INTRODUCTION TO IN-SERVICE EDUCATION AND

TRAINING

BY
PROF. CHRISTINE ADU-YEBOAH
AND
DR. ROGER ABOGZUAH AYINSELYA

APRIL, 2023

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE

Introduction: About the Course 1

Unit 1: Rationale for Training and Retraining Teachers 4

Unit 2: Human Resource Development 9

Unit 3: ‘Teacher Education’ and ‘Teacher Training 16

Unit 4: Teacher Development

Unit 5: In-service Education and Training

Unit 6: Revision Exercises

References

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INTRODUCTION

The continuous education and training of teachers is a vital element in any attempt to improve
the quality of education in every nation. This course is, therefore, designed to equip students
with knowledge and understanding of In-Service Education and Training (INSET). It discusses
how INSET can be used to develop personnel in the education sector with the ultimate aim of
maximising human capital, obtaining high teacher work output, and increasing
students’/pupils’ learning outcomes. The course locates INSET within Teacher Development
and Continuing Professional Development (CPD). It shows how INSET can be used to address
deficiencies in the initial training programme and to continuously update, improve and upgrade
teachers’ knowledge and professional skills. The course examines the concepts, objectives, and
importance of INSET. It also describes the processes for organizing INSET as an aspect of
CPD.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

By the end of the course, the student will be able to:

 Explain the rationale for retraining teachers after initial training.

 Situate the role of teachers within the broad spectrum of human resource development.

 Demonstrate understanding of the concepts ‘education’ and ‘training’; relate them to

teacher education and teacher training and describe the similarities and differences
between teacher education and training.

 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of teacher education and teacher training,
and why teacher education is preferred by the education community.

 Explain authorial differences between the descriptions of the concept ‘teacher

development’, showing the place of teacher career stages, Continuing Professional
Development (CPD) and In-Service Education and Training (INSET).

 Demonstrate understanding of the meaning of INSET and describe the processes for
organising INSET.

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UNIT 1: RATIONALE FOR TRAINING AND RETRAINING TEACHERS

This unit introduces students to the rationale for retraining teachers. First, the unit examines
the role of pre-service training in preparing qualified teachers, and the deficiencies of pre-
service training. Following this, the concept of retraining is examined and reasons for teachers’
continuous engagement in retraining are also discussed.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the unit, the student will be able to:

 Describe the role of pre-service teacher training in teacher preparation.

 Identify some deficiencies in pre-service teacher training, and explain why those
deficiencies exist.
 Explain the concept of retraining.
 Discuss the rationale for retraining teachers.
 Explain the relationship between pre-service training and retraining.

Pre-Service Teacher Training

The quality of the teacher is deemed the single most important factor influencing student
learning (Hattie, 2003; OECD, 2005). Pre-service training is considered the first most
important stage in teacher education because adequately prepared teachers positively affect
student achievement, school improvement, and the success of an entire education system in a
country. Pre-service is a period when trainees begin their journey to become professional
teachers. Hence, they need to be well-equipped with both subject matter/content and
pedagogical knowledge (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2007). In other words, quality
teacher preparation begins with pre-service training as this phase ensures that new teachers are
well-prepared and competent to enter the classroom and impart knowledge to students. The
components of pre-service training programmes include, the subject matter/content, pedagogy,
education studies and field experience or practicum.

The Role of Pre-Service Teacher Training

Among the roles that pre-service training plays in preparing quality teachers are the following:
 Pre-service teacher training lays the foundation for the teaching profession.

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  It serves as the first step in the continuous professional growth and development of
teachers.

