DC MACHINES

DC GENERATOR
Introduction

o An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical

energy into electrical energy

o Although a far greater percentage of the electrical machines in

service are a.c. machines, the d.c. machines are of considerable
industrial importance
Introduction
o The main advantage of the d.c. machine, particularly the d.c.
motor, is that it provides a fine control of speed. Such an
advantage is not claimed by any a.c. motor

o However, d.c. generators are not as common as they used to

be, because direct current, is mainly obtained from an a.c.
supply by the use of rectifiers

o Understanding of d.c. generator is important because it

represents a logical introduction to the behaviour of d.c.
Motors
Principle of voltage generation
o An electric generator works on the principle that whenever
flux is cut by a conductor, an e.m.f. is induced which will
cause a current flow to a closed circuit

o The direction of induced e.m.f. (and hence current) is given

by Fleming’s right-hand rule

o Therefore, the essential components of a generator are:

a. a magnetic field
b. conductor or a group of conductors
c. motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.
Cont. ..

o As a single turn loop ABCD rotates clockwise in a uniform

magnetic field with a constant speed, e.m.f. is induced in these coil
sides due to flux linking the coil sides AB and CD

o The e.m.f. induced in one coil side adds to that induced in the other
Construction of DC Generator
o Any d.c. generator can be run as a d.c. motor and vice-versa
o All d.c. machines have five principal components viz.,
i. field system
ii. armature core
iii. armature winding
iv. commutator
v. brushes
Field system
o The function of the field system is to produce uniform
magnetic field within which the armature rotates

o It consists of a number of salient poles bolted to the inside of

circular frame (yoke)

o Field coils are mounted on the poles and carry the d.c.
exciting current

o The field coils are connected in such a way that adjacent poles
have opposite polarity.
Armature core
Cont. ..
o The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates
between the field poles

o It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations that are stacked to

form a cylindrical core as shown below

o The laminations are individually coated with a thin insulating

film so that they do not come in electrical contact with each other

o The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current

loss.
Cont. ..
Armature winding
o The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are
connected in a suitable manner, and are known as armature
winding. This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is
induced

o The armature conductors are connected in series-parallel; the

conductors being connected in series so as to increase the voltage
and in parallel paths so as to increase the current.
Commutator
o A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the
alternating voltage generated in the armature winding into direct
voltage across the brushes

o The commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each

other by mica sheets and mounted on the shaft of the machine

o Depending upon the manner in which the armature conductors

are connected to the commutator segments, there are two types of
armature winding in a d.c. machine viz., (a) lap winding (b) wave
winding
Brushes
o The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections
between the rotating commutator and stationary external load
circuit

o The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the commutator. The
brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable springs

o Multipole machines have as many brushes as they have poles.

Commutator action
o If connection of the coil side to the external load is reversed at
the same instant the current in the coil side reverses, the current
through the load will be direct current. This is what a
commutator does

o A commutator have two half segments C1 and C2 separated by a

thin sheet of mica

o The commutator is mounted on but insulated from the rotor shaft,

with ends of coil sides AB and CD connected to the segments
C1 and C2 respectively
Cont. ..
o Two stationary carbon brushes rest on the commutator and
connects current to the external load

o With this arrangement, the commutator at all times connects the

coil side under S-pole to the +ve brush and that under N-pole to
the -ve brush
Cont. ..
o The variation of voltage across the brushes with the angular
displacement of the loop is not a steady direct voltage but has a
pulsating character

o It is because the voltage appearing across the brushes varies from

zero to maximum value and back to zero twice for each
revolution of the loop.

o A steady direct voltage, is achieved by using a large number of

coils connected in series. The resulting arrangement is known as
armature winding
Cont. ..
Cont. ..
o The variation of voltage across the brushes with the angular
displacement of the loop is not a steady direct voltage but has a
pulsating character

o It is because the voltage appearing across the brushes varies from

zero to maximum value and back to zero twice for each
revolution of the loop.

