A Laboratory Manual for

Network Theory
(3131103)

B.E. Semester 3 (E.C.)

Directorate of Technical Education, Gandhinagar,

Gujarat
 L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad

Certificate

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ___________________________________

________ Enrollment No. _______________ of B.E. Semester ___________
E.C. Engineering of this Institute (GTU Code: _____ ) has satisfactorily
completed the Practical / Tutorial work for the subject Network Theory
(3131103) for the academic year 2024-25.

Place: __________
Date: __________

Name and Sign of Faculty member

Head of the Department

Network Theory (3131103)

Preface

Main motto of any laboratory/practical/field work is for enhancing required skills as well as
creating ability amongst students to solve real time problem by developing relevant competencies
in psychomotor domain. By keeping in view, GTU has designed competency focused outcome-
based curriculum for engineering degree programs where sufficient weightage is given to
practical work. It shows importance of enhancement of skills amongst the students and it pays
attention to utilize every second of time allotted for practical amongst students, instructors and
faculty members to achieve relevant outcomes by performing the experiments rather than having
merely study type experiments. It is must for effective implementation of competency focused
outcome-based curriculum that every practical is keenly designed to serve as a tool to develop
and enhance relevant competency required by the various industry among every student. These
psychomotor skills are very difficult to develop through traditional chalk and board content
delivery method in the classroom. Accordingly, this lab manual is designed to focus on the
industry defined relevant outcomes, rather than old practice of conducting practical to prove
concept and theory.

By using this lab manual students can go through the relevant theory and procedure in advance
before the actual performance which creates an interest and students can have basic idea prior to
performance. This in turn enhances pre-determined outcomes amongst students. Each experiment
in this manual begins with competency, industry relevant skills, course outcomes as well as
practical outcomes (objectives). The students will also achieve safety and necessary precautions
to be taken while performing practical.

This manual also provides guidelines to faculty members to facilitate student centric lab activities
through each experiment by arranging and managing necessary resources in order that the
students follow the procedures with required safety and necessary precautions to achieve the
outcomes. It also gives an idea that how students will be assessed by providing rubrics.

Engineering Thermodynamics is the fundamental course which deals with various forms of
energy and their conversion from one to the another. It provides a platform for students to
demonstrate first and second laws of thermodynamics, entropy principle and concept of exergy.
Students also learn various gas and vapor power cycles and refrigeration cycle. Fundamentals of
combustion are also learnt.

Utmost care has been taken while preparing this lab manual however always there is chances of
improvement. Therefore, we welcome constructive suggestions for improvement and removal of
errors if any.
Network Theory (3131103)

Practical – Course Outcome matrix

Course Outcomes (COs):

1) Analyze passive circuits using various networks theorems
2) Analyze and evaluate the transfer functions using classical and transform
methods
3) Evaluate two port parameters for the given two port network
configurations.
4) Comprehend the basics of network topologies, graph theory and network
synthesis
5) Synthesis the knowledge of Circuit theory to electrical and electronic
circuits
Sr.
Objective(s) of Experiment CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5
No.
Verify mesh analysis and nodal analysis using KVL and
1. √ √
KCL in given circuit.
To verify superposition theorem experimentally for a
2. given resistive circuit consisting two independent √ √
sources.
To verify Thevenin and Norton theorem and find out
3. √ √
load current through load resistor.
To verify maximum power transfer theorem and find the
4. √ √
value of load resistor for maximum power transfer.
To verify reciprocity theorem experimentally for a given
5. √ √
circuit.
To observe transient response in RC, RL and RLC circuit
6. √ √
diagram in digital CRO.
To Plot the phasor diagram of RC and RL series circuit
7. and determine power factor in RC as well as RLC series √ √
circuit.

8. To plot frequency response in series RLC circuit. √ √

9. To plot frequency response in parallel RLC circuit. √ √

To measure and calculate Z and Y parameters for a given

10. √ √
two-port system.
To determine and evaluate Transmission and Hybrid
11. √ √
parameters in given circuit diagram.

12.

13.

14.
Network Theory (3131103)

Industry Relevant Skills

The following industry relevant competency are expected to be developed in the student by
undertaking the practical work of this laboratory.
1. Circuit Network laboratory work is the process of designing how a circuit will be
constructed. These designs can be used to create complex electrical systems or smaller
systems with individual circuits integrated within a different circuit network component.
2. Student’s Hardware knowledge, Problem-solving skill, testing knowledge, Ability to work
well within a team will be developed in this laboratory.

Guidelines for Faculty members

1. Teacher should provide the guideline with demonstration of practical to the students with
all features.
2. Teacher shall explain basic concepts/theory related to the experiment to the students before
starting of each practical
3. Involve all the students in performance of each experiment.
4. Teacher is expected to share the skills and competencies to be developed in the students
and ensure that the respective skills and competencies are developed in the students after
the completion of the experimentation.
5. Teachers should give opportunity to students for hands-on experience after the
demonstration.
6. Teacher may provide additional knowledge and skills to the students even though not
covered in the manual but are expected from the students by concerned industry.
7. Give practical assignment and assess the performance of students based on task assigned
to check whether it is as per the instructions or not.
8. Teacher is expected to refer complete curriculum of the course and follow the guidelines
for implementation.

