Planar graphs

Definition
A graph is called planar if it can be drawn in the plane without any edges
crossing (except endpoints). Such a drawing is called a planar representation of
the graph.
Example,
𝐾𝐾4 is planar because it is possible to draw it in a different way without
crossings.

We can show that a graph is planar

by drawing a planar representation.
It is harder to show that graph is
nonplanar.
Chromatic number of a planar graph (vertex coloring)
The chromatic number of a planar graph is the minimum number of
colors required to color a planar map so that no two adjacent regions
are assigned the same color.
Obviously, this number is > 3, since 𝐾𝐾4 is planar, and cannot be
colored by 3 colors.
This problem was formulated at the first time in 1850 by Kelly at the
Geographical Society of London – is it possible to color the map by 4
colors, - the final solution was obtained by the American
mathematicians K. Appel and W. Haken in 1976.
THE FOUR COLOR THEOREM
The chromatic number of a planar graph is ≤ 4.
The proof by K. Appel and W. Haken relies on a careful case-by-case analysis carried out by
computer. They showed that if the four color theorem were false, there would have to be a
counterexample of one of approximately 2000 different types, and they then showed that
none of these types exists. They used over 1000 hours of computer time in their proof.
Later, simpler proofs were found, but there is no proof without the use of a computer.
A planar representation of a graph splits the plane into regions,
including an unbounded region. Region of the graph is an area of
the plane enclosed by edges (maximal area of the plain, where any 2 points
can be joined by a non-intersecting continuous line).
One of the regions is unbounded, the others are bounded.
Example,

𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅4

𝑅𝑅1
𝑅𝑅2
Theorem 1
If 𝐺𝐺 = (𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸) is a connected planar simple graph, and 𝑉𝑉 ≥ 3,
then 𝐸𝐸 ≤ 3 𝑉𝑉 − 6.

Theorem 2
If 𝐺𝐺 = (𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸) is a connected planar simple graph, then it has
vertex of degree ≤ 5.
Theorem 3
If 𝐺𝐺 = (𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸) is a connected planar simple graph, with 𝑉𝑉 ≥ 3 ,
and it has no cycles of length 3 , then 𝐸𝐸 ≤ 2 𝑉𝑉 − 4.
𝑲𝑲𝟓𝟓 is not planar.
Proof.
𝐾𝐾5 has 5 vertices and 10 edges.
If 𝐾𝐾5 is planar then according to Theorem 1 it would satisfy
the condition 𝐸𝐸 ≤ 3 𝑉𝑉 − 6 , but this is not true.

𝐾𝐾3,3 is not planar.

Proof.
If 𝐾𝐾3,3 is planar then according to the
Theorem 3 there would be satisfied the
following condition 𝐸𝐸 ≤ 2 𝑉𝑉 − 4 ,
which is not the case.
Thus, 𝐾𝐾5 , 𝐾𝐾3,3 are not planar, and it is clear that if 𝐾𝐾5 or 𝐾𝐾3,3 are
subgraphs of any graph 𝐺𝐺 , then 𝐺𝐺 is not planar.

Definition. If the graph 𝐺𝐺𝐺 is obtained from the graph 𝐺𝐺 by removing

an edge (𝑢𝑢, 𝑤𝑤) and adding a new vertex 𝑤𝑤 together with edges
(𝑢𝑢, 𝑤𝑤) and 𝑤𝑤, 𝑣𝑣 , then we say that 𝐺𝐺𝐺 is obtained from 𝐺𝐺 by
elementary subdivision of the edge (𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣) .
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
𝑔𝑔

𝑓𝑓

𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒
We say that graph 𝐺𝐺𝐺 is obtained from the graph 𝐺𝐺 by subdivision of
edges if there exists a sequence of graphs 𝐺𝐺 = 𝐺𝐺0 , 𝐺𝐺1 , ⋯ , 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺 ,
such that 𝐺𝐺𝑖𝑖 is obtained from 𝐺𝐺𝑖𝑖−1 by an elementary subdivision of an
edge (𝑖𝑖 = 1, ⋯ , 𝑘𝑘).
Theorem (Kuratowski -Pontryagin)
A graph is planar if and only if it does not contain a subgraph
obtained from 𝐾𝐾5 or 𝐾𝐾3,3 by subdivision of edges.
Directed graphs
Definition
The ordered pair 𝐷𝐷 = (𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸) is directed graph (digraph), where
𝑉𝑉 = {𝑣𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑣2 , ⋯ , 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 } is a finite nonempty set, the elements of which
are called vertices or nodes, and 𝐸𝐸 = {𝑒𝑒1 , 𝑒𝑒2 , ⋯ , 𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚 } is a set of
ordered pairs of vertices, the elements of which are called directed
edges or arcs.