o A steady direct voltage, is achieved by using a large number of

coils connected in series. The resulting arrangement is known as
armature winding
General Features of D.C. Armature Windings
o The armature conductors are connected to form coils. The basic
component of all types of armature windings is the armature coil

o A single-turn coil has two conductors or coil sides connected at

the back of the armature. Fig. below shows a 4-turn coil which
has 8 conductors or coil sides.
Cont. ..
o Most of d.c. armature windings are double layer windings i.e.,
there are two coil sides per slot as shown below

o One coil side of a coil lies at the top of a slot and the other coil
side lies at the bottom of some other slot

o The coil ends will then lie side by side. In two-layer winding, it
is desirable to number the coil sides rather than the slots.
Commutator Pitch (YC)
o The commutator pitch (YC ) is the number of commutator
segments spanned by each coil of the winding

o If one side of the coil is connected to commutator segment 1 and

the other side to commutator segment 8. Hence, the number of
commutator segments spanned by the coil = 8 - 1 = 7 segments
i.e., YC = 7.
Pole-Pitch
o It is the distance measured in terms of number of armature slots
(or armature conductors) per pole

o Thus if a 4-pole generator has 16 coils, then number of slots = 32

Coil Span or Coil Pitch (YS)
o It is the distance measured in terms of the number of armature
slots (or armature conductors) spanned by a coil

o Thus if the coil span is 9 slots, it means one side of the coil is in
slot 1 and the other side in slot 10

o If the coil-span or coil pitch is equal to pole pitch, it is called full

pitched coil (Fig. below)

o In this case, the e.m.f. in the coil sides are additive and have a
phase difference of 0°.

o Therefore, e.m.f. induced in the coil is maximum

Cont. ..
o If the coil span or coil pitch is less than the pole pitch, then it is
called fractional pitched coil (Fig. below)

o In this case, the phase difference between the e.m.f.s in the two
coil sides will not be zero so that the e.m.f. of the coil will be less
compared to full-pitched coil.
Types of D.C. Armature Windings
o The different armature coils in a d.c. armature Winding must be
connected in series with each other by means of end connections
(back connection and front connection) in a manner so that the
generated voltages of the respective coils will aid each other in
the production of the terminal e.m.f. of the winding

o Two basic methods of making these end connections are:

1. Simplex lap winding

2. Simplex wave winding

Cont. ..
o For a simplex lap winding, the commutator pitch YC = 1 and coil
span YS ~ pole pitch

o Thus the ends of any coil are brought out to adjacent commutator
segments and the result of this method of connection is that all
the coils of the armature are in sequence with the last coil
connected to the first coil

o For a simplex wave winding, the commutator pitch YC ~ 2 pole

pitches and coil span = pole pitch
Cont. ..
o The result is that the coils under consecutive pole pairs will be
joined together in series thereby adding together their e.m.f.’s
[Fig. below].
Cont. ..
Following conclusions can be drawn:

 The total number of brushes is equal to the number of poles

 The armature winding is divided into as many parallel paths as the

number of poles. If total number of armature conductors is Z and P is
the number of poles, then, number of conductors/path = Z/P . If there
are 40 armature conductors and 4 poles, then the armature winding has
4 parallel paths, each consisting of 10 conductors in series

 E.M.F. generated = e.m.f. (average) per conductor x P/Z

 Total armature current, Ia = P x current per parallel path

E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. Generator
The expression for the e.m. f . generated in a d .c. generator.
Let   flux / pole inWb
Z  total number of armature conductors
P  number of poles
A  number of parallel paths  2 ... for wave winding
A  P ... for lap winding
N  speed of armature in r. p.m.
e.m. f
Eg  e.m. f . of the generator 
parallel path
Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the armature, d   P webers
60
Time taken to complete one revolution, dt  second
N
Cont. ..
d  PN
e.m. f generated per conductor   Volts
dt 60
e.m. f of generator , Eg  e.m. f . per parallel path
e.m. f
 xNo. of conductors in series per parallel path
conductor