Instructions for Students

1. Students are expected to carefully listen to all the theory classes delivered by the faculty
members and understand the COs, content of the course, teaching and examination scheme,
skill set to be developed etc.
2. Students shall organize the work in the group and make record of all observations.
3. Students shall develop maintenance skill as expected by industries.
4. Student shall attempt to develop related hand-on skills and build confidence.
5. Student shall develop the habits of evolving more ideas, innovations, skills etc. apart from
those included in scope of manual.
6. Student shall refer technical magazines and data books.
7. Student should develop a habit of submitting the experimentation work as per the schedule
and s/he should be well prepared for the same.

Common Safety Instructions

1. Students are expected to carefully use only isolated power sources (either isolated power
supplies or AC power through isolation power transformers). This helps using a grounded
oscilloscope and reduces the possibility of risk of completing a circuit through your body
or destroying the test equipment.
Network Theory (3131103)

2. Check for all the connections of the circuit and scope connections before powering the
circuit, to avoid shorting or any ground looping that may lead to electrical shocks or
damage of equipment.
3. Double-check your wiring and circuit connections. It is a good idea to use a point-to-point
wiring diagram to review when making these checks.
4. Apply low voltages or low power to check proper functionality of circuits.
5. Reduce the voltage or power slowly till it comes to zero.
6. Switch of all the power supplies and remove the power supply connections, once the
experiment is performed.
7. Let the load be connected at the output for some time, so that it helps to discharge capacitor
or inductor if any, completely.
8. No loose wires or metal pieces should be lying on table or near the circuit, to cause shorts
and sparking.
9. Avoid using long wires that may get in your way while making adjustments or changing
leads.
Network Theory (3131103)

Learning Overview
Theoretical Background:
Definitions:
1] Electric Current ( i or I): is the flow of electric charge from one point to another and it is
defined as the rate of movement of charge past a point along a conduction path through a
circuit, or i=dq/dt. The unit for current is the ampere (A).
One Ampere = one coulomb per second
2] Electric Voltage (v or V) is the "potential difference" between two points and it is defined
as the work or energy required to move a charge of one coulomb from one point to another.
The unit for voltage is the volt (V).
One volt = one joule per coulomb
3] Resistance (R) is the "constant of proportionality" when the voltage across a circuit element
is a linear function of the current through the circuit element, or v= Ri. A circuit element which
results in this linear response is called a resistor. The unit for resistance is the Ohm (Ω).
One Ohm = one volt per ampere
The relationship V= RI is called Ohm's Law.
Typical standard resistor values are 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8, 7.5, 8.2
and 9.1 multiplied by a power of 10.
4]Electric Power (p or P) is dissipated in a resistor in the form of heat. The amount of power is
determined by p=Vi, p=I2R, or p=V2/R. The latter two equations are derived by using Ohms
Law (v=Ri) and making substitutions into the first equation. The unit for power is the watt (W)
One Watt = one joule per second.

In this subject following topic have been mainly included

1. Basic concepts of D.C. and A.C. circuits.
2. A.C. series and parallel circuits.
3. Transient behavior of memory components.
4. Network theorems and their applications to solve the network.
Every electrical system is nothing but the electrical network (either A.C. or D.C.). It consists
of number of circuit elements such as Resistance R, Inductance L, Capacitance C and source
elements etc. An electronics engineer has to solve the network problems. Therefore, it is
necessary to have the knowledge of analyzing the different types of A.C. and D.C. circuits.
The study of circuit elements and their response to different power supplies is essential. Also, it
is required to understand the features and the characteristics of different types of circuit
combinations such as series, parallel, star and delta connected. Also, the study of different
Network Theory (3131103)

network theorems and their applications is essential for the analysis of A.C./D.C. networks.
This subject finds the utility to understand the concepts in other subjects such as Electronic
Measurement and Instrumentation, Integrated Circuit & application, Control theory, VLSI
design etc.
Use of Laboratory Instruments
One of the major goals of this lab is to familiarize the student with the proper equipment and
techniques for making electrical measurements. Some understandingof the lab instruments is
necessary to avoid personal or equipment damage. By understanding the device's purpose
and following a few simple rules, costly mistakes can be avoided.
Ammeters and Voltmeters:
The most common measurements are those of voltages and currents. Throughout this manual,
the ammeter and voltmeter are represented as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Ammeter and voltmeter.