 Effective teaching is highly dependent upon the successful completion of pre-service

teacher training.
 It is designed to provide opportunities and support for trainees to develop their
professional competencies, knowledge, and understanding in a school setting.
 Pre-service teacher training initiates trainees into the real school environment which
provides them with opportunities to encounter daily school routines.
 The practicum component of pre-service training allows trainees to see how teachers
work together and how schools operate.
 The practicum allows trainees to experience all the responsibilities of being a teacher.
 Practicum experience during the training provides the opportunity to trainees to apply
theory, approaches, strategies, and techniques of teaching learnt to practice.
 It gives trainees the opportunity to discover their own potentials and abilities and bring
these to the classroom context in which the abilities are rehearsed.
 The residential practicum experience during the pre-service training provides trainees
with the opportunity to be part of communities of practice, social and group activities.
This allows them to reflect, and develop concepts that echo the everyday realities of
teachers, schools, and teaching.
 Pre-service teacher training helps to lessen the level of anxiety often associated with new
teaching experiences. It makes them feel more assured and less anxious about teaching,
through their practicum experience, when they later carry out real teaching.

Factors Influencing the Duration of Pre-service Training

It is important to also note that the duration of pre-service training varies depending on several
factors. Some of these factors are:
 Objectives of the training
 The model being used; whether concurrent or consecutive
 Entry qualification (academic) of the trainee, and how much content to be taught: entry
with weak grades/content knowledge requires more time in consolidating the content
knowledge
 Prior experiences of the trainee, i.e., having prior teaching experiences or not
determines the duration of the practicum
 Availability of resources and

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  The level that the teachers are being prepared to teach (higher levels require more
content knowledge whiles lower levels require more pedagogy)

Some Deficiencies in Pre-service Teacher Training

It is a fact that all the knowledge and skills teachers need throughout their career lives cannot
be provided in the course of the three/four years of their pre-service training. As such, there
are often concerns about the adequacy of the preparation that teachers receive during pre-
service training. These inadequacies serve as the basis for retraining. They include the
following:

 Inadequate preparation (content and pedagogy) to equip trainees with the knowledge
and skills needed to meet pupils’ learning needs.
 Limited connections between pre-service training, teachers’ continuous professional
development, and school needs.
 Lack of systematic induction programmes for beginning teachers.
 Traditional pre-service teacher training has often been criticized for being too
theoretical in its approach to preparing teachers for a career in the classroom.
 There is often a stark difference between what is taught at the training institution and
what is experienced by pre-service teachers in the field.
 There is also limited connection between teacher education institutions and the
sociocultural needs of society.
 There is also limited institutional capacity in terms of resources (human, financial,
material, etc.) to ensure effective pre-service training.

Retraining Teachers

The need for retraining teachers cannot be over-emphasised. It is recognised that a teacher’s
professional education does not finish at the end of the initial training period. Apart from the
learning that takes place during practical teaching, and the experience that comes from working
with more experienced colleagues, most education systems institute programmes that aim to
initiate change in areas they deem necessary for improvement, or in which a new policy has
been introduced.

Retraining refers to the upgrading of existing skills and knowledge, or acquiring new ones
(Mohamad, Saud & Ahmad, 2009). It is the training that teachers receive after their initial

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teacher training to keep them up to date with knowledge, ideas, and skills in the profession.
Teachers seek retraining either because they find themselves stagnating in their current fields

or because they view their current positions as insecure. Retraining is therefore designed for
the manpower development of the school system and the educational enterprise.

Kinds of Retraining

Generally, there are four kinds of retraining, which are:

1. Retraining of unqualified teachers

2. Retraining of qualified teachers for the purpose of upgrading
3. Retraining to prepare for new managerial roles, and
4. Retraining on curriculum-related issues.

Rationale for Retraining Teachers

If teachers are to perform their functions effectively and efficiently, it is imperative for them
to acquire retraining in new skills, knowledge, ideas, and pedagogy. Kpangbam (1992)
identifies the following rationales for retraining teachers:

 It is recognized that no matter how good existing pre-service teacher training

programmes are, they cannot equip potential teachers with all they need for a lifetime
of work in the classroom.
 There is increasing awareness of the influence of social, political, and technological
changes, and of the need for teachers to be responsive to such changes.
 There is growing expectation that teachers should reform their own practice, as it is
only then that meaningful curriculum development could take place in the daily
routine of classrooms.
 There is a growing number of managerial and administrative roles that teachers have
to take up with passing years in teaching which require specialized training.