We say that a directed edge (𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣) starts

at the vertex 𝑢𝑢 and ends at the vertex 𝑣𝑣.
If 𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 is a directed edge, then 𝑢𝑢 is called the initial vertex of the
edge, and 𝑣𝑣 is called the terminal vertex of this edge.
𝑢𝑢 and 𝑣𝑣 are incident to the edge 𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 .
If 𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 is an edge then 𝑢𝑢 is adjacent to 𝑣𝑣, but 𝑣𝑣 is not adjacent to 𝑢𝑢
(unless 𝑣𝑣, 𝑢𝑢 is not also an edge).
If 𝑣𝑣, 𝑢𝑢 is an edge then 𝑣𝑣 is adjacent to 𝑢𝑢, but 𝑢𝑢 is not adjacent to 𝑣𝑣
(unless 𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 is not also an edge).
Directed graph can contain as edge 𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 , as well as 𝑣𝑣, 𝑢𝑢 .
If a graph contains both edges 𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 and 𝑣𝑣, 𝑢𝑢 , this is not a “multiple
edge", as the edges are distinct.

If a directed graph does not contain loops and multiple edges, then it
is called directed simple graph.
In the geometrical representation: the arc (𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣) is drawn as
an arrow from 𝑢𝑢 to 𝑣𝑣 .
𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣
The edges (𝑢𝑢1 , 𝑣𝑣1 ) and 𝑢𝑢2 , 𝑣𝑣2 are incident, if either 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑢𝑢2
or 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑢𝑢1 .
𝑢𝑢1 𝑣𝑣1 =𝑢𝑢2 𝑣𝑣1
𝑢𝑢1 = 𝑣𝑣2

𝑣𝑣2
𝑢𝑢2
In directed graphs the number of edges, for which a
vertex 𝑣𝑣 is terminal vertex, is denoted by deg − (𝑣𝑣), this is
in-degree of vertex 𝑣𝑣 ; and the number of edges for which
vertex 𝑣𝑣 is initial vertex is denoted by deg + (𝑣𝑣) , this is
out-degree of vertex 𝑣𝑣.

𝑣𝑣

𝑣𝑣
 𝑏𝑏 deg − 𝑎𝑎 =0
𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐 deg + 𝑎𝑎 =3
deg − b =2
deg + b =1
deg − 𝑐𝑐 =2
deg + 𝑐𝑐 =1
deg − 𝑑𝑑 =2
deg + 𝑑𝑑 =2
𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑 deg − 𝑒𝑒 =2
deg + 𝑒𝑒 =1
Definition
The directed graphs 𝐷𝐷 = (𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸) and 𝐷𝐷′ = (𝑉𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸𝐸) are called
isomorphic if there is a bijection 𝑓𝑓: 𝑉𝑉 → 𝑉𝑉𝑉 between their
vertex sets 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑉𝑉𝑉 such that for arbitrary vertices 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 , 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 ∈ 𝑉𝑉
(𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 , 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 ) ∈ 𝐸𝐸 if and only if 𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 , 𝑓𝑓(𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 ) ∈ 𝐸𝐸𝐸.
Example, 𝑓𝑓: 𝑢𝑢1 , 𝑢𝑢2 , 𝑢𝑢3 , 𝑢𝑢4 → {𝑣𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑣2 , 𝑣𝑣3 , 𝑣𝑣4 }
𝑢𝑢1 𝑢𝑢2 𝑣𝑣2
𝑣𝑣1

𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢1 = 𝑣𝑣3
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢3 = 𝑣𝑣1
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢4 = 𝑣𝑣4 𝑢𝑢3 𝑢𝑢4
𝑣𝑣3 𝑣𝑣4
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑣𝑣2
Theorem
If 𝐷𝐷 = (𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸) is a directed graph then
∑𝑣𝑣∈𝑉𝑉 deg − (𝑣𝑣) = ∑𝑣𝑣∈𝑉𝑉 deg + 𝑣𝑣 = 𝐸𝐸 .
Proof. Both ∑𝑣𝑣∈𝑉𝑉 deg − (𝑣𝑣) and ∑𝑣𝑣∈𝑉𝑉 deg + (𝑣𝑣) count the number of
arcs exactly once.
𝑏𝑏
deg − 𝑎𝑎 =0
𝑐𝑐
deg + 𝑎𝑎 =3
𝑎𝑎
deg − b =2
deg + b =1
deg − 𝑐𝑐 =2
deg + 𝑐𝑐 =1
deg − 𝑑𝑑 =2
deg + 𝑑𝑑 =2
deg − 𝑒𝑒 =2
𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑
deg + 𝑒𝑒 =1
Adjacency matrix
The adjacency matrix of a simple directed graph 𝐷𝐷 = (𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸) with 𝑛𝑛
vertices: 𝑉𝑉 = {𝑣𝑣1 , ⋯ , 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 } is an 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑛𝑛 binary matrix 𝐴𝐴 = (𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 ) , where
𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 = 1 if (𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 , 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 ) ∈ 𝐸𝐸, and 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 = 0, otherwise.
The adjacency matrix 𝐴𝐴 for a directed graph does not have to be symmetric,
because, there may not be an edge from 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 to 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 when there is an edge from
𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 to 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 . And for simple graphs – the diagonal consists of 0s
Example, 𝑉𝑉 = {𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑, 𝑒𝑒}, 𝐸𝐸 = { 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 , 𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐 , 𝑎𝑎, 𝑒𝑒 , 𝑏𝑏, 𝑑𝑑 , 𝑐𝑐, 𝑏𝑏 , 𝑑𝑑, 𝑐𝑐 , 𝑑𝑑, 𝑒𝑒 , (𝑒𝑒, 𝑑𝑑)}
𝑏𝑏
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐
𝑎𝑎 0 1 1 0 1
𝑏𝑏 0 0 0 1 0
𝑐𝑐 0 1 0 0 0
𝑑𝑑 0 0 1 0 1
𝑒𝑒 0 0 0 1 0 𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑
 Incidence matrix
The incidence matrix of a directed graph which has 𝑛𝑛 vertices: 𝑉𝑉 = {𝑣𝑣1 , ⋯ , 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 }
and 𝑚𝑚 edges: 𝐸𝐸 = {𝑒𝑒1 , ⋯ , 𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚 } , - is the matrix 𝐴𝐴 = {𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 } with 𝑚𝑚 rows and 𝑛𝑛
columns, such that,
if 𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 = (𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 ′ , 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗′′ ) is an edge then 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗՛ = −1 and 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗՛՛ = 1, i.e.
the edge 𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖 = 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 ′ , 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 ′′ assigns −𝟏𝟏 to the (𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗 ′ ) -th cell of the matrix, and
assigns 𝟏𝟏 to the (𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗 ′′ ) -th cell of the matrix; to all remaining cells is assigned 𝟎𝟎.
In this way, there are 2 nonzero elements in each row of the matrix.
1 𝑒𝑒4 1 2 3 4
4 𝑒𝑒1 -1 1 0 0
𝑒𝑒3 0 -1 1 0
𝑒𝑒1 𝑒𝑒2
𝑒𝑒5 𝑒𝑒3 -1 0 1 0
2 𝑒𝑒4 -1 0 0 1
3
𝑒𝑒2 0 0 -1 1
𝑒𝑒5
Let 𝐷𝐷 = (𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸) be a directed graph. A sequence of its
vertices 𝑣𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑣2 , ⋯ , 𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘−1 , 𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘 is called a directed path from
the vertex 𝑣𝑣1 to the vertex 𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘 , if
𝑣𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑣2 , 𝑣𝑣2 , 𝑣𝑣3 , ⋯ , (𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘−1 , 𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘 ) are distinct arcs in 𝐸𝐸.
Note that the terminal vertex of an edge in a path is the initial
vertex of the next edge in the path.
Path length is the number of edges in the path.
We say that the path for 𝑣𝑣1 to 𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘 is simple path, if there is
no repeated vertices in the path.

If 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘 , then directed path is called directed cycle.

There are two notions of connectedness in directed graphs,
depending on whether the directions of the edges are considered .
Definition.
A directed graph is strongly connected if for any two vertices 𝑢𝑢
and 𝑣𝑣 there is a directed path from 𝑢𝑢 to 𝑣𝑣 and there is a directed
path from 𝑣𝑣 to 𝑢𝑢.
For a directed graph to be strongly connected there must be a
sequence of directed edges from any vertex in the graph to any
other vertex.
A directed graph can fail to be strongly connected but still be in
“one component.”
Definition.
A directed graph is weakly connected if the corresponding
undirected graph (that is, the directions of the edges are not
taken into account, and multiple edges are removed, which
might appear if for some vertices 𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 both edges (𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣) and
(𝑣𝑣, 𝑢𝑢) existed) is connected.
That is, a directed graph is weakly connected if
and only if there is a path between two
vertices when the directions of the edges are
disregarded. Clearly, any strongly connected
directed graph is also weakly connected.
STRONG COMPONENTS OF A DIRECTED GRAPH
The subgraphs of a directed graph 𝐺𝐺 that are strongly
connected but not contained in larger strongly connected
subgraphs, that is, the maximal strongly connected
subgraphs, are called the strongly connected components
or strong components of 𝐺𝐺.