DC Machines

EEE 2187 – Electrical Machines

B.Sc. in ME, AUST
Spring 2023
 Generator
Principle
Topic: 2.1
An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy. An electric generator is based on the principle of Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction.
Whenever flux is cut by a conductor, an e.m.f. is induced which will cause a
current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. The direction of induced e.m.f. (and
hence current) is given by Fleming’s right hand rule. Therefore, the essential
components of a generator are:
(a) a magnetic field
(b) conductor or a group of conductors
(c) motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.

2
 Simple Loop
Generator
Topic: 2.2
Consider a single turn loop ABCD rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a
constant speed. As the loop rotates, the flux linking the coil sides AB and CD changes
continuously. Hence the e.m.f. induced in these coil sides also changes but the e.m.f.
induced in one coil side adds to that induced in the other.

3
Simple Loop
Generator
Note that e.m.f. generated in the loop is alternating one. It is because any coil side, say
AB has e.m.f. in one direction when under the influence of N-pole and in the other
direction when under the influence of S-pole. If a load is connected across the ends of
the loop, then alternating current will flow through the load. The alternating voltage
generated in the loop can be converted into direct voltage by a device called
commutator.

4
 Action of
Commutator
Topic: 2.3

If, somehow, connection of the coil side to the external load is reversed at the same instant the
current in the coil side reverses, the current through the load will be direct current. This is what a
commutator does.

Commutator has two segments C1 and C2. It consists of

a cylindrical metal ring cut into two halves or segments
C1 and C2 respectively separated by a thin sheet of
mica. The commutator is mounted on but insulated
from the rotor shaft.

5
 Action of
Commutator
The ends of coil sides AB and CD are connected to the segments C1 and C2 respectively. Two
stationary carbon brushes rest on the commutator and lead current to the external load. With this
arrangement, the commutator at all times connects the coil side under S-pole to the +ve brush and
that under N-pole to the -ve brush.

The coil sides AB and CD are under N-pole

and S-pole respectively. Note that segment C1
connects the coil side AB to point P of the load
resistance R and the segment C2 connects the
coil side CD to point Q of the load. Also note
the direction of current through load. It is from
Q to P.

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 Action of
CommutatorAfter half a revolution of the loop (i.e., 180° rotation), the
coil side AB is under S-pole and the coil side CD under N-
pole. The currents in the coil sides now flow in the reverse
direction but the segments C1 and C2 have also moved
through 180° i.e., segment C1 is now in contact with +ve
brush and segment C2 in contact with -ve brush. Note that
commutator has reversed the coil connections to the load i.e.,
coil side AB is now connected to point Q of the load and coil
side CD to the point P of the load. Also note the direction of
current through the load. It is again from Q to P.

Thus the alternating voltage generated in the loop

will appear as direct voltage across the brushes.

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7
 Construction of DC
Generator
Topic:
2.4

All d.c. machines have five

principal components viz.,
(i) field system
(ii) armature core
(iii) armature winding
(iv) Commutator
(v) brushes

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 Construction of DC
Generator
(i) Field system
The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which the armature rotates. It
consists of a number of salient poles bolted to the inside of circular frame (generally called yoke). The yoke
is usually made of solid cast steel whereas the pole pieces are composed of stacked laminations. Field coils
are mounted on the poles and carry the d.c. exciting current. The field coils are connected in such a way that
adjacent poles have opposite polarity.

The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a

magnetic flux that passes through the pole pieces, the
air gap, the armature and the frame. Practical d.c.
machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5
mm.

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 Construction of DC
Generator
(ii) Armature core
The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles. It consists of slotted soft-
iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked to form a cylindrical core. The laminations are
individually coated with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in electrical contact with each other.
The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The laminations are slotted to
accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding and to give shorter air gap for the
flux to cross between the pole face and the armature “teeth”.

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 Construction of DC
Generator
iii) Armature winding
The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a suitable manner. This is
known as armature winding. This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is induced. The armature
conductors are connected in series-parallel; the conductors being connected in series so as to increase the
voltage and in parallel paths so as to increase the current.
iv) Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated in the armature
winding into direct voltage across the brushes. The commutator is made of copper segments insulated from
each other by mica sheets and mounted on the shaft of the machine. Depending upon the manner in which the
armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there are two types of armature winding in a
d.c. machine viz., (a) lap winding (b) wave winding.

