been reduced by 90%
relative to levels prior to the onset of industrial fishing. About three quarters (75%) of the
world’s commercial marine fisheries are either fully exploited (50%) or overexploited (25%).
Biotic exchange. The spread of invasive alien species and disease organisms has increased
because of increased trade and travel, including tourism. Increased risk of biotic exchange is an
inevitable effect of globalization. While increasingly there are measures to control some of the
pathways of invasive species—for example, through quarantine measures and new rules on the
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disposal of ballast water in shipping—several pathways are not adequately regulated, particularly
with regard to introductions into freshwater systems.
Nutrient loading, Since 1950, nutrient loading—anthropogenic increases in nitrogen,

phosphorus, sulfur, and other nutrient-associated pollutants—has emerged as one of the most
important drivers of ecosystem change in terrestrial, freshwater, and coastal ecosystems, and this
driver is projected to increase substantially in the future (high certainty). For example, synthetic
production of nitrogen fertilizer has been a key driver for the remarkable increase in food
production during the last 50 years. Humans now produce more reactive (biologically available)
nitrogen than is produced by all natural pathways combined.
Nutrient loading will become an increasingly severe problem, particularly in developing

countries and particularly in East and South Asia. Only significant actions to improve the
efficiency of nutrient use or the maintenance or restoration of wetlands that buffer nutrient
loading will mitigate these trends.
Anthropogenic climate change, the impact on biodiversity will grow worldwide with both
increasing rates of change in climate and increasing absolute change in climate. Although some
ecosystem services in some regions may initially be enhanced by projected changes in climate
(such as increases in temperature or precipitation), and thus these regions may experience net
benefits at low levels of climate change, as climate change becomes more severe the harmful
impacts on ecosystem services are likely to outweigh the benefits in most regions of the world.
The balance of scientific evidence suggests that there will be a significant net harmful impact on
ecosystem services worldwide if global mean surface temperature increases more than 2˚ Celsius
above preindustrial levels or at rates greater than 0.2˚ Celsius per decade (medium certainty).
Climate change is projected to further adversely affect key development challenges, including
providing clean water, energy services, and food; maintaining a healthy environment; and con-
serving ecological systems and their biodiversity and associated ecological goods and services:
 Climate change is projected to exacerbate the loss of biodiversity and increase the risk of
extinction for many species, especially those already at risk due to factors such as low
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population numbers, restricted or patchy habitats, and limited climatic ranges (medium to
high certainty).
 Water availability and quality are projected to decrease in many arid and semiarid regions
(high certainty).
 The risk of floods and droughts is projected to increase (high certainty).
 The reliability of hydropower and biomass production is projected to decrease in some
regions (high certainty).
 The incidence of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue and of waterborne
diseases such as cholera is projected to increase in many regions (medium to high
certainty), and so too are heat stress mortality and threats of decreased nutrition in other
regions, along with severe weather traumatic injury and death (high certainty).
 Agricultural productivity is projected to decrease in the tropics and sub-tropics for almost
any amount of warming (low to medium certainty), and there are projected adverse
effects on fisheries.
 Projected changes in climate during the twenty-first century are very likely to be without
precedent during at least the past 10,000 years and, combined with land use change and
the spread of exotic or alien species, are likely to limit both the capability of species to
migrate and the ability of species to persist in fragmented habitats.
Threats to biodiversity
There are many threats to biodiversity and many of these are a result of activities by humans.
Threats include land clearing or habitat destruction, feral animals, weeds, pesticides, pollution,
agricultural and farming techniques and climatic changes.
Land clearing has caused more loss of biodiversity than anything else. Land clearing results in:
 loss of habitat and reduced or fragmented ranges of species
 land degradation and salinity, impacting plant growth
Feral animals, eg, foxes, cats, dogs, carp, horses, goats, cane toads, European wasps, honeybees
and rabbits, affect our biodiversity because they:
 prey on native animals
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 compete for nest sites
 compete for food
 cause soil erosion
 Foul waterways.
Weeds:
o compete with native plants for light and growing space
o are unpalatable for many native animals
o Smother vegetation and prevent and/or inhibit native plant re-growth.
Agriculture and farming techniques, eg, land clearing, the extensive farming of hoofed
animals and the use of pesticides, cause problems such as:
 Native vegetation is cleared, destroying animal habitats and causing erosion. With mass
tree removal the water table rises and dryland salinity can result.
 Hoofed animals such as cows and sheep compact the soil, can lead to erosion and
increase competition for food.
 Mono crops need chemicals such as pesticides, fungicides, fertilizers. These can wash
into waterways causing increased nutrients which cause algal blooms. Pesticides can
poison many animals, even those not intended.
A pesticide chain reaction: Malaria once infected nine out of ten people on the island of
Borneo. In 1955, the World Health Organisation (WHO) began spraying dieldrin (a pesticide
similar to DDT) to kill malaria carrying mosquitoes. The program was so successful that the
dreaded disease was almost eliminated from the island. But other unexpected things happened.
The pesticide killed other insects, including flies and cockroaches inhabiting the houses. The
islanders applauded. But then small lizards that also lived in the households died after gorging
themselves on dead insects. Then cats began dying after feeding on dead lizards. Without cats,
rats flourished and began overrunning the villages. Now people were threatened by sylvatic
plague carried by the fleas on the rats.
The situation was brought under control when WHO parachuted healthy cats onto parts of the
island. On top of everything else, roofs began to fall in. The pesticide had killed wasps that fed
on a type of caterpillar that either avoided or was not affected by the insecticide. With most of its
predators eliminated, that caterpillar population exploded. The larvae munched their way through
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one of their favorite foods, the leaves used in thatching roofs. Eventually the situation was
brought under control but the story shows the unpredictable results of interfering with an
ecosystem.
Consumption habits and product choice can affect biodiversity. For instance:
o purchasing rainforest or non-plantation building materials and furniture destroys
animal habitats
o buying non-recycled paper destroys habitats
o buying endangered animal products threatens the existence of species
o Purchasing from companies that don’t have strict environmental guidelines can
contribute to environmental destruction and degradation.
Climate change can affect global biodiversity as habitats change faster than species can adapt to
them. This can lead to the extinction of species.
The combination of past landscape modifications and future climate change means that many