Ammeters are used to measure the flow of electrical current in a circuit. Theoretically,
measuring devices should not affect the circuit being studied. Thus, for ammeters, it is
important that their internal resistance be very small (ideally near zero) so they will not
constrict the flow of current. However, if the ammeter is connected across a voltage
difference, it will conduct a large current and damage the ammeter. Therefore, ammeters must
always be connected in series in a circuit, never in parallel with a voltage source. High
currents may also damage the needle on an analog ammeter. The high currents cause the
needle to move too quickly, hitting the pin at the end of the scale. Always set the ammeter to
the highest scale possible, and then adjust downward to the appropriate level. Voltmeters are
used to measure the potential difference between two points. Since the voltmeter should not affect
the circuit, the voltmeters have very high (ideally infinite) impedance. Thus, the voltmeter
should not draw any current, and not affect the circuit. In general, all devices have physical
limits. These limits are specified by the device manufacturer and are referred to as the device
Network Theory (3131103)

rating. The ratings are usually expressed in terms of voltage limits, current limits, or power
limits. It is up to the engineer to make sure that in device operation, these ratings (limit
values) are not exceeded. The following rules provide a guideline for instrument protection.

Multimeter:

Meters are used to make measurements of the various physical variables in an electrical circuit.
These meters may be designed to measure only one variable such as a voltmeter or an ammeter.
Other meters called multimeters are designed to measure several variables, typically voltage,
current and resistance. These multimeters have the capability of measuring a wide range of values
for each of these variables. Some multimeter operates on battery power and are therefore easily
portable, but need battery replacement. Others operate on A.C. power. The read-out, or display,
of value being measured on the multimeter may be of the digital type or the analog type. The
digital type displays the measurement in an easy-to-read form. The analog type has a pointer
which moves in front of a marked scale and must be read by visually interpolating between the
scale markings.

In this lab, we will use a digital multimeter which is as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: The multimeter device

It consists of:

• Ammeter which is used to measure A.C or D.C current passing in a branch and is
connected in series with the circuit’s elements.

• Voltmeter for measuring the A.C or D.C voltage drop across any two point in the circuit
and is connected in parallel.

• Ohmmeter for measuring the resistance and is connected across the resistant.
Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope (abbreviated sometimes as 'scope or O-scope’) is a type of electronic test
Network Theory (3131103)

instrument that allows signal voltages to be viewed, usually as a two-dimensional graph which a
potential difference plotted as a function of time. Although an oscilloscope displays voltage on
its vertical axis, any other quantity that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed as well.
Oscilloscopes are commonly used when it is desired to observe the exact wave shape of an
electrical signal. In addition to the amplitude of the signal, an oscilloscope can show distortion
and measure frequency, time between two events (such as pulse width or pulse rise time), and
relative timing of two related signals.

Figure 3: Oscilloscope
Breadboard:
In order to temporarily construct a circuit without damaging the components used to build it, we
must have some sort of a platform that will both hold the components in place and provide the
needed electrical connections. In the early days of electronics, most experimenters were amateur
radio operators. They constructed their radio circuits on wooden bread boards. Although more
sophisticated techniques and devices have been developed to make the assembly and testing of
electronic circuits easier, the concept of the breadboard still remains in assembling components
on a temporary platform.

(a)
Network Theory (3131103)

(b)
Figure 4: (a) A typical Breadboard and (b) its connection details
A real breadboard is shown in Fig 4(a) and the connection details on its rear side are shown in
Fig 4(b). The five holes in each individual column on either side of the central groove are
electrically connected to each other, but remain insulated from all other sets of holes. In addition
to the main columns of holes, however, you'll note four sets or groups of holes along the top and
bottom. Each of these consists of five separate sets of five holes each, for a total of 25 holes.
These groups of 25 holes are all connected together on either side of the dotted line indicated on
Fig. 4(a) and needs an external connection if one wishes the entire row to be connected. This
makes them ideal for distributing power to multiple ICs or other circuits. These breadboard
sockets are sturdy and rugged, and can take quite a bit of handling.

Resistors:
The standard color-coding method for resistors uses a different color to represent each
number 0 to 9: black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple, grey, white. On a
4-band resistor, the first two bands represent the significant digits. On a 5 and 6 band, the first
three bands are the significant digits. The next band represents the multiplier or "decade". As
in the above 4 band example, the first two bands are red and purple, representing 2 and 7. The

third band is orange, representing 3 meaning 103 or 1000. This gives a value of 27 * 1000,
or 27000 Ohms. The gold and silver decade bands divide by a power of 10, allowing for
values below 10 Ohms. The 5 and 6 band resistors work exactly the same as the 4-band
resistor. They just add one more significant digit. The band after the decade is the tolerance.
This tells how accurate the resistance compared to its specification. The 4-band resistor has
a gold tolerance, or 5%, meaning that the true value of the resistor could be 5% more or less
than 27000 Ohms, allowing values between 25650 to 28350 Ohms.
Network Theory (3131103)