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 Construction of DC
Generator
(v) Brushes
The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating commutator and stationary
external load circuit. The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the commutator. The brush pressure is
adjusted by means of adjustable springs. If the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of
the commutator and the brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the
commutator may produce sparking. Multipole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For
example, a 4- pole machine has 4 brushes.

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 Commutator Pitch, Pole
Pitch
Commutator Pitch Yc-(Topic: 2.6)
The commutator pitchis the number
of
commutator segments spanned by each coil of
the winding. It is denoted by YC.
Commutator pitch is the most important
factor in determining the type of d.c. armature
winding.

Pole Pitch-(Topic: 2.7)

It is the distance measured in terms of number of armature slots (or armature conductors) per
pole. Thus if a 4-pole generator has 16 coils, then number of slots = 16.

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 Coil span or Coil
Pitch Ys

Topic: 2.8
It is the distance measured in terms of the number of armature slots (or armature
conductors) spanned by a coil. Thus if the coil span is 9 slots, it means one side of the
coil is in slot 1 and the other side in slot 10.

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 Types of DC Armature
Winding
Topic: 2.10
Two basic methods of making these end connections
are:
1. Simplex lap winding
2. Simplex wave winding
❑ It is suitable for low voltage and high
current generators.
❑ The commutator pitch Yc=1
❑ It gives less emf compared to wave winding.
This winding requires more no. of
conductors for giving the same emf, it
results high winding cost.
❑ Lap winding is the winding in which
number of parallel paths equal to number of
poles.
❑ If there are Z conductors and P number of
poles then, Z/P conductors are placed in 15
series along P number of parallel paths.
 Types of DC Armature
Winding

❑ In this winding the end of one coil is connected to the starting of another coil of
the same polarity as that of the first coil.
❑ The commutator pitch Yc ≈2*Pole pitches
❑ It is winding in which number of parallel paths equal to 2 .
❑ If there are Z conductors then Z/2 conductors are placed in series.
❑ For high voltage motor , this winding is preferred.

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 E.M.F. Equation of a DC
Generator
Topic:
2.20

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 Armature
Resistance,
Topic: 2.21
Ra
The resistance offered by the armature circuit is known as armature resistance
(Ra) and includes:
(i) resistance of armature winding
(ii) resistance of brushes
The armature resistance depends upon the construction of machine. Except
for
small machines, its value is generally less than 1W.

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 Types of DC
Generator
Topic: 2.22

The magnetic field in a d.c. generator is normally produced by electromagnets rather

than permanent magnets. Generators are generally classified according to their
methods of field excitation. On this basis, d.c. generators are divided into the
following two classes:

(i) Separately excited d.c. generators

(ii) Self-excited d.c. generators

The behaviour of a d.c. generator on load depends upon the method of field excitation
adopted.

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 Separately Excited DC
generators
Topic: 2.23
A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an independent external d.c.
source (e.g., a battery etc.) is called a separately excited generator. The voltage output
depends upon the speed of rotation of armature and the field current (Eg = Pφ ZN/60 A).
The greater the speed and field current, greater is the generated e.m.f. It may be noted that
separately excited d.c. generators are rarely used in practice. The d.c. generators are
normally of self-excited type.

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 Self Excited DC
Generator
Topic: 2.24
A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied current from the
output of the generator itself is called a self-excited generator. There are three
types of self-excited generators depending upon the manner in which the field
winding is connected to the armature, namely;

(i) Series generator;

(ii) Shunt generator;
(iii) Compound generator

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 Self Excited DC
Generator
(i) Series generator
In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series with armature
winding so that whole armature current flows through the field winding as well as the
load. Since the field winding carries the whole of load current, it has a few turns of thick
wire having low resistance. Series generators are rarely used except for special purposes
e.g., as boosters.

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 Self Excited DC
Generator
(ii) Shunt generator
In a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding
so that terminal voltage of the generator is applied across it. The shunt field winding has
many turns of fine wire having high resistance. Therefore, only a part of armature current
flows through shunt field winding and the rest flows through the load.

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 Self Excited DC
Generator
(iii) Compound generator
A compound wound generator may be:
(a) Short Shunt in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with the armature winding
(b)Long Shunt in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both series field and armature
winding

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 Brush Contact
Drop
Topic: 2.25

It is the voltage drop over the brush contact resistance when current flows. Obviously,
its value will depend upon the amount of current flowing and the value of contact
resistance. This drop is generally small.