species of animals and plants will find it increasingly tough to find a place to live.
Other impacts of climate change include:
 Changes in the size and continuity of the area in which native species can
survive
 Breeding and migration can become out of synchronization with food
availability, eg, caterpillars hatching before their food source is available. The
newly hatched caterpillars die.
This will impact on birds which feed on these caterpillars.
– Plant growing seasons may be altered.
– Increased growth and spread of weeds.
– Warmer temperatures will favour some species over others and will affect the balance of
nature.
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3. Centers of Biological Diversity/Hotspots (Global, Regional/
Sub-regional (Africa, East Africa)
EASTERN AFRICA OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
Eastern Africa’s biological diversity reflects its position astride the equator and the high
variability of landscapes and aquatic ecosystems. These conditions provide suitable habitat for a
large variety of living organisms, Nectophrynoides viviparus is one of the few frogs that give
birth to live young. This vulnerable species occurs in the Uluguru and Udzungwa mountains in
the southern highlands of Tanzania. Some with very limited ranges. For instance, the Bonga
Forest in Ethiopia contains more than 15 species of highland birds; the Metu-Gore-Tepi forest
has more than 16 species of birds of which at least two are endemic, while the Tiro Boter-Becho
forests have more than 32 highland biome species of birds.
Owing to its combination of semi-arid savannahs, lowland and montane rain forests, vast
wetlands, and an Afroalpine zone which ranges in altitude from 650 to 5 000m, Uganda has over
1 000 species of birds (Carswell and others 2005), a significant percentage of Africa’s 2 313 bird
species (BirdLife International undated). From its scorching sub-desert flatlands to its mist-
enshrouded evergreen montane forests, Eritrea’s diverse habitats hold a wide variety of birds,
many of which are confined to the Horn of Africa. To date, a total of 107 mammal species have
been recorded in Burundi. The Masai Mara in Kenya is world-famous for big game. A total of
277 species of mammals are known in Ethiopia, of which 29 are endemic and almost exclusively
confined to the central plateaus. In the semi-desert grasslands and shrublands of Djibouti, Acacia
nilotic sub species, tomentosa forms nearly pure stands on silty-clay soils subjected to seasonal
inundation in association with Ziziphus abyssinica as a minor associate.
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Although Djibouti does not have any endemic mammals, the following threatened terrestrial and
marine species occur: Lycaon pictus (African wild dog), Dorcatragus megalotis (Beira antelope),
Gazella dorcas (Dorcas gazelle), Dugong dugon (dugong), Otomops martiensseni (large-eared
free-tailed bat) and Gazella soemmerringii (Soemmerring’s gazelle).
Table 2: the biodiversity features of Eastern Africa
Biodiversity opportunity
Mammals Birds Plants Threat % of Response
Country Area Endemic Tota Endemic Total Endemic Total land % of land
km2 l protected
transformed
Burundi 27 830 0 107 0 451 Not 2500 37 5
known
Djibouti 23 200 0 61 1 126 6 826 1 1
Eritrea 117600 0 112 0 319 Not Not 19 4
known known
Ethiopia 1 104 31 277 28 626 1000 6603 39 5
300
Kenya 580 359 9 844 265 6506 13 6
370
Rwanda 26 340 0 151 0 513 26 2288 52 8
Somalia 637 12 171 11 422 500 3 028 6 0
660
Uganda 241 6 345 3 830 not 4 900 36 7
040 known
All 2 72 52 1797 24 4
countries 758340
Centres of biodiversity
Biodiversity information is patchy for many organisms. Centres of biodiversity are located in the
following ecoregions: Mt Cameroon and Bioko montane forests, overlapping with the Cross-
Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests; the Cameroon highlands’ forests; the Eastern Arc forests and the
northern Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal forest mosaic; the Guinea montane forests and the western
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Guinea forests; the Drakensberg montane grasslands and forests; the Albertine Rift montane
forests and the upper Guinea lowland rain forests.
Nearly two-thirds (62 per cent) of species of plants and vertebrates can be represented (though
not necessarily adequately protected) in approximately 1 per cent of its land area. This 1 per cent
area includes key taxon-specific centres of diversity (such as the Cape for plants) and a few
multitaxon centres of biodiversity such as, for example, Mt Cameroon, East Usambaras, Mt
Nimba, Western Ruwenzori, Mt Elgon and parts of the upper Guinea lowland forests. Many of
the represented species are endemic to these areas. To include all vertebrate and plant species
occurring in SSA in protected areas, about a third of its total area would need to be included into
conservation strategies. Hence, identifying locations of high biodiversity in several major groups,
so that a high proportion of biodiversity can be protected in a comparatively small area, is an
important research goal.
Mega-diversity Countries
17 countries which have been identified as the most biodiversity-rich countries of the world, with
a particular focus on endemic biodiversity. The identified Megadiverse Countries are: United
States of America, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Brazil, Democratic Republic
of Congo, South Africa, Madagascar, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New
Guinea, China, and Australia. While there is no specific management associated with this
concept, 17 countries rich in biological diversity and associated traditional knowledge have
formed a group known as the Like Minded Megadiverse Countries. These include 12 of the
above identified Megadiverse Countries. This group was formed in 2002 under the Cancun
Declaration to act as a mechanism of cooperation on the conservation of biological diversity and
traditional knowledge.
Megadiversity Countries is a term used to refer to the world’s top biodiversity-rich countries.
This country-focused method raises national awareness for biodiversity conservation in nations
with high biological diversity, with many species unique to a specific country. This concept
complements that of Biodiversity Hotspots and High-Biodiversity Wilderness Areas to achieve
significant coverage of the world’s biological resources and was first proposed in 1988. 1
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Together, the Megadiversity Countries account for at least two thirds of all non-fish vertebrate
species and three quarters of all higher plant species. This classification primarily aims to
demonstrate how a small number of countries hold a large portion of global diversity and
therefore have a disproportionate political responsibility for conservation and biodiversity
management. The Megadiversity Country concept is based on four premises:
1. The biodiversity of each and every nation is critically important to that nation’s survival,
and must be a fundamental component of any national or regional development strategy;
2. Biodiversity is by no means evenly distributed on our planet, and some countries,
especially in the tropics, harbour far greater concentrations of biodiversity than others;
3. Some of the most species rich and biodiverse nations also have ecosystems that are under
the most severe threat;
4. To achieve maximum impact with limited resources, conservation efforts must
concentrate heavily (but not exclusively) on those countries richest in diversity and
endemism and most severely threatened; resources invested in them for conservation
should be roughly proportional to their overall contribution to global biodiversity.
Criteria
The principle criterion is endemism, first at the species level and then at higher taxonomic levels
such as genus and family. To qualify as a Mega diverse Country, a country must:
1. Have at least 5000 of the world’s plants as endemics

