DM20

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
MATH F213
Relations and Digraphs
Learning Objectives
• To understand an important structure of a relation on a set.
• The representation of a relation on a set with directed graphs.
• To study important classes of relation like equivalence relations

and ordering relations defined by their important properties.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

What is a relation?
We recall definition and certain properties of a relation form

Section 1.3 of the text.
Definition : For sets 𝐴, 𝐵, a (binary) relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a
subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵. (Thus its elements are some ordered pairs
𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵.)
If 𝐵 = 𝐴, then we say 𝑅 is a binary relation on 𝐴.
An 𝑛-ary relation 𝑅 on 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐴𝑛 . If 𝑛 = 1, then 𝑅 is called
a unary relation on 𝐴.
Ex. Let 𝐴 = the set of all real numbers. Then
𝑅 = { 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑥, 𝑦 are real numbers with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 1}
is a binary relation on 𝐴.

Definition : For a relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵, the domain of 𝑅 is the set
dom 𝑅 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 for some 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵}.
The range of 𝑅 is the set
ran 𝑅 = {𝑦 ∈ 𝐵: ∶ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 for some 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴}.
Definition : Let 𝑅 be a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵. For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, how to
define 𝑅 𝑎
𝑅 𝑎 = 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵: 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 .
• The relation 𝑅−1 from 𝐵 to 𝐴 is defined by
𝑅−1 = { 𝑏, 𝑎 : (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}.
Note : As a consequence, for any b ∈ 𝐵,
𝑅−1 𝑏 = 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 .

Another notation : If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, we write 𝑎𝑅𝑏.
Ex : For the relation on the set A of real numbers,

𝑅 = { 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑥, 𝑦 are real numbers with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 1}
1
Find dom 𝑅 , Ran 𝑅 , 𝑅−1 , 𝑅 ,𝑅 0 ,𝑅 1 .
2
dom 𝑅 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 for some 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵}.
dom 𝑅 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ −1 < 𝑥 < 1 = Ran 𝑅.
𝑅−1 = R.
1 3 3
𝑅 = 𝑥∈𝐴∶− <𝑥< .
2 2 2
𝑅 0 = −1,1
𝑅 1 = ∅.
Functions
Definition : A relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is called a function (or a
map) from A to B if
(i) dom 𝑅 = 𝐴 (for each a ∈A, (a,b) ∈ R for some b ∈R), and (ii) If
𝑥, 𝑦 , (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑅 then 𝑦 = 𝑧 (𝑅 is single valued).
Equivalently a relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a function from A to B iff
for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 there exists a unique 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 such that 𝑥𝑅𝑦.
This happens if and only if 𝑅 𝑎 = 1 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 (𝑅 𝑎 =
𝑏 ∈ 𝐵: 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 )
The function 𝑅 is called one-to-one (or injective) if 𝑥, 𝑧 , 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈
𝑅 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑦. Thus 𝑅 is one-to-one if and only if for all
𝑏 ∈ Ran 𝑅, |𝑅−1 𝑏 | = 1.
𝑅 is called onto if ran 𝑅 = 𝐵.
𝑅 is called a one-to-one correspondence from A to B if 𝑅 is one-
to-one as well as onto. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Note : If 𝑅 is a one-to-one correspondence from 𝐴 to 𝐵 then 𝑅−1 is
a one-to-one correspondence form 𝐵 to 𝐴, in particular, 𝑅−1 is a
function from 𝐵 to 𝐴.
Definition : If 𝑅 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 and 𝑆 is a relation from 𝐵
to 𝐶, then the composition of R and S is defined by a relation
𝑅 ∙ 𝑆 (𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑆) from 𝐴 to 𝐶 such that
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑆 if and only if there exists 𝑧 ∈ 𝐵 such
that 𝑥, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑧, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆.
Ex. : Let 𝐴 = 1,2,3 , 𝐵 = 4,5 , 𝐶 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 , 𝑅 =
1,4 , 1,5 , 2,5 , 𝑆 = 4, 𝑎 , 5, 𝑐 . Then find RS.
𝑅𝑆 = 1, 𝑎 , 1, 𝑐 , 2, 𝑐 .

Notes :
• If 𝑅 is a one-to-one correspondence from 𝐴 to 𝐵 then
𝑅𝑅−1 = 𝑎, 𝑎 : 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 , 𝑅−1 𝑅 = 𝑏, 𝑏 : 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 , the diagonals
of 𝐴 and 𝐵 respectively.
• If 𝐴 = 1,2 , 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏} then 𝑅 = 𝐴 × 𝐵 is a relation from 𝐴
to 𝐵 but 𝑅𝑅−1 = 𝐴 × 𝐴.

Relations and digraphs
We define a new concept called a directed graph (or digraph) and

show its connection with a binary relation on a finite set V.
We will show that these two concepts are different ways of
viewing the same object, each having its own advantages.