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Mat
h

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Mat
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Mat
h

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Mat
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Mat
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 Losses in a DC
Machine
Topic:
2.27

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 Constant and Variable
Losses
Topic: 2.28

The losses in a d.c. generator (or d.c. motor) may be sub-divided into (i) constant losses
(ii) variable losses.
(i) Constant losses
Those losses in a d.c. generator which remain constant at all loads are known as constant
losses. The constant losses in a d.c. generator are:
(a) iron losses
(b) mechanical losses
(c) shunt field losses
(ii) Variable losses
Those losses in a d.c. generator which vary with load are called variable losses. The
variable
losses in a d.c. generator are:
(b) Copper loss in armature winding ( )
(c) Copper loss in series field winding ()

Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses

32
 Condition For Maximum
Efficiency
Topic: 2.30
The efficiency of a d.c. generator is not constant but varies with load. Consider a shunt
generator
delivering a load current IL at a terminal voltage V.

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33
 Condition For Maximum
Efficiency
The efficiency will be maximum when the denominator of Eq.(i) is minimum
i.e.,

Hence, the efficiency of a d.c. generator will be maximum when the load current
is
such that variable loss is equal to the constant loss. 34
 DC Generator
Characteristics
Topic: 4.1
1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)
This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (Eo) and the field
current (If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation
curve.
2. Internal or Total characteristic (E/Ia)
This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. on load (E) and the armature
current (Ia). The e.m.f. E is less than Eo due to the demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction. Therefore, this curve will lie below the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.). A
voltmeter cannot read the e.m.f. generated on load due to the voltage drop in armature
resistance. The internal characteristic can be obtained from external characteristic if winding
resistances are known because armature reaction effect is included in both characteristics.
3. External characteristic (V/IL)
This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current(I L). The
terminal voltage V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature circuit.
Therefore, this curve will lie below the internal characteristic. It can be obtained by making
simultaneous measurements of terminal voltage and load current (with voltmeter and
ammeter) of a loaded generator. 35
 Open Circuit Characteristic of a
DC Generator
Topic: 4.2
The field winding of the d.c. generator (series or shunt) is
disconnected from the machine and is separately excited
from an external d.c. source. The field current (If) is
increased from zero in steps and the corresponding values of
generated e.m.f. (Eo) read off on a voltmeter connected
across the armature terminals. The following points may be
noted from O.C.C.:
(i) When field current is zero, there is some generated e.m.f.
OA. This is due to the residual magnetism in the field poles.
(ii)Over a fairly wide range of field current (upto point B),
the curve is linear. It is because in this range, reluctance of
iron is negligible as compared with that of air gap.
i)After point B on the curve, the reluctance of iron also
comes into picture. It is because at higher flux densities, µr
for iron decreases and reluctance of iron is no longer
neligible. Consequently, the curve deviates from linear
relationship.
v)After point C on the curve, the magnetic saturation of poles
begins and Eo tends to level off. 18-Jan-2
0
36
 Characteristics of a Separately
Excited DC Generator
(i) (4.3)
Open circuit characteristic.
The O.C.C. of a separately excited generator is determined
in
a manner described as before.

(ii) Internal and External Characteristics

The external characteristic of a separately
excited
generator is the curve between the terminal voltage (V)
and the load current IL. As the load current increases,
the terminal voltage falls due to two reasons:
(a) The armature reaction weakens the main flux so that
actual e.m.f. generated E on load is less than
that
generated (Eo) on no load.
(b) There is voltage drop across armature resistance (=
ILRa = IaRa). 37
 Characteristics of a Separately
Excited DC Generator
(4.3)
Note that in the absence of armature reaction
and armature drop, the generated e.m.f. would
have been Eo (curve 1). The internal
characteristic can be determined from external
characteristic by adding ILRa drop to the
external characteristic. It is because armature
reaction drop is included in external
characteristic. the
Curve 2 the internal
characteristic is of the and
obviously lie above generator should
the external characteristic.