2. Have marine ecosystems within its borders.
The focus on endemism is in line with the IUCN’s “doctrine of ultimate responsibility”, which
holds that a country with the only populations of an endangered species has ultimate
responsibility for ensuring the survival of that particular species. Other secondary criteria have
also been taken into consideration, such as animal and invertebrate endemism, species diversity,
higher-level diversity, ecosystem diversity and presence of tropical rainforest ecosystems. 2
Despite endemism being the main criterion, thresholds for the criteria are flexible and countries
have been considered individually based on all criteria.
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Table 1: Compared to each other mega-diverse countries
Compared to each other mega-diverse countries

Country Vascular Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians
plants
Brazil 56,215 578 1,712 630 779

Colombia 48,000 456 1,815 520 634
China 32,200 502 1,221 387 334
Indonesia 29,375 667 1,604 511 300
Mexico 23,424 535 1,096 804 361
Venezuela 21,073 353 1,392 293 315
Ecuador 21,000 271 1,559 374 462
Peru 17,144 441 1,781 298 420
Australia 15,638 376 851 880 224
Madagascar 9,505 165 262 300 234
Congo 6,000 166 597 268 216
(Llorente-Bousquetsy Ocegueda 2009)
Biodiversity hotspots
There are places on Earth that are both biologically rich and deeply threatened. Species are the
building blocks of Earth's life-support systems. We all depend on them. But our planet’s
“biodiversity,” the vast array of life on Earth, faces a crisis of historic proportions. Development,
urbanization, pollution, disease — they’re all wreaking/causing mayhem on the tree of life.
Today, species are going extinct at the fastest rate since the mass extinction of the dinosaurs.
To stem this crisis, we must protect the places where biodiversity lives. But species aren’t evenly
distributed around the planet. Certain areas have large numbers of endemic species those found
nowhere else. Many of these are heavily threatened by habitat loss and other human activities.
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These areas are the biodiversity hotspots, 35 regions where success in conserving species can
have an enormous impact in securing our global biodiversity.
A biodiversity hotspot is a region with a high level of endemic species that is under threat from
humans. The term hotspot was introduced in 1988 by Dr. Sabina Virk. While hotspots are spread
all over the world, the majorities are forest areas and most are located in the tropics.
Brazil's Atlantic Forest is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000 plant species,
1,350 vertebrates, and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere else. The island of
Madagascar and also India are also particularly notable. Colombia is characterized by high
biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number
of endemism (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of
the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in
Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammal’s species, 14%
of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world. Madagascar dry deciduous
forests and lowland rainforests possess a high ratio of endemism. Since the island separated from
mainland Africa 66 million years ago, many species and ecosystems have evolved
independently. Indonesia's 17,000 islands cover 735,355 square miles (1,904,560 km2) contain
10% of the world's flowering plants, 12% of mammals and 17% of reptiles, amphibians and birds
—along with nearly 240 million people. Many regions of high biodiversity and/or endemism
arise from specialized habitats which require unusual adaptations, for example alpine
environments in high mountains, or Northern European peat bogs.
A ‘threatened’ species or ecosystem is one that is at risk of going extinct in its natural range.
It may be ‘critically endangered’ at extremely high risk, ‘endangered’ at very high risk, or
‘vulnerable’ at high risk. Species or ecosystems at low or no risk are not ‘threatened’, and fall
into the ‘near threatened’ or ‘least concern’ categories.
o An endemic or range-restricted species or ecosystem is one whose distribution is confined
to a particular and often very limited geographical region.
o A protected species or ecosystem is one that is protected by law from particular activities
and land uses.
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IUCN categories of threatened species
The IUCN Species Program working with the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) has for
more than four decades been assessing the conservation status of species, subspecies, varieties,
and even selected subpopulations on a global scale in order to highlight taxa threatened with
extinction, and therefore promote their conservation.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species provides taxonomic, conservation status and
distribution information on plants and animals that have been globally evaluated using the IUCN
Red List Categories and Criteria. This system is designed to determine the relative risk of
extinction, and the main purpose of the IUCN Red List is to catalog and highlight those plants
and animals that are facing a higher risk of global extinction (i.e. those listed as Critically
Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable). Over 350 species added to the IUCN Red List's
threatened categories.
The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria have several specific aims:
 to provide a system that can be applied consistently by different people;

 to improve objectivity by providing users with clear guidance on how to evaluate
different factors which affect the risk of extinction;
 to provide a system which will facilitate comparisons across widely different taxa;
 to give people using threatened species lists a better understanding of how individual
species were classified.
What’s the difference between threatened and endangered?
Threatened species are those that are facing threats to their survival, and may be at risk of
extinction. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies threatened
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species into different categories, depending on their relative risk of extinction. The term
“endangered” is one of these categories.
Officially, threatened species are those listed as:
 Critically endangered (CR)
 Endangered (EN)
 Vulnerable (VU)
In simple terms, these categories are ranked as follows:

•Critically endangered (CR) – a species facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild
• Endangered (EN) – a species considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild
• Vulnerable (VU) – a species considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
37
Chapter 4 Conservation Biology
Conservation biology matured in the mid-20th century as ecologists, naturalists, and other
scientists began to research and address issues pertaining to global biodiversity declines. The
conservation ethic advocates management of natural resources for the purpose of sustaining
biodiversity in species, ecosystems, the evolutionary process, and human culture and society.
Conservation biology is reforming around strategic plans to protect biodiversity. Preserving

global biodiversity is a priority in strategic conservation plans that are designed to engage public
policy and concerns affecting local, regional and global scales of communities, ecosystems, and
cultures. Action plans identify ways of sustaining human well-being, employing natural capital,
market capital, and ecosystem services.
The CBD is particularly focused on biodiversity. It has three objectives:
 The conservation of biodiversity;
 The sustainable use of its components; and
 The equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of biodiversity.
The Principles of Conservation Biology
1. Conservation biologists seek to maintain three important aspects of life on Earth:

biological diversity, ecological integrity, and ecological health.
a. Biological diversity is a measure of the diversity of all life at all levels of
organization.
b. Ecological integrity is a measure of the composition, structure, and function of
biological systems.
c. Ecological health is a measure of a biological system’s resiliency and ability to
maintain itself over time.
38
2. The conservation of nature is important for nature’s intrinsic values, its instrumental
values, and its psychological values.
I. Value systems determine how we view nature, and this may vary within and
among cultures.
II. Intrinsic values are those of nature itself, separate from usefulness to humans.
III. Instrumental values are based on the usefulness of nature to humans.
IV. Psychological values are those that contribute to the psychological well-being of
humans.
3. An understanding of conservation is based on key concepts in taxonomy, ecology,
genetics, geography, and evolution.
All organisms are related to one another. The components of nature are grouped together
in sets of levels of organization, from small (genes) to large (landscapes). Genes contain
the information for making an organism, and this information varies from one organism
to another. The basic unit of biological organization is the species. Populations grow
exponentially unless limited by the environment; small populations are more at risk than
large ones. Species are distributed in different patterns over the Earth based on individual
histories, characteristics, and responses to human action. Communities and ecosystems
are collections of interacting species and the components of their physical environment.
Nature may behave stochastically, in that conditions and outcomes may be unpredictable.
Extinction is the termination of an evolutionary line and can occur as a result of both
human and nonhuman causes.
4. Nature has faced and continues to face numerous threats from humans, including direct
harvesting, habitat destruction, and introduction of non-native species.
Principles of ecological economics correct oversights in neoclassical economic theory, which
have contributed to conservation threats. Human societies have a long history of causing
extinctions and making major changes to ecosystems. Human actions affect nature through
their frequency, intensity, and spatial extent.
Species are currently going extinct at a rate faster than at any time in human history and at a
rate comparable to mass extinction events seen only in the fossil record. Humans cause
extinction through habitat destruction and modification, overexploitation, and introduction of
non-native species. Humans are currently causing the Earth’s climate to warm, which will
39
have severe consequences for natural systems. Extinction of a species can cause extinctions
of other species. The present condition of most natural systems is changed from the past as a
result of human actions. Ideas about the “normal” condition of nature are influenced by what
a person experiences in his or her own lifetime.
5. Conservation requires a combination of many different strategies.

a) Protect species at risk of extinction.
b) Designate ecological reserves.
c) Lessen the magnitude of human impacts on natural systems.
d) Restore ecosystems that have been degraded.
e) Augment populations with individuals raised in cultivation or captivity.
f) Control the number of individuals harvested in nature.
g) Prevent the establishment of non-native species, and eliminate non-native species
that have become established.
h) Understand and participate in the policy-making process.
i) Educate others about the importance of conservation.
40
5. Biodiversity Conservation Strategies
Conservation mechanisms: There is more than one way to conserve biodiversity. As biodiversity
and its use to communities vary, so too should conservation mechanisms. Biodiversity
conservation plans for a rainforest will be different from plans for grassland or a swamp. There
are different approaches involving different groups of people. There are different types of
landscapes, each being used or protected for different purposes. There are different strategies and
timeframes for achieving similar goals.
In situ and ex-situ conservation
In situ and ex-situ are the Latin words for “on-site” and “offsite”. They are two different, but
complementary approaches to biodiversity conservation; each plays a distinct and important role.
In situ conservation occurs in nature, for instance in a protected area, traditional farm, nature
reserve or national park. Ex-situ conservation occurs when a specimen of a species is set in
artificial conditions such as in a zoo or a botanical garden.
In situ conservation helps to guarantee the survival of a species in its natural habitat. It is
important for observing the behaviour of a species, understanding how individuals interact with
other members of their species and with other species, and classifying a species as endemic (e.g.
exists exclusively in a particular region), rare or under threat of extinction. In situ conservation
also enables researchers to determine the distribution of a species throughout the world, to assess
traditional communities’ contribution to conservation, and to inform local conservation
initiatives.
Ex situ conservation should be used as a “last resort” or as a supplement to in situ conservation.