PN Z PNZ
Eg  x  Where : A  2 (Wave winding )
60 A 60 A
A  P ( Lap Winding )
Armature Resistance ( )

o The resistance offered by the armature circuit is known as

armature resistance ( ) and includes:

i. resistance of armature winding

ii. resistance of brushes

o The armature resistance depends upon the construction of

machine. Except for small machines, its value is generally less
than 1Ω
Types of D.C. Generators

o The magnetic field in a d.c. generator is normally produced by

electromagnets rather than permanent magnets

o Generators are generally classified according to their methods of field

excitation

o On this basis, d.c. generators are divided into the following two classes:

i. Separately excited d.c. generators

ii. Self-excited d.c. generators

o The behaviour of a d.c. generator on load depends upon the method of

field excitation adopted.
Separately Excited D.C. Generators

o A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an

independent external d.c. source (e.g., a battery etc.) is called a
separately excited generator. Figure below shows the connections of a
separately excited generator

o The voltage output depends upon the speed of rotation of armature and

the field current =

o The greater the speed and field current, greater is the generated e.m.f. It
may be noted that separately excited d.c. generators are rarely used in
practice. The d.c. generators are normally of self excited type
Cont. ..

Armature current , I a  I L
Ter min al voltage, V  Eg - I a Ra
Electric power developed  Eg I a
Power deliverd tomthe load  Eg I a  I a2 Ra  I a ( Eg  I a Ra )  VI a
Self-Excited D.C. Generators

o A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied current

from the output of the generator itself is called a self-excited
generator

o There are three types of self-excited generators depending upon

the manner in which the field winding is connected to the
armature, namely;

i. Series generator

ii. Shunt generator

iii. Compound generator

Series generator

o In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in

series with armature winding so that whole armature current
flows through the field winding as well as the load

o Fig. below shows the connections of a series wound generator.

Since the field winding carries the whole of load current, it has a
few turns of thick wire having low resistance

o Series generators are rarely used except for special purposes e.g.,
as boosters.
 Cont. ..

Armature current , I a  I se = I L
Ter min al voltage, V  Eg - I a ( Ra  Rse )
Electric power developed  Eg I a
Power deliverd tomthe load  Eg I a  I a2 ( Ra  Rse )  I a [ Eg  I a ( Ra  Rse )]  VI a
Shunt generator

o In a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel

with the armature winding so that terminal voltage of the
generator is applied across it

o The shunt field winding has many turns of fine wire having high
resistance

o Therefore, only a part of armature current flows through shunt

field winding and the rest flows through the load

o Fig. below shows the connections of a shunt-wound generator

Cont. ..

V
Shunt field current, Ish =
Rsh
Armature current , I a  I L  I sh
Ter min al voltage, V  Eg - I a Ra
Electric power developed  Eg I a
Power deliverd tomthe load  VI L
Compound generator

o In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field

windings on each pole one is in series and the other in parallel
with the armature

o A compound wound generator may be:

a. Short Shunt in which only shunt field winding is in parallel

with the armature winding [Fig. below (i)]

b. Long Shunt in which shunt field winding is in parallel with

both series field and armature winding [Fig. below ii)]
Cont. ..
 Cont. ..
Series field current , I se  I L
V  ( I se Rse )
Shunt field current , I sh 
Rsh
Ter min al voltage, V  Eg - I a Ra - I se Rse Short Shunt
Power developed in armature  Eg I a
Power delivered to load  VI L
Series field current , I a  I se  I L  I sh
V
Shunt field current , I sh 
Rsh
Long Shunt Ter min al voltage, V  Eg - I a ( Ra  Rse )
Power developed in armature  Eg I a
Power delivered to load  VI L
Brush Contact Drop and Losses in a D.C. Machine
• It is the voltage drop over the brush contact resistance when
current flows. Obviously, its value will depend upon the amount
of current flowing and the value of contact resistance. This drop
is generally small

• The losses in a d.c. machine (generator or motor) may be divided

into three classes viz • All these losses appear as heat
and thus raise the temperature
i. copper losses
of the machine
ii. iron or core losses and • They also lower the efficiency
of the machine
iii. mechanical losses
Losses in a D.C. Machine
Losses in a D.C. Machine
Losses in a D.C. Machine