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 Voltage Build-up in a
Self-Excited Generator
(i) Shunt generator (4.4)
Consider a shunt generator. If the generator is run at a constant speed, some e.m.f. will be
generated due to residual magnetism in the main poles. This small e.m.f. circulates a field
current which in turn produces additional flux to reinforce the original residual flux. This
process continues and the generator builds up the normal generated voltage following the
O.C.C. shown in Fig. (i).
The field resistance Rf can be represented by a straight line passing through the origin as
shown in Fig. (ii).

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 Voltage Build-up in a
Self-Excited Generator
(4.4)
Since the field circuit is inductive, there is a delay in the increase in current upon closing the
field circuit switch. The rate at which the current increases depends upon the voltage
available for increasing it. Suppose at any instant, the field current is i (= OA) and is
increasing at the rate di/dt. Then,

At the considered instant, the total e.m.f. available is AC. An

amount AB is absorbed by the voltage drop iRf and the remainder
part BC is available to overcome L di/dt. Since this surplus voltage
is available, it is possible for the field current to increase above the
value OA.
However, at point D, the available voltage is OM and is all absorbed
by iRf drop. Consequently, the field current cannot increase further
and the generator build up stops. Hence the generator will build up a
voltage OM.
40
 Voltage Build-up in a
Self-Excited Generator
(ii) Series generator (4.4)
During initial operation, with no current yet flowing, a residual voltage will be generated exactly
as in the case of a shunt generator. The residual voltage will cause a current to flow through the
whole series circuit when the circuit is closed. There will then be voltage build up to an
equilibrium point exactly analogous to the build up of a shunt generator. The voltage build up
graph will be similar to that of shunt generator except that now load current (instead of field
current for shunt generator) will be taken along x-axis.
iii) Compound generator
When a compound generator has its series field flux aiding its shunt field flux, the machine is
said to be cumulative compound. When the series field is connected in reverse so that its field
flux opposes the shunt field flux, the generator is then differential compound.

The easiest way to build up voltage in a compound generator is to start under no load conditions.
At no load, only the shunt field is effective. When no-load voltage build up is achieved, the
generator is loaded. If under load, the voltage rises, the series field connection is cumulative. If
the voltage drops significantly, the connection is differential compound.

41
 Critical Field Resistance for a
Shunt Generator (4.5)
Voltage build up in a shunt generator depends upon field
circuit resistance. If the field circuit resistance is R1 (line OA),
then generator will build up a voltage OM. If the field circuit
resistance is increased to R2 (tine OB), the generator will build up
a voltage OL, slightly less than OM. As the field circuit resistance
is increased, the slope of resistance line also increases. When the
field resistance line becomes tangent (line OC) to O.C.C., the
generator would just excite. If the field circuit resistance is
increased beyond this point (say line OD), the generator will fail
to excite. The field circuit resistance represented by line OC
(tangent to O.C.C.) is called critical field resistance R C for the
shunt generator. It may be defined as under:

The maximum field circuit resistance (for a given speed)

with which the shunt generator would just excite is known as its
critical field resistance.

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 Need For Parallel Operation of
D.C. Generators (4.15)
(i) Continuity of service
If power is supplied from a number of small units operating in parallel, then in case of failure of
one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by other healthy units.
(ii) Efficiency
Generators run most efficiently when loaded to their rated capacity. Therefore, when load demand
on power plant decreases, one or more generators can be shut down and the remaining units can
be efficiently loaded.
iii) Maintenance and repair
Generators generally require routine-maintenance and repair. Therefore, if generators are
operated in parallel, the routine or emergency operations can be performed by isolating the
affected generator
iv) Increasing plant capacity
When added capacity is required, the new unit can be simply paralleled with the old units.
(v) Non-availability of single large unit
In many situations, a single unit of desired large capacity may not be available. In that case a
number of smaller units can be operated in parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally a
single large unit is more expensive.
43
 DC Motor
Principle
Topic: 5.1

A machine that converts electrical d.c. power into mechanical power is known as
a d.c. motor. Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.
The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule and magnitude is
given by;

Basically, there is no constructional difference between a d.c. motor and a

d.c.
generator. The same d.c. machine can be run as a generator or motor.

44
45
 Working of DC
Motor
Topic: 5.2

When armature winding are connected to a DC supply, current sets up in the winding. Magnet
field may be provided by field winding (electromagnetism) or by using permanent magnets.