Ex situ conservation is rarely enough to save a species from extinction. However, it is a key
element for environmental and species education programmes because it provides the public with
41
an opportunity to observe rare species from around the world in one location. If you have ever
visited a zoo, animal sanctuary, botanical garden or seed bank, you have seen ex-situ
conservation.
Different types of ex situ conservation
1. Zoos focus on public education, conservation science and a animal management research.
2. Sanctuaries aim to protect animals and eventually release them into the wild. Most of the
animals are confiscated from poachers (illegal hunters), pet traders, etc.
The Pan African Sanctuaries Alliance (PASA), for example, was created to unite the
African sanctuaries that had emerged in response to the deforestation, bushmeat hunting,
human encroachment and disease that were decimating wild primate populations.
(Eastern common chimpanzees in Mahale Mountains National Park, Western Tanzanita.)
3. Botanical gardens are meant for plant research, display of specimens and training.
4. Seed banks are more like museums; they house plant material that can be used as a
source for planting if seed reserves – in cultivation or in nature – are destroyed or extinct.
Seedbanks also provide researchers and breeders with crop seeds important for
agriculture. (The Svalbard Seed Vault in Norway is the ultimate safe place for crop
diversity).
Ask yourself ... What protected areas exist in your country? Do they house any animal species at
risk of extinction?
42
Chapter 6: On-farm Conservation of Crop Biodiversity
Biodiversity and Agriculture
Agricultural diversity can be divided into two categories: intraspecific diversity, which includes
the genetic variety within a single species, like the potato (Solanum tuberosum) that is composed
of many different forms and types (e.g.: in the U.S. compare russet potatoes with new potatoes or
purple potatoes, all different, but all part of the same species, S. tuberosum).
The other category of agricultural diversity is called interspecific diversity and refers to the
number and types of different species. Thinking about this diversity we might note that many
small vegetable farmers grow many different crops like potatoes, and also carrots, peppers,
lettuce etc.
Agricultural diversity can also be divided by whether it is ‘planned’ diversity or ‘associated’

diversity. This is a functional classification that we impose and not an intrinsic feature of life or
diversity. Planned diversity includes the crops which a farmer has encouraged, planted or raised
(e.g.: crops, covers, symbionts and livestock, among others), which can be contrasted with the
associated diversity that arrives among the crops, uninvited (e.g.: herbivores, weed species and
pathogens, among others).
The control of associated biodiversity is one of the great agricultural challenges that farmers
face. On monoculture farms, the approach is generally to eradicate associated diversity using a
suite of biologically destructive pesticides, mechanized tools and transgenic engineering
techniques, then to rotate crops. Although some polyculture farmers use the same techniques,
they also employ integrated pest management strategies as well as strategies that are more labor-
intensive, but generally less dependent on capital, biotechnology and energy.
43
Interspecific crop diversity is, in part, responsible for offering variety in what we eat.
Intraspecific diversity, the variety of alleles within a single species, also offers us choice in our
diets. If a crop fails in a monoculture, we rely on agricultural diversity to replant the land with
something new. If a wheat crop is destroyed by a pest we may plant a hardier variety of wheat
the next year, relying on intraspecific diversity. We may forgo wheat production in that area and
plant a different species altogether, relying on interspecific diversity. Even an agricultural society
which primarily grows monocultures, relies on biodiversity at some point.
 The Irish potato blight of 1846 was a major factor in the deaths of one million people and
the emigration of about two million. It was the result of planting only two potato
varieties, both vulnerable to the blight, Phytophthora infestans, which arrived in 1845
 When rice grassy stunt virus struck rice fields from Indonesia to India in the 1970s, 6,273
varieties were tested for resistance. Only one was resistant, an Indian variety, and known
to science only since 1966. This variety formed a hybrid with other varieties and is now
widely grown.
 Coffee rust attacked coffee plantations in Sri Lanka, Brazil, and Central America in 1970.
A resistant variety was found in Ethiopia. The diseases are themselves a form of
biodiversity.
Monoculture was a contributing factor to several agricultural disasters, including the European
wine industry collapse in the late 19th century, and the US Southern Corn Leaf Blight epidemic
of 1970.
Although about 80 percent of humans' food supply comes from just 20 kinds of plants, humans
use at least 40,000 species. Many people depend on these species for food, shelter, and clothing.
Earth's surviving biodiversity provides resources for increasing the range of food and other
products suitable for human use, although the present extinction rate shrinks that potential.
44
Chapter 7: The role of local people in biodiversity conservation
Close monitoring of biodiversity is another important conservation practice; it involves regular

checking of the overall health of ecosystems and the species living within it.
The data collected from ongoing monitoring programmes can help inform management plans and
improve the sustainability of activities in productive landscapes. Monitoring is especially
important when the activities are carried out on an industrial scale because their impact is greater
than the impact of similar activities carried out on a smaller subsistence scale by local
communities.
Law and community enforcement
Conservation mechanisms may include law or community enforcement. Biodiversity
conservation officers make sure the communities relying on the site’s natural resources are
totally involved in conservation initiatives. Officers enforce the laws and record the details of
community participation. When the laws are not respected, illegal logging, mining and bush meat
hunting erode the benefits of conservation efforts.
Traditional knowledge and practices

In many cases, traditional knowledge has contributed to protecting wildlife and ecosystems and
to ensuring a “natural balance”. Traditional knowledge comprises of “knowledge, innovations
and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world, developed from experience
gained over centuries and adapted to the local culture and environment, which is transmitted
orally from generation to generation”, according to the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD).
Traditional knowledge is collectively owned and takes the form of stories, songs, folklore,
proverbs, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local languages and agricultural
practices, including the development of plant species and animal breeds. Article 8(j) of the
CBD calls for countries to respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices
of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant to the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
45
Biodiversity conservation practitioners must therefore ensure that the communities relying
directly on natural resources are involved in conservation initiatives, and guarantee their active
participation during the whole conservation process. Some form of community engagement is
essential for the success of any biodiversity conservation project.
There are also many good examples of community conserved areas around the world. These sites
have been managed by communities for generations for the sustainable use of natural resources
such as medicinal plants and water springs, or even for religious purposes.
These sites may or may not have government protection or written management regulations.
However, the community members have developed well-recognised and respected rules that are
often stronger than any law and have been practised for generations. The end result is the
conservation and sustainable use of resources. Some governments now legally recognise
traditional practices and treat indigenous and local communities as the customary stewards of the
biodiversity.
46
Chapter 8; Establishing, designing and Managing Protected Areas
The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA)
The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) is the world’s leading network of protected
area managers and specialists, with over 1,300 members in 140 countries. WCPA is one of the
six voluntary Commissions of IUCN and is administered by the Programme on Protected Areas
at IUCN’s headquarters in Gland, Switzerland. WCPA’s mission is to promote the establishment
and effective management of a worldwide representative network of terrestrial and marine
protected areas, as an integral contribution to the IUCN mission.
Definition and categories
This section outlines and explains the IUCN definition of a protected area, a protected area
system and the six categories. The definition is clarified phrase by phrase and should be applied
with some accompanying principles. Categories are described by their main objective, other
objectives, distinguishing features, role in the landscape or seascape, unique points and actions
that are compatible or incompatible.
A protected area is: “A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and
managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of
nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values”.
In applying the categories system, the first step is to determine whether or not the site meets this
definition and the second step is to decide on the most suitable category.
Four biological reasons why reserves are needed:

1) To preserve large, functioning ecosystems (ecosystems servicing both humans & nature) local
& global ecosystem services, e.g., watersheds for flood control & water recharge
2) To preserve biodiversity focuses on high species richness (e.g., tropical rainforests or coral
reefs), unique areas of high endemism (e.g., Madagascar) or unique environments, or utility
3) To protect species or groups of special interest - endangered or very visible (e.g., Panda,
Condors, African elephants, tigers, jaguars)
47
4) For practical uses by humans - perpetuation of animals or plants for harvest (e.g. wetlands for
ducks, estuaries for fish, forest tracts for deer, quail, turkey habitat or for logging) Also, wild
potato, wheat, corn...potential uses.
Three main issues in reserve design:
A) Biological– sitting for protection of ecological processes, an intact biota, or a special subset
of a biota
1) Consideration of shape and size of reserve (SLOSS debate, SLOSS = Single Large or
Several Small)
2) Connections and spatial relationships between the reserve and other natural areas
(Habitat corridors, managing a group of small reserves)
3) Population sizes needed to maintain critical species
4) Local colonization and extinction dynamics of the biota
5) Ecological dynamics within the reserve- habitat patches, patch dynamics
6) Threats posed by land uses around the reserve
B) Reserves anthropological or cultural effects: reserve if possible should not disrupt
traditional, sustainable cultures of indigenous people for ethical reasons, and also less
appropriate to cause strife and failure of the reserve. They want social support for reserve from
local people, paying visitors, general public...
C) Reserve design must work within political & economic constraints at local to global levels
if constraints are unreasonable, must be modified through public education or court action.
Reserve Size - Large Park will generally have more species than a small park with the same
habitat.
Larger reserves are usually better for maintenance of individual species, biodiversity, and
ecological functions than smaller reserves for two main reasons:
1) Species-area relationship, larger reserves enclose a greater number of spp.
2) Persistence of some species depends on a larger reserve
Reserve Shape - Should minimize edge effects, contain an entire ecosystem and should avoid
fragmentation. Agencies should coordinate in order to manage adjoining reserves as one unit.
Landscape level design should favor species of conservation concern, not just strive for the
most species or the greatest abundance of certain species.
48
What is a protected area? “An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection of
biological diversity and natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or
other effective means.”
Conservation: while protected areas and parks remain a cornerstone for biodiversity
conservation worldwide, conservation efforts are not limited to these places. Large productive
landscapes with no specific conservation objective can contain lots of biodiversity while offering
food, shelter and other ecosystem services for humanity.
Agricultural lands, timber forests, grasslands, rivers and marine areas are productive landscapes
that are also important for biodiversity. These landscapes are managed with the aim of producing
and harvesting food, timber, energy and marine resources. Even though biodiversity conservation
is not the main objective, the management of these landscapes must be sensitive to biodiversity.
If it’s not, resource exploitation can harm the long-term health of the ecosystem and its ability to
supply food, timber, energy and other resources. This recognition has led to the promotion of
sustainable agriculture, sustainable forestry, sustainable grassland management and sustainable
fisheries.
IUCN’s* Six Protected Areas Management Categories
Category I. Strict Nature Reserve: managed for science or wilderness

Category II. National Park: managed primarily for ecosystem protection and recreation
Category III. Natural Monument: managed primarily for conservation of specific natural
features
Category IV. Habitat/Species Management Area: managed for conservation through active
intervention
Category V. Protected Landscape/Seascape: Managed for cultural and scenic integrity,
conservation, and recreation; human settlements and agricultural areas are accommodated
Category VI. Managed Resource Protected Area: Managed primarily for the sustainable use of
ecosystems
Benefits provided by protected areas: Conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity,
Recreation, Prevention of erosion on watersheds, Provision of clean water to cities, Provision of
clean air, Control of biological pests, Preservation of medicinal and genetic resources,
49
Maintenance of harvestable resources, Soil regeneration, Nutrient cycling and Carbon
sequestration/climatic regulation
Protected Areas of Ethiopia: (1) National Parks (2) Wildlife Sanctuaries (3) Wildlife Reserves
(4) Community Conservation Areas (5) Wildlife Rescue Centres (6) Controlled Hunting Areas
(7) Community Managed Ecotourism and hunting areas (8) Open Hunting Areas (9) Wildlife
Ranches (10) Botanical Gardens and Herbariums (11) Biosphere Reserves (12) National
Priority Forest Areas (13) Forestry Areas (14) Land Protected by Belief Systems (15) Ministry
of Defence Lands (16) Forest and Plant Scientific Research Projects (17) Municipal Parks
50
Chapter 9: Policy and institutional aspects of biodiversity conservation
A general policy statement on biodiversity should reflect the following approach to biodiversity
conservation and management: Recognizing the global importance of biodiversity resources and
being aware of both the company’s dependence on and impact upon these resources, sites should
seek to manage its landholdings to achieve better outcomes for the conservation and sustainable
use of biodiversity.
International conventions and agreements form an important backdrop to the issues surrounding
biodiversity and the oil and gas industry, and they are a significant pressure driving the
development of a strong business case for biodiversity conservation.
THE “BIG FIVE” BIODIVERSITY CONVENTIONS
1. The convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora and