Key ideas

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  Pre-service training is a period when trainees begin their journey to become
professional teachers.
 Pre-service is a critical first step to producing the right kinds of teachers that the
education system requires.
 The key components of pre-service training programmes are the subject
matter/content, pedagogy, education studies and field experience or practicum.
 All the knowledge and skills teachers need throughout their career lives cannot be
provided in the course of the three/four years of their pre-service training.
 To remain relevant in the profession, teachers need to continuously undertake
retraining.
 Retraining is defined as upgrading of existing skills and knowledge or acquiring
new ones
 The four kinds of retraining are:
a. retraining of unqualified teachers,
b. retraining of qualified teachers to upgrade,
c. retraining to prepare for new managerial roles, and
d. retraining on curriculum-related issues

Reflection
 How will your understanding that teacher education is a continuous process help
you prepare for the profession and continue/remain in it?

 In what ways can your knowledge about pre-service training be useful in your
current programme of study?

Discussion

1. Discuss some of the factors that can influence the duration of pre-service teacher training.
2. Identify any three kinds of retraining.
3. Why is retraining of teachers necessary?
4. Do you agree that ‘teachers will teach as they are trained to teach’? Justify your view.

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UNIT 2: HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Human resource development deals with the dynamic issues of individual and organizational
change. In every human organization, there is the need to develop human resource so that there
would be improvement in performance and a positive change in work output. This is also a
requirement for the teaching profession. This unit will explore the concept of human resource
and human resource development and describe the components of human resource
development. The unit also discusses performance appraisal as a key component of human
resource development.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the unit, the student will be able to:

 Explain the concepts ‘human resource’ and ‘human resource development’

 Describe the components of human resource development
 Explain the importance of performance appraisal
 Describe the methods and processes involved in performance appraisal
 Identify the purpose(s) of performance appraisal

What is Human Resource?

Human resource refers to the sum of all that the employed, self-employed or unemployed
people working in an organization possess, which are the skills, knowledge, creative abilities,
among others. Human resource is an organization's greatest asset and a key driver for its
success because the everyday functions of the organisation will not be successful without
human resource. Hence, many organisations have human resource units that are typically
responsible for several activities, including:

 Employee recruitment and selection

 Re-engineering organization processes
 Aligning human resource and organisation strategy

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  Training and development
 Listening and responding to employees and clients
 Performance appraisal
 Organisation branding

 Managing transformation and reforms

 Remuneration and benefits
 Industrial relations
Source: (Haslinda, 2009; McLean & McLean, 2001)

Human Resource Development (HRD)

To maximize the effectiveness of an organisation, the knowledge, skills, creative abilities, etc.
must be developed. Hence, the practice of human resource development.

 Nadler and Nadler (1989) describe HRD as organized learning experiences provided
by employers within a specified improvement period of time to bring about the
possibility of performance improvement and/or personal growth.

 Nadler and Wiggs (1986) define HRD as a comprehensive learning system for the
release of the organization’s human potentials. Specifically, in education, this learning
system includes both classroom and simulated experiences, and on-the-job
experiences.

 McLean and McLean (2001) define it as any process or activity that, either initially or
over the long term, has the potential to develop adults’ work-based knowledge,
expertise, productivity, and satisfaction, whether for personal or group/team gain, or
for the benefit of an organization, community, nation, or, ultimately, the whole of
humanity”.

 One of the latest definitions is by Swanson (2022). He regards HRD as a process of

developing and unleashing expertise to improve individual, team, work process, and
organizational system performance.