The current carrying armature conductors experience force due to the magnetic field. According
to Fleming’s left hand rule, force on each conductor tends to rotate the armature in
anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to produce a driving torque which sets the
armature rotating.

Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise the direction of force
would have reversed every time when the direction of movement of conductor is reversed in the
magnetic field.

46
 Back or Counter
E.M.F.
Topic: 5.3
When the armature of a d.c. motor is rotating, the armature conductors are also cutting the
magnetic flux lines and hence e.m.f. is induced in the armature conductor as in a generator. The
induced e.m.f. acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage V(Lenz’s law) and in known as
back or counter e.m.f. Eb.
The back e.m.f. Eb(= P φ ZN/60 A) is always less than the applied voltage V, although this
difference is small when the motor is running under normal conditions.

Consider a shunt wound motor. As the armature rotates, back

e.m.f. Eb is induced which opposes the applied voltage V. The
electric work done in overcoming and causing the current to
flow against Eb is converted into mechanical energy developed
in the armature.

Since V and Ra are usually fixed, the value of Eb will determine the current drawn by the
motor. 47
 Significance of Back
E.M.F.
Topic: 5.4
The presence of back e.m.f. makes the d.c. motor a self-regulating machine i.e., it makes the
motor to draw as much armature current as is just sufficient to develop the torque required by the
load.
(i) When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to overcome the friction and
windage losses. Therefore, the armature current Ia is small and the back e.m.f. is nearly equal
to the applied voltage.
(ii) If the motor is suddenly loaded, the first effect is to cause the armature to slow down. As
speed is reduced, back e.m.f. Eb falls. The decreased back e.m.f. means larger armature
current and larger current means increased driving torque. Thus, the driving torque
increases as the motor slows down. The motor will stop slowing down when the armature
current is just sufficient to produce the increased torque required by the load.
iii) If the load on the motor is decreased, the armature speed increases, the back e.m.f. Eb also
increases and causes the armature current Ia to decrease. The motor will stop accelerating
when the armature current is just sufficient to produce the reduced torque required by the
load.
48
Back e.m.f. in a d.c. motor regulates the flow of armature current i.e., it automatically changes
Math

49
 Speed Control of D.C.
Motors
Topic: 6.1
The speed of a d.c. motor is given
by:

From exp. (i), it is clear that there are three main methods of controlling the
speed of a d.c. motor, namely:
(i) By varying the flux per pole (φ). This is known as flux control method.
(ii)By varying the resistance in the armature circuit. This is known as
armature control method.
(iii) By varying the applied voltage V. This is known as voltage control
method.
50
 Speed Control of D.C. Shunt
Motors
Topic: 6.2
1. Flux control method
It is based on the fact that by varying the flux φ, the motor speed (N ∝ 1/φ) can be
changed. In this method, a variable resistance (known as shunt field rheostat) is placed
in series with shunt field winding.

The shunt field rheostat reduces the shunt field current Ish and hence the flux φ.
Therefore,
we can only raise the speed of the motor above the normal speed.
51
 Speed Control of D.C. Shunt
Motors
Advantages
(i) This is an easy and convenient method.
(ii) It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the shunt field
rheostat
due to relatively small value of Ish.
(iii) The speed control exercised by this method is independent of load on the machine.

Disadvantages
(i) Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained since the total field circuit
resistance cannot be reduced below Rsh—the shunt field winding resistance.
(ii) There is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method. It is because if the
flux is too much weakened, commutation becomes poorer.

52
 Speed Control of D.C. Shunt
Motors
2. Armature control method
By varying the voltage available across the armature, the back e.m.f and hence the speed of the
motor can be changed. This is done by inserting a variable resistance Rc (known as controller
resistance) in series with the armature.

Due to voltage drop in the controller resistance, the back e.m.f. (Eb) is decreased. Since N ∝ Eb,
the speed of the motor is reduced. The highest speed obtainable is that corresponding to RC = 0
i.e., normal speed. Hence, this method can only provide speeds below the normal speed.
53
 Speed Control of D.C. Shunt
Motors
Disadvantages
(i) A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance since it carries full
armature current Ia.
(ii) The speed varies widely with load since the speed depends upon the voltage drop in the
controller resistance and hence on the armature current demanded by the load.
(iii) The output and efficiency of the motor are reduced.
(iv) This method results in poor speed regulation.