fauna, 1975
2. The Ramsar convention, 1971: The Ramsar Convention – formally known as the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat –
provides a framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation
and wise use of wetlands and their resources. Ramsar covers all aspects of wetland
conservation and “wise use” of wetlands, recognizing that wetlands are extremely important
ecosystems for biodiversity conservation
3. The world heritage convention, 1972: The objective of the World Heritage
Convention– or the Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural
Heritage, as it is formally known – is to identify and conserve the world’s cultural and
natural heritage. Its main instrument is the World Heritage List, which contains sites of
outstanding cultural and natural values.
4. Convention on migratory species, 1979 (Bonn convention): The Convention on the
Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (also known as the Bonn
Convention) aims to “conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout
their range.” The Convention facilitates the adoption of strict protection measures for
51
endangered migratory species, the conclusion of multilateral agreements for the
conservation and management of migratory species, and co-operative research activities
5. Convention on biological diversity, 1992
The three main goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) are the conservation of
biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of
the benefits arising from utilization of genetic resources.
52
Chapter 10: Biodiversity of Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a relatively vast country with a land area of 1.12 million square kilometers and wide
variety of topography and climate. There is a great variation in altitude, ranging from 116 meters
below sea level in the Danakil depression to 4620 masl at the top of Mt Ras Dashen. The great
plains of Ethiopia sit atop two massive highland plateaus, cloven in the middle by the Great Rift
Valley. Although much of the interior of Ethiopia is dominated by highland plateaus, all of
which are home to numerous endemic species of flora and fauna, these are interrupted by deep
gorges and 12 major river valleys.
The differences in altitude, coupled with topographic variations, has resulted in wide variations
in rainfall, humidity and temperature and thus, the country comprises of ten ecosystems that
range from afroalpine at the highest elevations to desert and semi-desert ecosystems at the lowest
elevations. As a result, Ethiopia is endowed with a wide variety of fauna and flora and the
extreme ranges have resulted in unique and diverse suite of its biological resources. However,
the rich biodiversity of the country is under serious threat from overexploitation, overgrazing,
expansion of cultivation and settlements that are accompanied by excessive deforestations,
invasions of alien species and pollution. Despite some cases of improvements, serious
degradation is threatening much of the wild lands of the country. Thus, the distribution and
population of many mammals and birds is dramatically declining.
Given the vastness of the country and its rich biodiversity resources, the extent of protected areas
in the country is negligible. Even the existing protected area networks are not being intensively
monitored to see trends and most of them lack management plans.
Diversity of Ecosystems
Ethiopia is endowed with diverse ecosystems in which diverse flora and fauna as well as
microbial resources are found. The major ecosystems include: Afroalpine and subafroalpine,
Montane dry forest and scrub, Montane moist forest, Acacia-Comiphora woodland, Combretum-
Terminalia woodland, Lowland humid forest, Aquatic, wetland, Montane grassland, and Desert
and semidesert ecosystems.
53
1. Afroalpine and Subafroalpine Ecosystem
The areas which on the average higher than 3200 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l) are generally
referred to as the Afroalpine and Subafroalpine. The lower limit of the afroalpine belt falls at
about 3500 m, while the upper limit of vascular plants lies around 5000 m, and subafroalpine
areas ranges between 3200- 3500 m. These areas include chains of mountains, mountain slopes
and tops of highest mountains in the country. The highest peak in Ethiopia is Ras Dashen (4533
m a.s.l), where an alpine climate near 0°C persists all year round, sometimes even with a snow
cover lasting a couple of days. However, dry lowland savannas and deserts surround this moist
highland area. Ethiopia has the largest extent of afroalpine habitats in Africa.
2. Montane Grassland Ecosystem
The montane grassland ecosystem is distinguished from other types of ecosystems by its
physiognomy, floristic composition and ecology. It consists of herbaceous stratum usually not
higher than 30 – 80 cm, very rich in perennial grasses and species of Cyperaceae, but also with
sub-shrubs and perennial herbs, among which bulbous and rhizomatous plants occur. The
original climax vegetation on the montane grassland of Ethiopia was supposed to be a dry
evergreen montane forest intermingled with small areas of grassland. The montane grassland of
Ethiopia is a derived vegetation type, although small areas of the grassland may have existed
before human settlement.
3. Dry Evergreen Montane Forest and Evergreen Scrub Ecosystem
The Ethiopian highlands contribute to more than 50 % of the land area with Afromontane
vegetation, of which dry montane forests form the largest part. The evergreen scrubland
vegetation occurs in the highlands of Ethiopia either as an intact scrub, i.e. in association with
the dry evergreen montane forest or usually as secondary growth after deforestation of the dry
evergreen montane forest. The Dry Evergreen Montane Forest and Evergreen Scrubland
vegetations are the characteristic vegetation types of this ecosystem.
54
4. Montane Moist Forest Ecosystem
The montane moist forest ecosystem comprises high forests of the country mainly the southwest
forests, which are the wettest, and also the humid forest on the southeastern plateau known as the
Harenna forest.The montane moist forest ecosystem is distiguished by supporting luxuriant
growing epiphytes Canarina, Orchids, Scadoxus and fern plants such as Platycerium and
Drynaria. Mosses also occur in the wettest porton of forests associated to major branches and
barks of trees.
5. Acacia-Commiphora Woodland Ecosystem
The Acacia-Commiphora ecosystem is known for its varying soils, topography, and diverse
biotic and ecological elements. These plant species are with either small deciduous leaves or
leathery persistent ones. The density of trees varies from ‘high’, in which they form a closed
canopy to scattered individuals to none at all forming open grasslands. The grasses do not exceed
more than one meter, thus, no true savannah is formed.
6. Combretum-Terminalia Ecosystem
This ecosystem is characterized by Cmbretum spp., Terminalia spp., Oxytenanthera abyssinica,