Figure 5. Resistors color code

The last band on a 6-band resistor is the temperature coefficient of the resistor, measured in
PPM/C or parts per million per degree Centigrade. Brown (100 PPM/C) are the most
popular, and will work for most reasonable temperature conditions. The others are specially
designed for temperature critical applications. In the E24 range the preferred values are: 1.0,
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.3, 3.6, 3.9, 4.3,4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2, 6.8, 7.5, 8.2
and 9.1

Inductors and capacitors:

Inductors can be calculated as resistors but multiplier in the color code of inductor would
be in micro-Henry. Rest of all procedure would be same as resistors. It would be nice if there
was more consistency to capacitor markings. If the manufacturer has lots of room (like on
big electrolytics) they will usually print everything they can; value, voltage rating,
temperature rating, series, even country of manufacture. However, the smaller the part
gets, the less information you get until, on the smallest parts there may be nothing at all.
On small through-hole ceramics, a two-number-plus-exponent system is often (but not
always) used. This, like most marking systems, is based on the pico farad, the lowest
Network Theory (3131103)

common denominator of capacitance. 470 may be 47 (47 x 100) or 470 pF but 471 is almost
certainly 470 (47 x 101). 473 will probably be 0.0047. However, 479 will probably mean 4.7
(47 x 10 -1). Values below 10 pF may use "R" for a decimal point, 4R7 = 4.7 pF for example.
With luck, you might also find the material (C0G, X7R, etc.) and voltage rating. The
tolerance may be next to the value.

Figure 6. Ceramic capacitor codes using numeric coding

Figure 7. Inductor color code

Table 1. Tolerance table in capacitor

Code Tolerance
C 0.25 pF
J 5%
K 10 %
M 20 %
D 0.5 pF
Z + 80 % / -20 %
Instrument Protection Rules:
1) Set instrument scales to the highest range before applying power.
2) Be sure instrument grounds are connected properly. Avoid accidental grounding of "hot”
leads, i.e., those that are above ground potential.
Network Theory (3131103)

3) Check polarity markings and connections of instruments carefully before connecting

power.
4) Never connect an ammeter across a voltage source. Only connect ammeters in series with
loads.
5) Do not exceed the voltage and current ratings of instruments or other circuit elements. This
particularly applies to wattmeter since the current or voltage rating may be exceeded with
the needle still on the scale.

6) Be sure the fuse and circuit breakers are of suitable value. When connecting electrical
elements to make up a network in the laboratory, it is easy to lose track of various points
in the network and accidently connect a wire to the wrong place. A procedure to follow
that helps to avoid this is to connect the main series part of the network first, then go back
and add the elements in parallel. As an element is added, place a small check by it on your
circuit diagram. Then go back and verify all connections before turning on the power. One
day someone's life may depend upon your making sure that all has been done correctly.
Network Theory (3131103)

Index
(Progressive Assessment Sheet)

Sr. Objective(s) of Experiment Page Date of Date of Assessme Sign. of Remark

No. No. perform submissi nt Teacher s
ance on Marks with date
Verify mesh analysis and nodal analysis using
1.
KVL and KCL in given circuit.
To verify superposition theorem experimentally
2. for a given resistive circuit consisting two
independent sources.
To verify Thevenin and Norton theorem and
3.
find out load current through load resistor.
To verify maximum power transfer theorem and
4. find the value of load resistor for maximum
power transfer.
To verify reciprocity theorem experimentally
5.
for a given circuit.
To observe transient response in RC, RL and
6.
RLC circuit diagram in digital CRO.
To Plot the phasor diagram of RC and RL series
7. circuit and determine power factor in RC as well
as RLC series circuit.
To plot frequency response in series RLC
8.
circuit.
To plot frequency response in parallel RLC
9.
circuit.
To measure and calculate Z and Y parameters
10.
for a given two-port system.
11. To determine and evaluate Transmission and
Hybrid parameters in given circuit diagram.

Total
Network Theory (3131103)

Experiment

1 Date:

OBJECTIVE:
(a) Verify mesh analysis and nodal analysis using KVL and KCL in given circuit
diagram.
(b) To observe response of Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor to DC as well as AC. Prove
Voltage and current divider.

Apparatus:
 Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors.
 Variable Power supply, Function generator

 Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Theory:

V1 1 V2 3 V3 5

1 Vpk 1 Vpk L1 1 Vpk C1

1kHz R1 1kHz 1kHz
0° 0° 0°
2 4 6

Figure a. Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor connected with a.c. supplies

Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors are passive devices it means they should be
excited by other active sources. These devices are lumped, linear and passive devices.
Voltage and current division:
R1

R2
V

By Ohm’s law

14
Network Theory (3131103)

V =V1 +V2 = iR1 + iR2 = i(R1 + R2)

So I = V/(R1 + R2)
Thus V2 = iR2 = VR2/(R1 + R2)
So V2 = (R2/(R1 + R2))V

R2
R1

I1

Current flowing through R2 is

IR2 = V / R2 = i( R1 ||R2 )/R2 = i R1 /(R1 + R2)
And similarly
IR1 = i R2/ (R1 + R2)
Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL):
The algebraic sum of voltage around any closed path is zero
Or more compactly

𝑉𝑛 = 0

Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL):

The algebraic sum of current entering any node is zero
Or more compactly

𝑖𝑛 = 0

KCL is independent of the nature of elements connected to node.