Copper losses

• These losses occur due to currents in the various windings

of the machine

i. Armature copper loss =

ii. Shunt field copper loss =

iii. Series field copper losses =

Losses in a D.C. Machine

Iron or Core losses

• These losses occur in the armature of a d.c. machine and are

due to the rotation of armature in the magnetic field of the
poles

• They are of two types:

i. hysteresis loss

ii. eddy current loss

Iron or Core losses

i. Hysteresis loss

• Hysteresis loss occurs in the armature of the d.c. machine

since any given part of the armature is subjected to
magnetic field reversals as it passes under successive poles

• In order to reverse continuously the molecular magnets in

the armature core, some amount of power has to be spent
which is called hysteresis loss
Iron or Core losses

• It is given by Steinmetz formula. This formula is:

• Hysteresis loss, = Watts

• Where,

• = Maximum flux density in armature

• f = Frequency of magnetic reversals = , N is in r.p.m.

!

• V = Volume of armature in "#

• h = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient

Iron or Core losses

ii. Eddy current loss

• In addition to the voltages induced in the armature
conductors, there are also voltages induced in the armature
core
• These voltages produce circulating currents in the armature
core. These are called eddy currents and power loss due to
their flow is called eddy current loss

• The eddy current loss appears as heat which raises the

temperature of the machine and lowers its efficiency
Iron or Core losses

• The magnitude of eddy current can be reduced by making

core resistance as high as practical.

• The core resistance can be greatly increased by

constructing the core of thin, round iron sheets called
laminations

• Thus, laminating a core increases the core resistance

which decreases the eddy current and hence the eddy
current loss
Iron or Core losses
& & &
• Eddy Current loss, $ = %$ ' Watts
• Where,
• ( = Constant depending upon the electrical resistance of
core and system of units used
• = Maximum flux density in )*/"
• , = Frequency of magnetic reversals in Hz
• - = Thickness of lamination in m
• . = Volume of core in "#
Losses in a D.C. Machine

Mechanical losses

• These losses are due to friction and windage

i. friction loss e.g., bearing friction, brush friction etc.

ii. windage loss i.e., air friction of rotating armature.

• These losses depend upon the speed of the machine

• But for a given speed, they are practically constant.

Constant and Variable Losses
• The losses in a d.c. generator (or d.c. motor) may be sub-divided
into constant losses and variable losses

i. Constant losses

• Those losses in a d.c. generator which remain constant at all

loads are known as constant losses. The constant losses in a d.c.
generator are:

a. iron losses

b. mechanical losses

c. shunt field losses

Constant and Variable Losses

ii. Variable losses

• Those losses in a d.c. generator which vary with load are

called variable losses. The variable losses in a d.c. generator
are:
a. Copper loss in armature winding =
b. Copper loss in series field winding =

• /0' 1 1022$2 = 3042' 4' 1022$2 + 67 81$ 1022$2

Condition for Maximum Efficiency
The efficiency of a d.c. generator is not constant but varies with load.
Let us consider a shunt generator delivering a load current 9 at
terminal voltage .

Generator output = .

Generator input = output + losses

=VI  I a2 Ra  Wc  VI  ( I  I sh ) 2 Ra  Wc ( ∵ I a  I  I sh )
However, if is negligible as compared to load current, then =
output VI VI
   (∵ Ia  I )
input VI  I a Ra  Wc VI  I 2 Ra  Wc
2
Condition for Maximum Efficiency

1

 IRa Wc 
1   
 V VI 

Now, efficiency is maximum when denominator is minimum i.e.

when
d   IRa Wc   Ra Wc
1
    = 0 or  2
 0 or I 2
Ra  Wc
dI   V VI   V VI
Hence, generator efficiency is maximum when
67 81$ 1022 = 3042' 4' 1022
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given by
the relation.
Wc
I Ra  Wc or I 
2

Ra

Variation of ո with load current

D.C. Generator Characteristics

• The speed of a d.c. machine operated as a generator is fixed

by the prime mover

• For general-purpose operation, the prime mover is equipped

with a speed governor so that the speed of the generator is
practically constant

• Under such condition, the generator performance deals

primarily with the relation between excitation, terminal
voltage and load
D.C. Generator Characteristics