Boswellia papyrifera, Anogeissus lieocarpa, Sterospermem kuntianum, Pterocarpus lucens,
Lonchocarpus laxiflorus, Lannea spp. Albizia malacophylla and Enatada africana. These are
small trees with fairly large deciduous leaves, which often occur with the lowland bamboo-
Oxytenanthera abyssinica. The understory is a combination of herbs and grasses. The herbs
include Justecia spp., Barleria spp., Eulophia, chlorophytum, Hossolunda opposita and
Ledeburia spp. The grasses include Cymbopogon, Hyparrhenia, Echinochla, Sorghum,
Pennisetum, etc. Usually the herbs dominate the ground layer at the beginning of the rainy
season while grasses dominate toward the end of the rainy season.
7. Lowland Tropical Forest Ecosystem
The characteristic species of this forest are Baphia abyssinica and Tapura fischeri. The common
species in the upper canopy include Celtis gomphophylla, Celtis toka, Lecaniodiscus
55
fraxinifolius, Zanha golungensis, Trichilia prieureana, Alistonia boonei, Antiaris toxicaria,
Malacantha alnifolia, Zanthoxylum lepreurii, Diospyros abyssinica, Milicia excelsa, Baphia
abyssinica, Vepris dainellii and Celtis zenkeri.
8. Desert and Semi-desert Ecosystem
It is a very dry zone vulnerable to wind and water erosion even with little or no pressure on the
vegetation from grazing. The vegetation consists of deciduous shrubs, dominated by Acacia sp.
interspersed with less frequent evergreen shrubs and succulents. It has very variable grass
vegetation. The people of the area are pastoral and agro-pastoral. Large scale irrigated
agriculture is gaining importance in some areas of the ecosystem. This ecosystem is the extreme
lowland region of the country. The flora has developed an advanced xeromorphic adaptation.
Shrubs and trees have developed dwarf growth and have small, sclerenchymatic or pubescent
leaves.
9. Wetland Ecosystem
Ethiopia possesses a great diversity of wetland ecosystem (swamps, marshes, flood plains,
natural or artificial ponds, high mountains lake and micro-dams) as a result of formation of
diverse landscape subjected to various tectonic movements, a continuous process of erosion, and
human activities. The different geological formation and climatic conditions have endowed
Ethiopia with a vast water resources and wetland ecosystem including 12 river basins, 8 major
lakes and many swamps, floodplains, and manmade reservoirs with a total annual surface runoff
about 110 billion cubic meter.
10. Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic in literal meaning refers to water. As an ecosystem, widely taken, it includes freshwater
(rivers, reservoirs and lakes), marine (oceans and seas) and estuarine (coastal, bays, tidal)
ecosystems. The Ethiopian aquatic ecosystem has high diversity areas such as major rivers and
lakes that are of great national and international importance. The country is well known for its
richness in water potential. There are about 30 major lakes that are located in different ecological
56
zones. These lakes are situated at altitudes ranging from about 150 m below sea level high up to
4000 m. The surface area of the lakes vary considerably from less than 1 km² to over 3600 km²
and mean depths range from few meters to over 260 meters. However, the major lakes that are of
economic importance are concentrated in the Rift Valley.
57

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College of Agriculture

Chapter 1: Introduction to Biodiversity

History: In the context of conservation science the term ‘biodiversity’, a contraction of

Biodiversity includes all ecosystems—managed or unmanaged. Sometimes biodiversity is

Importance: Biodiversity is nature’s insurance policy. It is about life supporting life.

Biodiversity viewed at genetic, species, and ecosystem levels

Three primary attributes of biodiversity are composition, structure and function.

The Value of Biodiversity to Humans

Terrestrial biodiversity is up to 25 times greater than ocean biodiversity. Although a recent

2. Biodiversity Dynamics: Loss, Threats

Measuring biodiversity on an ecosystem level is thought to be a better way of looking at the

Biodiversity can be measured and monitored at several spatial scales.

Gamma Diversity = landscape diversity or diversity of habitats within a landscape or region. In

Important attributes missed by species or taxon-based measures of diversity include:

Activity 1: Joe’s Jungle

Species in ecosystem a Species in ecosystem b

Species Number of organisms

Calculate the Berger-Parker index (d) for your sample:

Jungle name S N Nabundant d

Which jungle is the most diverse?

Total (a) = Total (b) = Total (c) =

2.2. Patterns of biodiversity

A. Rates of isolate formation are influenced by spatial factors

Patterns of Species Biodiversity

Habitat transformation, particularly from conversion to agriculture. Cultivated systems (areas

Nutrient loading, Since 1950, nutrient loading—anthropogenic increases in nitrogen,

Nutrient loading will become an increasingly severe problem, particularly in developing

EASTERN AFRICA OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES

1. Have at least 5000 of the world’s plants as endemics

Compared to each other mega-diverse countries

Brazil 56,215 578 1,712 630 779

(Llorente-Bousquetsy Ocegueda 2009)

 to provide a system that can be applied consistently by different people;

What’s the difference between threatened and endangered?

Officially, threatened species are those listed as:

 Critically endangered (CR)

In simple terms, these categories are ranked as follows:

Conservation biology is reforming around strategic plans to protect biodiversity. Preserving

The CBD is particularly focused on biodiversity. It has three objectives:

 The conservation of biodiversity;

 The sustainable use of its components; and

 The equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of biodiversity.

The Principles of Conservation Biology

1. Conservation biologists seek to maintain three important aspects of life on Earth:

5. Conservation requires a combination of many different strategies.

In situ and ex-situ conservation

Ex situ conservation should be used as a “last resort” or as a supplement to in situ conservation.

Biodiversity and Agriculture

Agricultural diversity can also be divided by whether it is ‘planned’ diversity or ‘associated’

Close monitoring of biodiversity is another important conservation practice; it involves regular

Traditional knowledge and practices

Definition and categories

Four biological reasons why reserves are needed:

Category I. Strict Nature Reserve: managed for science or wilderness

THE “BIG FIVE” BIODIVERSITY CONVENTIONS

1. The convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora and

2. Montane Grassland Ecosystem

3. Dry Evergreen Montane Forest and Evergreen Scrub Ecosystem

5. Acacia-Commiphora Woodland Ecosystem

This ecosystem is characterized by Cmbretum spp., Terminalia spp., Oxytenanthera abyssinica,