KVL is independent of the nature of elements present in loop.
KCL + Ohm’s law = nodal analysis
KVL + Ohm’s law = mesh analysis
Representation of circuit diagram in solder less bread board is shown in below figure.

15
Network Theory (3131103)

5.6kΩ 3.3kΩ

2.2kΩ
1kΩ 1.5kΩ
10 V

Circuit Diagram:

Circuit Diagram:

16
Network Theory (3131103)

Procedure:
 Connect circuit diagram as shown in figure.
 Apply source voltages by using power supply.
 Measure the voltage across each of resistor and from that find the current
through them.

 Calculate the current through each circuit element theoretically.

 Compare the theoretical result with practical one.

Calculation and Observation Table:

17
Network Theory (3131103)

18
Network Theory (3131103)

Quiz :
1. If V1 and V2 are ideal voltage sources then voltage across R1 is
(a) 5V (b) 7V (c) 0V (d) none

V1 V2 R1
12 V 5V 1kΩ

GND

2. If I1 and I2 are ideal current sources then current through R1 is

(a) 4A (b) 8A (c) 0A (d) none

I2
4A

R1

I1
4A

3. A network contains only independent current sources and resisters. If the values
of all resistors are doubled, the values of node voltages
(a) Will becomes half
(b) Will remain unchanged
(c) Will become double
(d) Cannot determined unless the circuit configuration and values of resistors are
known.

Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

19
Network Theory (3131103)

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

20
Network Theory (3131103)

Experiment

2 Date:

OBJECTIVE:
To verify the superposition theorem experimentally for a given resistive circuit consisting
two independent sources.
Apparatus:
 Resistors.
 Variable Power supply.

 Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Theory:
In any multisource complex network consisting of linear bilateral elements, the
voltage across or current through, any given element of the network is equal to the
sum of the individual voltage or current, produced independently across or in that
element by each source acting independently, when all the remaining sources are
replaced by their internal impedance. If there are dependent current and voltage
sources present in the circuit then such dependent sources should not be replaced
and must be kept as it is.

When two sources have different operating frequencies then superposition theorem
is only alternative to solve that network.

Properties:

1. This theorem is applicable only when the network is linear that is network with
R, L, C, transformer and linear control sources as elements.

2. The presence of elements and sources makes network an active and hence SPT is
valid for both active as well as passive network.

The homogeneity principle:

It is principle obeyed by all linear networks.

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Network Theory (3131103)

In a linear network if excitation is multiplied with constant k, then responses in all

other branches of network are also multiplied with same constant k.

Circuit Diagram:
R1 R2

R4 V2
V1
R3

Procedure:
 Connect the given resistors as shown in circuit diagram.

 Complete the circuit by connecting sources.

 Measure the voltage across each resistor using DMM and find current flowing
through them.

 Calculate current though each resistor using superposition theorem (it means
short circuit voltage sources and opening the current source).

R1 R2

R4
V1
R3

R1 R2

R4 V2

R3

 Calculate theoretical values of currents, these values should be approximately

equal to measured values of currents.

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Network Theory (3131103)

Calculation and Observation Table:

V1 = V1 = V1 = 0 V

V2 = V2 = 0 V V2 =

IR1 = I’R1 = I”R1 =

IR2 = I’R2 = I’’R2 =

IR3 = I’R3 = I’’R3 =

IR4 = I’R4 = I’’R4 =

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Network Theory (3131103)

Quiz :
1. In a four branch parallel circuit, 50 mA current flows in each branch. If one of
branches opens, the current in the other branches
(a) Increases (b) decreases (c) unaffected (d) double
2. In the circuit below, if the current through the resistor R is zero, what is the value
of I ?

2Ω 2Ω

V1
2Ω
R
12 V
2Ω I

(a) 1A (b) 2A (c) 3A (d) 4A

Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

24
Network Theory (3131103)

Experiment

3 Date:

OBJECTIVE:
To verify Thevenin and Norton theorem and find out load current through load
resistor.

Apparatus:
 Resistors.
 Variable Power supply.

 Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Theory:
Any combination of linear bilateral circuit elements and active sources, regardless
of the connections or complexity, connected to a given load Z L, may be replaced by
a simple two terminal network consisting of a single voltage source VTH and single
impedance Zeq in series with the voltage source, across the two terminals of the load
resistor ZL. The VTH is open circuit voltage measured at the two terminals of interest,
with load impedance ZL removed. This voltage is also called Thevenin’s equivalent
voltage. The Zeq is the equivalent impedance of the given network as viewed
through the terminals where ZL is connected, with ZL removed and all the active
sources are replaced by their internal impedance.