What is common in all these different definitions is that human resource development is vital
to the individual and organizational development, by focusing on making things better and

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improving the skills, expertise, knowledge and understanding of individuals and groups in the
organization. As a process, HRD involves both formal and informal approaches. The formal
approaches may include activities such as training courses, workshops or an organization’s
own plan for improvement, while the informal strategies may include mentoring, task rotation

and coaching (Adu-Yeboah, Edjah and Owusu, 2021; McLean & McLean, 2001; Swanson,
2022).

Components of Human Resource development

The components of human resource development include the following:

 Training and development

 Performance appraisal
 Organisational development
 Career planning and development
 Change management
In this module, however, the performance appraisal component is looked at in detail.

Performance Appraisal

Most well-established organisations invest in performance appraisal as it is one of the key

means of assessing the performance of staff. Performance appraisal is a formal system of
reviewing and evaluating individual or team task performance. It integrates the activities of
staff with the organisation’s targets, and objectives (Marcellin, 2019).

Performance Appraisal Methods/Tools

Performance appraisal usually involves the use of various tools. These tools can be developed
by the human resource unit of the organization to assess employee performance. There is no
particular appraisal tool that is better than the other. Therefore, in determining the appropriate
appraisal tool to use, one needs to consider the purpose of the appraisal.

Some of the tools usually employed to appraise the performance of staff are:

i. Self-appraisal tool
This involves employees reflecting on their own performance to identify their strengths and
weaknesses for improvement.

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 i. Graphic rating scale tool
This is a checklist on which the management of the organization rates the performance of the
appraisee on a continuum such as excellent, good, average, fair, and poor. The continuum
often includes a numerical scale, for example from 1 (representing lowest performance) to 5
(representing highest performance).

ii. 360-degree feedback evaluation tool

This involves appraising an employee’s performance from multiple sources. People who
work closely with the appraisee and have a good understanding of their skills provide ratings.
These people may include management, supervisors, peers, or even external clients of the
organization. The purpose is to get a broader and more holistic idea of the employee’s
performance.
iii. Critical incidence tool
This tool requires management or an assigned supervisor to keep written records of appraisee’s
positive and negative work actions (i.e., critical incidents). At the end of the appraisal period,
the recorded information together with other data is used to appraise the employee’s
performance.
iv. Management by objectives tool
This involves a manager and an employee jointly setting targets for the employee.
Occasionally, the employee’s performance is evaluated on the set targets, and rewarded
according to the outcome of his or her performance.

The Appraisal Process

The main criteria for appraising the performance of staff include job-specific tasks such as
workload, quality of work and knowledge about the job; core responsibilities; and non-job-
specific behaviours such as punctuality, commitment, and passion. There are different ways of
conducting an effective performance appraisal. However, the following process is generally
accepted by scholars in the field.

The performance appraisal process begins with specifically and clearly identifying and
defining performance goals. This is done to minimise the possibility of misinterpreting what is
to be accomplished. The appraiser then observes the performance of the staff being appraised
using appropriate tools or methods. Feedback is given to the staff regarding his/her
performance after the appraisal process and both the appraiser and the staff mutually identify
and discuss ways for improvement. In doing this, the appraiser is expected to record the

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performance, based on the feedback and discussion that ensued. As a process, performance
appraisal is cyclical. This means that it is not a one-time event. Rather, it is an on-going activity
to keep employees up-and-doing. Moreover, performance appraisal process, irrespective of the
tool adopted, must conform to ethical requirements such as non-discrimination and
inclusiveness.

Benefits of Performance Appraisal

Performance appraisal has important benefits for both the organization/employer and the
individual employee.

Benefits to the Organization/Employer

 Performance appraisal provides the required information for managerial decisions

such as recruiting, promoting, rewarding, transferring, and terminating.
 It helps managers in coaching, mentoring, and counselling employees.
 It helps to identify areas of need and support additional training or education that
employees need in order to continue career development.
 It provides the basis for recognising and acknowledging the achievements of an
employee.

Benefits to the Individual Employee/Staff/Appraisee

 Performance appraisal helps to recognize employees for promotion, bonus and

rewards.
 It helps to determine the specific areas where skills need to be improved.
 It also encourages employees to contribute more to the organisation.
 It motivates high-performing employees to invest more in their career development.
 It provides feedback to employees to understand how well they perform.