Due to above disadvantages, this method is seldom used to control the speed of shunt
motors.

54
 Speed Control of D.C. Shunt
Motors
3. Voltage control method

In this method, the voltage source supplying the field current is different from that
which supplies the armature. This method avoids the disadvantages of poor speed
regulation and low efficiency as in armature control method.
However, it is quite expensive. Therefore, this method of speed control is
employed for large size motors where efficiency is of great importance.

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Math

56
 Electric Braking
Sometimes it is desirable to stop a d.c. motor quickly. This may be necessary in case of
emergency or to save time if the motor is being used for frequently repeated operations. The
motor and its load may be brought to rest by using either (i) mechanical (friction) braking or
(ii) electric braking.
In mechanical braking, the motor is stopped due to the friction between the moving parts of
the motor and the brake shoe i.e. kinetic energy of the motor is dissipated as heat. Mechanical
braking has several disadvantages including non-smooth stop and greater stopping time.
In electric braking, the kinetic energy of the moving parts (i.e., motor) is converted into
electrical energy which is dissipated in a resistance as heat or alternativley, it is returned to the
supply source (Regenerative braking). For d.c. shunt as well as series motors, the following three
methods of electric braking are used:
(i) Rheostatic or Dynamic braking
(ii) Plugging
iii) Regenerative braking
It may be noted that electric braking cannot hold the motor stationary and mechanical
braking is necessary. However, the main advantage of using electric braking is that it reduces the
wear and tear of mechanical brakes and cuts down the stopping time considerably due to high
braking retardation.
57
 Rheostatic or Dynamic
braking
In this method, the armature of the running motor is disconnected from the supply and is
connected across a variable resistance R. However, the field winding is left connected to the
supply. The armature, while slowing down, rotates in a strong magnetic field and, therefore,
operates as a generator, sending a large current through resistance R. This causes the energy
possessed by the rotating armature to be dissipated quickly as heat in the resistance. As a result,
the motor is brought to standstill quickly. The braking torque can be controlled by varying the
resistance R.

where k2 and k3 are constants For a shunt motor, φ

is
constant.
∴ Braking torque, TB ∝ N
Therefore, braking torque decreases as the motor
speed decreases. 58
 Pluggin
g
In this method, connections to the armature are reversed so that
motor tends to rotate in the opposite direction, thus providing the
necessary braking effect. Note that armature connections are
reversed while the connections of the field winding are kept the
same. When the motor comes to rest, the supply must be cut off
otherwise the motor will start rotating in the opposite direction.

For a shunt motor, φ is constant.

∴ Braking torque, TB = k5 + k6N
Thus braking torque decreases as the motor
slows
down.
Note that there is some braking torque (TB = k5)
even when the motor speed is zero.
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 Regenerative
braking
In the regenerative braking, the motor is run as a generator. As a result, the kinetic energy of the
motor is converted into electrical energy and returned to the supply.

In one method, field winding is disconnected from the

supply and field current is increased by exciting it from
another source As a result, induced e.m.f. E exceeds the
supply voltage V and the machine feeds energy into the
supply. Thus braking torque is provided upto the speed
at which induced e.m.f. and supply voltage are equal.
As the machine slows down, it is not possible to
maintain induced e.m.f. at a higher value than the
supply voltage. Therefore, this method is possible only
for a limited range of speed.

60
 Regenerative
braking
In a second method, the field excitation does
not change but the load causes the motor to run
above the normal speed (e.g., descending load
on a crane). As a result, the induced e.m.f. E
becomes greater than the supply voltage V. The
direction of armature current I, therefore,
reverses but the direction of shunt field current
If remains unaltered. Hence the torque is
reversed and the speed falls until E becomes
less than V.

61
 Efficiency of a D.C.
Machine
Topic: The power that a d.c. machine receives is called the input and the power it
7.1 gives
out is called the output. Therefore, the efficiency of a d.c. machine,

The most obvious method of determining the efficiency of a d.c. machine is to directly load
it and measure the input power and output power. Then we can use Eq.(i) to determine the
efficiency of the machine. This method suffers from some drawbacks.
The most common method of measuring the efficiency of a d.c. machine is to determine its
losses (instead of measuring the input and output on load). We can then use Eq.(ii) or Eq.(iii) to
determine the efficiency of the machine.
62
Math

63
Math

64