Rth

In Rn
Vth

In circuit diagram In = Vth/Rth

And Rth = Rn

Circuit Diagram:

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Network Theory (3131103)

V1 RL

V2

Procedure:
 Connect the given resistors as shown in circuit diagram.

 Complete the circuit by connecting sources.

 Open the load resistor.

 Measure the Thevenin voltage across the load resistance.

 Measure Thevenin equivalent resistance by replacing the sources with their

internal impedances. (theoretically short circuit the voltage source and open
circuit the current source.)

 Compared the theoretical result with practical one.

Calculation and Observation Table:

Vth Rth In Rn

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Network Theory (3131103)

Quiz :
1. Which controlled source configuration is required for interfacing the output of high
impedance microphone to low impedance loud speaker?
(a) VCVS (b) VCCS (c) CCCS (d) CCVS
2. Which of the following theorem can be applied to any network – linear or non linear,
active or passive, time variant or time invariant?

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Network Theory (3131103)

(a) Thevenin (b) Norton (c) Tellegen (d) Superposition

3. Consider the following circuit.

V1 V2
1MΩ

1MΩ CRO

If V1 = 5V and V2 = 3V, then what is the input impedance of CRO in above circuit
(a) 1 MΩ (a) 1.5 MΩ (a) 3 MΩ (a) 5 MΩ

Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

Rubric wise marks obtained:

Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

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Network Theory (3131103)

Experiment

4 Date:

OBJECTIVE:
To verify maximum power transfer theorem and find the value of load resistor for
maximum power transfer.

Apparatus:
 Resistors, potentiometer.
 Variable Power supply.

 Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, connecting wires and probes.

Theory:
This theorem is applicable when the load is variable otherwise choose minimum
internal impedance of source which results a maximum current through fixed load
and hence maximum power dissipates across the load.

Circuit Diagram:
XFG1

RL
50%
v 100Ω
50%
Key=A

Current through load

I = V/(R + RL)
P = I2RL = V2 RL/(R + RL)

Now, for maximum power transfer, =0

So, V2[(R + RL)2 - 2RL(R + RL)] = 0

Therefore, R = RL
Pmax = V2 /4RL
Efficiency ɳ = useful power/total power = (V2 /4RL) / (V2 /2RL) = 50%

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Network Theory (3131103)

So efficiency of max power transfer theorem is at most 50 %.

Procedure:
 Connect the given resistors as shown in circuit diagram

 Complete the circuit by connecting sources

 Vary the load resistor and set it to point where the voltage across it becomes
maximum.

 Calculate the load resistor using maximum power transfer theorem

 Compared the theoretical result with practical one.

 Same procedure can be done with function generator to find out the impedance
of coaxial cable.

Calculation and Observation Table:

Source Resistance: ____________________
Sr. No. Voltage across load Power across load

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Quiz :
1. In the circuit shown in figure, the power dissipates in 30 Ω resistor will be maximum
if the value of R is
R

16Ω

30Ω
v

(a) 30 Ω (b) 16 Ω (b) 9 Ω (b) zero

2. In the circuit shown in given figure, RL will absorbs maximum power when its
value is

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Network Theory (3131103)

6A

10Ω

RL
15Ω

2Ω

30 V

(a) 2.75 Ω (b) 7.5 Ω (b) 25 Ω (b) 27 Ω

3. The maximum power that a 12V d.c. source with an internal of 2 Ω can supply to
resistive load is

(a) 12 W (b) 18 W (b) 36 W (b) 48 W

Conclusion:

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Network Theory (3131103)

Experiment

5 Date:

OBJECTIVE:
To verify reciprocity theorem experimentally for a given circuit.

Apparatus:
 Resistors, Inductor, Capacitor.
 Variable Power supply.

 Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, Digital CRO, connecting wires and probes.

Theory:
Reciprocity theorem can be stated as in any bilateral linear network if a source of emf
E in any branch produces a current I in any other branch then the same emf E acting
in the second branch will produce the same current I in the first branch.

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
 Make the connection according to the circuit diagram
 (2) Measure the value of current by ammeter
 (3) Interchange the position of the ammeter and the voltage source
 (4) Now again measure the value of current
 (5) Verify that I1=I2..

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Network Theory (3131103)

Calculation and Observation Table:

Sr. No. Applied I1 I2 Error

Voltage I1-I2

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Network Theory (3131103)

Conclusion:

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36
Network Theory (3131103)

Experiment

6 Date:

OBJECTIVE:
To observe transient response in RC, RL and RLC circuit diagram in digital CRO.

Apparatus:
 Resistors, Inductor, Capacitor.
 Variable Power supply.

 Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, Digital CRO, connecting wires and probes.