• These relations can be best exhibited graphically by means

of curves known as generator characteristics

• These characteristics show at a glance the behaviour of the

generator under different load conditions

• The two most important characteristics of a d.c. generator

are:

a. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) and

b. External characteristic ./ 9
Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)

• This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f.

at no-load and the field current ; at constant speed

• Its shape is practically the same for all generators whether

separately or self-excited

• The data for O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by

operating the generator at no load and constant speed and
recording the change in terminal voltage as the field current
is varied
Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)

• The field winding of the d.c. generator (series or shunt) is

disconnected from the machine and is separately excited
from an external d.c. source
External characteristic ./ 9

• This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage

(V) and load current ( 9 )

• The terminal voltage V will be less than E due to voltage

drop in the armature circuit

• This characteristic is very important in determining the

suitability of a generator for a given purpose
External characteristic ./ 9

• It can be obtained by making simultaneous measurements

of terminal voltage and load current (with voltmeter and
ammeter) of a loaded generator
Voltage Regulation

• The change in terminal voltage of a generator between full

and no-load (at constant speed) is called the voltage
regulation, usually expressed as a percentage of the voltage
at full-load

GH I JH
• % =>?-@AB CBAD?@-E>F =
JH

• Where;
• . 9 = Terminal voltage of generator at no load
• .K9 = Terminal voltage of generator at full load
Voltage Regulation

• Note that voltage regulation of a generator is determined

with field circuit and speed held constant

• If the voltage regulation of a generator is 10%, it implies

that terminal voltage increases by 10% as the load is
changed from full load to no-load
DC MOTOR
DC Motor principle

• A machine that converts d.c. power into mechanical power

is known as a d.c. motor

• Its operation is based on the principle that when a current

carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the
conductor experiences a mechanical force

• The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left-hand

rule and magnitude is given by;
J = L1 4$M'042
Keep in Mind !!!

• Basically, there is no constructional difference between a

d.c. motor and a d.c. generator

• The same d.c. machine can be run as a generator or motor

DC Motor working principle

• When the terminals of the motor are connected to an

external source of d.c. supply

i. the field magnets are excited developing alternate N

and S poles

ii. the armature conductors carry currents

• All conductors under N-pole carry currents in one direction

while all the conductors under S-pole carry currents in the
opposite direction
DC Motor working principle

• Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is

placed in the magnetic field, mechanical force acts on it

• Referring to Fig. below and applying Fleming’s left-hand

rule, it is clear that force on each conductor is tending to
rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction
Back or Counter E.M.F.

• When the armature of a d.c. motor rotates under the

influence of the driving torque, the armature conductors
move through the magnetic field and hence e.m.f. is
induced in them as in a generator

• The induced e.m.f. acts in opposite direction to the applied

voltage V(Lenz’s law) and in known as back or counter
e.m.f. N
Back or Counter E.M.F.

• The back e.m.f. ( N = OΦQR/(60V)) is always less than

the applied voltage V, although this difference is small
when the motor is running under normal conditions

• Consider a shunt wound motor shown in Fig. (next slide)

• When d.c. voltage V is applied cross the motor terminals,

the field magnets are excited and armature conductors are
supplied with current
• Therefore, driving torque acts on the armature which begins
to rotate
Back or Counter E.M.F.
Back or Counter E.M.F.

• As the armature rotates, back e.m.f. Eb is induced which

opposes the applied voltage V

• The applied voltage V has to force current through the

armature against the back e.m.f. Eb

• The electric work done in overcoming and causing the

current to flow against Eb is converted into mechanical
energy developed in the armature
Significance of Back E.M.F.

• The presence of back e.m.f. makes the d.c. motor a self-

regulating machine i.e., it makes the motor to draw as much
armature current as is just sufficient to develop the torque
required by the load

ZI[\
• VC"@-DCB XDCCBF-, =
]^

• It follows, therefore, that back e.m.f. in a d.c. motor

regulates the flow of armature current i.e., it automatically
changes the armature current to meet the load requirement