Challenges of Performance Appraisal

Despite the significant role that performance appraisal plays, there are some potential
drawbacks which can affect its effectiveness. These include:

 Personal biases such as those based on sex, religion, ethnicity and race.
 Ratings on employees’ performance by different appraisers may be subjective and not
objective/fair.

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  Sometimes, there are delays and/or lack of feedback to employees on their affective
domains and soft skills.
 Lack of skilled personnel to identify the relevant competencies and other components
for appraisal.
 Unhealthy competitions at the workplace may emerge as a result.

It is important, therefore, for management to always take steps to avert these challenges when
conducting staff performance appraisal.

Key ideas

 Human resource refers to the skills, knowledge, creative abilities, etc. that the
people that work in an organisation possess

 Human resource development has many definitions, but what is common to all the
definitions is that it is vital to individual and organisational development, by
focusing on improving the skills, expertise, knowledge and understanding of
individuals and groups in the organization.

 Performance appraisal is a result-oriented approach to assessing the performance of

employees.

 There are many appraisal tools, but particular appraisal one is better than the other.
One needs to consider the purpose of the appraisal to determine the right tool.

 Performance appraisal has important benefits such as improvement in the

individual’s and organisation’s performance.

 Staff appraisal is a continuous and cyclical process.

Reflection

 Based on the ideas presented in this unit, what is it about human resource
development that interests you the most?

 Why do you think human resource is described as an organisation’s greatest asset?

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Discussion

1. What is your personal understanding of human resource development?

2. In your own words, what would you consider to be the difference between human
resource and human resource development? How are the two concepts similar?

3. Describe the tools used in appraising the performance of staff.

4. Why do you think your performance should be appraised by your headteacher?

5. How would you expect your headteacher to appraise your performance?

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UNIT 3: THE CONCEPTS ‘TEACHER EDUCATION’ AND ‘TEACHER TRAINING’

This Unit discusses two important concepts in the teaching profession - teacher education
and teacher training. The differences and similarities between the two concepts and reasons
why teacher education is preferred in contemporary literature are explained.

Learning Outcomes:

By the end of the unit, the student will be able to:

 Explain the terms ‘education’ and ‘training’.

 Differentiate ‘teacher education’ from ‘teacher training’.
 Describe the nature of teacher education.
 Identify the components of teacher education.
 Discuss any three reasons why teacher education is important.
 Identify any three factors that can affect quality teacher education.

Difference between Education and Training

Before discussing the concepts ‘teacher education’ and ‘teacher training’, it is important to
first of all understand the terms ‘education’ and training’. Although the two terms are often
used interchangeably, they have different meanings. Hence, it is necessary to delineate them.

Education is often seen as broader, and less hands-on approach to acquiring knowledge. It
aims at developing the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values required in all aspects of life
rather than knowledge and skill relating to a specific area of activity. Training, on the other
hand, is associated with the skills acquired for a particular role. Training is, therefore, best
supplemented with practical or hands-on experience.

From this understanding, education can be distinguished from training in the following ways:

o Education is normally a much broader term than training.

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 o Education seeks to address long-term concerns. Training on the other hand is
designed for immediate impact.
o Education is more synonymous with ‘learning by thinking, whereas training is
associated with ‘learning by doing’.
o Education is often associated with formal classroom setting, while training is more
related to on-the job learning.

Teacher Education and Teacher Training

Teacher education is often viewed as procedures, policies as well as formal and informal
programmes created to equip teachers with the knowledge, skills, behaviours, and attitudes that
are required for them to make decisions (about what to do and how to do it); to choose sensibly
between different approaches, methods, tasks or priorities. The basic purpose of teacher
education is to prepare teachers to be able to function effectively in the classroom.