Digraphs
A pair of sets 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) is called a directed graph ( or digraph) if
𝐸 ⊆ 𝑉 × 𝑉. 𝑉 is a finite set whose elements are called the
vertices of 𝐺 and elements of 𝐸 are called the edges of 𝐺.
A digraph can be drawn geometrically as :
Any vertex is represented by a point. An edge from 𝑥 to 𝑦 is
represented by an arrow from the point representing (a,a)𝑥 to the
point representing 𝑦.
a
Ex : Let 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) be a digraph with (c,a) (a,m) (m,m)
(c,m)
c m
V = {a,c,m,w} (c,w)
(m,w)
E= { (a,a),(m,m) (w,w), (c,a), w
(c,w),(c,m), (a,m), (m,w) }
(w,w)
Digraphs
Definition : A pair of sets 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) is called a directed graph ( or
digraph) if 𝐸 ⊆ 𝑉 × 𝑉. 𝑉 is a finite set whose elements are called
the vertices of 𝐺 and elements of 𝐸 are called the edges of 𝐺.
Thus if 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) is a digraph then 𝐸 is a relation on 𝑉. On the
other hand if R is a relation on A then 𝐺 = (𝐴, 𝑅) is a digraph.
An edge e = (𝑥, 𝑦) of G is said to be incident from 𝑥 and incident
to 𝑦. We also say 𝑒 is incident on both 𝑥 and 𝑦.
If (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐸 then we say 𝑥 is adjacent to 𝑦.
An edge of 𝐺 from a vertex to itself is called a loop (or a self-loop)
of 𝐺.
A digraph G is called simple if it has no loops.

Relations from 𝐴 to 𝐵
A binary relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵 and it

corresponds to the digraph 𝐺 = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 , 𝑅 .

P 335 #1 (b)
Draw the digraph for the relation ⊂ on all the nonempty subsets of
{0, 1, 2}.
Solution : 𝑉 = {𝑣1 , … , 𝑣7 } where
𝑣1 = 0 , 𝑣2 = 1 , 𝑣3 = 2 , 𝑣4 = 0,1 , 𝑣5 = 0,2 ,
𝑣6 = 1,2 , 𝑣7 = 0, 1, 2 .
The digraph is drawn below.

in-degree and out-degree
Find in-degree and out-degree of vertices c and m.
in-deg(m) = 3, out-deg(m) = 2, in-deg(c) = 0, out-deg(c) = 3.
c m

in-degree and out-degree
For a digraph 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸), in-degree of a vertex 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 is the

number of vertices 𝑤 ∈ 𝑉 incident to 𝑣.
in-deg(𝑣) = 𝑤 ∈ 𝑉 ∶ 𝑤, 𝑣 ∈ 𝐸 .
The out-degree of a vertex 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 is the number of edges incident
from 𝑣.
out-deg(𝑣) = 𝑤 ∈ 𝑉 ∶ 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝐸 .
If 𝑅 = 𝐸 is thought as a relation on 𝑉, then

in-deg(𝑣)) = |𝑅−1 𝑣 |, out-deg(𝑣) = |R 𝑣 |.

Directed multigraph, graph
If more than one edge is allowed to be incident from a vertex 𝑣 to
a vertex 𝑤, we get a directed multigraph.
Directed graph is a special case of a directed multigraph.
If more than one edge occurs from a vertex 𝑣 to a vertex 𝑤, we
say it is a multiple edge.
If we disregard the direction of edges in a digraph(directed
multigraph), we get a non-directed graph(a non-directed
multigraph).
Remark. A term graph can be applied to any of directed or

nondirected graph or multigraph. Results or concepts that hold
for all these cases will be stated for graphs.

Subgraphs
Definition : A graph 𝐺 1 = 𝑉 1 , 𝐸1 is called a subgraph of a

graph 𝐺 = 𝑉, 𝐸 if 𝑉 1 ⊆ 𝑉 and 𝐸1 ⊆ 𝐸 ∩ 𝑉 1 × 𝑉 1 .
Moreover 𝐺 1 is a proper subgraph of 𝐺 if 𝐺 1 ≠ 𝐺.
Ex. : The digraph on left is a subgraph of the one on right.
(a,a)
a (a,a)
(a,m) (m,m) a
(c,a) (a,m) (m,m)
m (c,m)
c m
(m,w) (c,w)
(m,w)
w
w
(w,w)
(w,w)

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BITS Pilani

• To understand an important structure of a relation on a set.

• The representation of a relation on a set with directed graphs.

• To study important classes of relation like equivalence relations

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

We recall definition and certain properties of a relation form

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Ex : For the relation on the set A of real numbers,

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

We define a new concept called a directed graph (or digraph) and

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

A binary relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵 and it

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Find in-degree and out-degree of vertices c and m.

in-deg(m) = 3, out-deg(m) = 2, in-deg(c) = 0, out-deg(c) = 3.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

For a digraph 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸), in-degree of a vertex 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 is the

If 𝑅 = 𝐸 is thought as a relation on 𝑉, then

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Remark. A term graph can be applied to any of directed or

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Definition : A graph 𝐺 1 = 𝑉 1 , 𝐸1 is called a subgraph of a

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