Teacher training, on the other hand, is any formal or informal activity which focuses more on
helping the teacher to acquire practical skills and knowledge to do their job; to implement (do)
decisions taken more consistently, effectively and efficiently.

Whereas the traditional literature on teacher preparation commonly uses the term ‘training’,
the emerging and contemporary view is that teachers should be educated, and not just be
trained. Hence, the concept of teacher education is discussed further.

Teacher Education

Some people hold the view that almost anyone can teach, and that becoming a teacher requires,
at most, knowing something about a subject, and the rest about how to deliver the content to
learners can be learnt on the job (Darling-Hammond, 2006). This view represents a lack of
understanding of what teacher education entails. This section, therefore, examines the
components and nature of teacher education and why it is important for every teacher to have
some level of education before entering the profession.

Components of Teacher Education

Learning to teach not only requires teachers to acquire teaching skills but also sound
pedagogical theory and professional skills. (see Figure 1)

Teacher
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Education
 Teaching skills Pedagogical theory

Professional skills

Figure 1: Components of Teacher Education

‘Teaching skills’ is about providing training and practice in the different techniques,
approaches and strategies that would help teachers to plan and impart instruction.

‘Pedagogical theory’ refers to the philosophical, sociological and psychological

considerations that enable the teacher to have a sound basis for practicing the teaching skills
in the classroom.

‘Professional skills’ involve the skills that would help teachers to grow in the profession.
Such skills include interpersonal skills, and life-long learning skills.

Nature of Teacher Education

o Teacher Education is a continuous process, comprising three phases; Pre-service,

Induction and In-service.
o It entails collaborations among training institutions, schools, policy makers and the
wider society.
o It is also both a science (in the sense that it involves the use of scientifically proven
evidence on how to teach, i.e. principles and guidelines for teaching) and an art
(involving the craft/apprenticeship of learning to teach).
o It is evolving and dynamic; its nature and content change with changing times.
o It is a system that involves Inputs (e.g. resources used to deliver its content),
Processes (how resources are applied in the delivery of content) and Outputs (the end
product, i.e. the teacher).
o The entire process of teacher education is rooted in its curriculum.

Why Teacher Education is Important

Teacher education is needed for the following reasons:

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 o Teacher education is needed to accomplish the teaching goals for the education of a
nation.
o Through education and training, it provides opportunity for all students who receive
instruction from professional teachers to be taught equally so that the ultimate teaching
goal can be achieved.
o It provides opportunity to understand how children develop cognitively, which is
associated with their learning in the classroom.

o It lays the foundation for understanding the sociological aspects of children’s

relationship with the environment and how that affects their learning.

Factors that can Affect Quality Teacher Education

Across many countries, teacher education is faced with challenges, some of which are:
o Low quality teacher education programmes
o Inadequate pre-service training
o Low investment by the government
o Change in governments resulting in discontinuation of policies/ frequent changes in
policies
o Inadequate resource provision
o Low status of the teaching profession, which makes it difficult to attract high caliber
of applicants for training

Key ideas
 The concepts ‘teacher training’ and ‘teacher education’ have some similarities; they
also have some differences.
 ‘Teacher education’ is preferred by the education community, because it prepares
teachers to choose approaches sensibly, based on given conditions and situations.
 Teacher education is a continuous process made up of pre-service, induction and in-
service.
 The components of teacher education are teaching skills, pedagogical theory and
professional skills.
 Every teacher needs to have some level of professional education/training before
beginning their teaching profession.

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  Teacher education is important because it lays the foundation to understand how
children develop, which is associated with their learning.
 If challenges that confront teacher education are not addressed, they can affect the
quality of teacher education provided by any country.

Reflection
 What similarities exist between teacher education and teacher training?
 Why do you think the term teacher education is preferred to teacher training?
 How will your understanding of the nature of teacher education help you develop in
your job?

Discussion
 How different is teacher education from training?
 Why are pedagogical theory and professional skills important aspects of teacher
education?
 What challenges confront teacher education in Ghana?

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