Theory:
The transient in the system is because of presence of energy storing elements of
opposite kinds called inductor and capacitor since the energy stored in memory
element cannot change instantaneously that is within zero time. L and C elements will
oppose sudden change in system, which results the instability in system due to severe
oscillation.

Circuit Diagram:
XSC1

Ext Trig
+
R _
A B
+ _ + _

V C

The basic switching equation that applies any RC circuit is:

V = Vf – (Vi – Vf) (1 – e-t/RC)
Where V = instantaneous capacitor voltage
vi = initial capacitor voltage (i.e. = 0)
vf = target capacitor voltage (i.e.= vcc)
t = charging time
RC = time constant.

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Network Theory (3131103)

V =Vcc (1 - e-t/RC)
XSC1

Ext Trig
+
R _
A B
+ _ + _

L1
V

XSC1

R L1 Ext Trig
+
_
A B
+ _ + _

V C

Procedure:
 Connect the setup as shown in diagrams.
 Calculate the RC time constant α (Z=RC) of the circuit and record it .
 Set the function generator at pulse of Vp-p and pulse time tp= 1ms.
 Observe response of RC network across CRO and measure practical RC time
constant.
 Compare theoretical and practical time constant value.
 Same procedure follows for RL and RLC circuit.
 Measure the rise time by using the formula tr =2.2RC for RC network.
 Draw various response curves on graph paper and conclude it.

Calculation and Observation Table:

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Quiz :
1. What is the Unit of L/R2.
(a) Henry (b) Faraday (c) Ohm (d) Unit less
2. Find out time constant of circuit diagram given below.

2Ω 1Ω 2F

10 A 1F
2Ω 2F

Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Network Theory (3131103)

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43
Network Theory (3131103)

Experiment

7 Date:

OBJECTIVE:
To Plot the phasor diagram of RC and RL series circuit and determine power factor in RC as
well as RLC series circuit.
Apparatus:
 Resistors, Inductor, Capacitor.
 Variable Power supply, function generator.

 Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, Digital CRO, connecting wires and probes.

Theory:
Phasor diagram is a pictorial representation of all phase voltage and their respective
current in network.
The phasor is a rotating vector, which rotates in the anticlock wise direction with
angular frequency ω in the time domain.
ZR = R Ω = R ∟0°.
ZL = j ω L Ω = XL ∟90°.
ZL =1/ j ω C Ω = XC ∟- 90°.
Power factor can be defined as cosine of the angle between the voltage and current
in any a.c. circuit.
P.F. = cos(Ø)
Power factor (P.F.) is unity in resistive circuit (the angle between voltage and current
being zero), leading in capacitive circuit (current being leading the voltage), lagging
in inductive circuit (current being lagging the voltage).

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Network Theory (3131103)

Circuit Diagram:
R

L1
V1

Network is in steady state.

VR = IR
VL = I ZL = I XL∟90°

V
VL
Ø
VR

𝑉= 𝑉 + 𝑉

𝑉
∅ = tan
𝑉
cos ∅ = (Current lag voltage)

C1
V1

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Network Theory (3131103)

Above network is in steady state.

VR = IR
Vc = I Zc = I Xc∟- 90°

VR
Ø
V Vc

𝑉= 𝑉 + 𝑉

𝑉
∅ = tan
𝑉
cos ∅ = (Current lead voltage)

R L1

C1
V1

VR = IR
VL = I ZL = I XL∟90°
Vc = I Zc = I Xc∟- 90°
Case (1) V L > VC

𝑉= 𝑉 + (𝑉 − 𝑉 )

𝑉 −𝑉
∅ = tan
𝑉
cos ∅ = (Current lag voltage)

Case (2) VC > VL

𝑉= 𝑉 + (𝑉 − 𝑉 )

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Network Theory (3131103)

𝑉 −𝑉
∅ = tan
𝑉
cos ∅ = (Current lead voltage)

Case (3) V C = VL

VL

VR I

VC

Ø = 0° (Unity power factor)

Procedure:
 Connect the setup as shown in diagrams.
 Apply sinusoidal a.c. Voltage to given circuit diagram and measure its r.m.s.
voltage.
 Measure a.c. voltage across passive devices in given circuit.
 Draw phasor diagram in graph paper.
 Calculate power factor for each circuit diagram.

Calculation and Observation Table:

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Network Theory (3131103)

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Network Theory (3131103)

Quiz :
1. Determine steady state voltage Vo.

Vi = 2 sint Vo

2. If unit step current is passed through a capacitor what will be the voltage across
capacitor?
(a) 0 (b) A step function (c) A ramp function (d) An impulse function
3. What should be the value of current i3?
(a) 4A (b) 3A (c) 5A (d) none
I1
R1

1kΩ
3A
I3

I2
L1
10mH
4A

Conclusion :

Faculty Signature

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Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
Marks

50
Network Theory (3131103)

Experiment

8 Date:

OBJECTIVE:
To plot frequency response in series RLC circuit..
Apparatus:
 Resistors, Inductor, Capacitor.
 Variable Power supply, function generator.

 Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, Digital CRO, connecting wires and probes.

Theory:
In series RLC circuit

Impedance 𝑍 = 𝑅 + (𝑋 − 𝑋 )
Current I = V/Z.

Circuit Diagram:
XMM1

R L1 C1

V1

If the frequency of the signal fed to such a series circuit is increased from minimum,
the inductive reactance (XL= 2πfl) increases linearly and the capacitive reactance
(Xc= 1/2πfc) decreases exponentially.
At resonant frequency fr,
- Net reactance, X=0 (i.e., XL=Xc)
- Impedance of the circuit is minimum, purely resistive and is equal to R
- Current I through the circuit is maximum and equal to V/R
- Circuit current, I is in phase with the applied voltage V (i.e. phase angle Ø = 0).

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Network Theory (3131103)

At this particular resonant frequency a circuit is in series resonance.

Resonance occurs at that frequency when,
XL=Xc or 2πfl = 1/2πfc

Therefore 𝑓 =
√
BW of series RLC circuit: For frequency above and below resonant frequency fr, f1
and f2 are frequencies at which the circuit current is 0.707 times the maximum
current , Imax or the 3dB points.

Therefore from above fig

Bandwidth = Δf = f2 - f1 Hz.
And quality factor Q = fr/Δf = fr/f2 - f1

Procedure:
 Connect function generator and milliammeter as shown in circuit diagram.
 Set the function generator output voltage to say Vs=10 Volts.

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Network Theory (3131103)

 Increase the function generator output signal frequency from minimum say
10 Hz to a maximum signal frequency of 100KHz in decade steps
(10,20,30…..100,200,…..1000,2000…..10k,20k…….100kHz).
 For applied signal frequency measure current with the help of milliammeter.
 Calculate theoretical frequency using fr =1/2π√LC
 Plot the graph of frequency v/s current, find the frequency on the graph at
which Current is maximum, this frequency is known as Resonant frequency
and this should be approximately to the theoretical frequency calculated in
previous step.

Observation Table:
Vin = _________________________

Sr. No. Frequency Current (mA)

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Network Theory (3131103)

Calculation:

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Network Theory (3131103)

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Network Theory (3131103)

Quiz :
1. Consider the following statements.
When a series RLC circuit is under resonance
1. Current is maximum through R
2. Magnitude of voltage across L is equal to that across C
3. The Power factor of circuit is unity
Which of statement given above are correct?
(a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1and 3

Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Rubrics 1 2 3 4 5 Total
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56
Network Theory (3131103)

Experiment

9 Date:

OBJECTIVE:
To plot frequency response in parallel RLC circuit.
Apparatus:
 Resistors, Inductor, Capacitor.
 Variable Power supply, function generator.

 Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, Digital CRO, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit diagram:

LED1

XMM1

L1 C1
1uH 100nF

V1

Theory:
The circuit having an inductor & capacitor connected in parallel is called parallel
resonant circuit
If Xc < XL, then Ic >IL & the circuit acts capacitively .
If XL < Xc , then IL >Ic & the circuit acts inductively.
If XL = Xc, then IL =Ic & hence the circuit acts as a pure resistor.
In parallel resonant circuit at resonance condition
1. Phase difference between the circuit current and the applied voltage is zero
2. Maximum impedance
3. Minimum line current.

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Network Theory (3131103)

As in series resonance, all resonance circuit have the property of discriminating

between the frequency at resonance frequency (fr) and these not at resonance. This
property of the resonant circuit is expressed in terms of its bandwidth (BW).

Procedure:
 Make the connections on breadboard according to circuit diagram.
 Knowing the values of L and C, calculate and record the resonance frequency
of parallel resonance circuit.
 Set the output of function generator to 4 Vrms and frequency to 1khz .Record
the current I through the circuit.
 Increase the frequency gradually and record the resonance frequency Fr at
which the circuit current becomes minimum (that is LED does not glows or
glows very dimly.) (This is the resonance frequency of the parallel resonance
circuit because at parallel resonance, current I through parallel LC circuit will
be minimum).
 Compare & record the difference in the resonance frequency calculated at step
2 & that measured in step4
 Vary the input frequency in steps of 500 Hz around the resonance frequency
& in each step record the value of circuit current.
 From the recorded readings of current in step 6 plot a graph of frequency
versus current & mark the resonance frequency.
 Mark the -3 dB points on the plotted graph. Find bandwidth (B W) & quality
factor Q.

Observation Table:
Vin = _________________________
Sr. No. Frequency Current (mA)

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Network Theory (3131103)

Calculation:

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Network Theory (3131103)

Quiz :
1. Match the following
A. R/L 1. Second
B. 1/LC 2. Ohm
C. CR 3. (Radian/second)2

D. 𝐿/𝐶 4. (Second)-1

Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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62
Network Theory (3131103)

Experiment

10 Date:

OBJECTIVE:
To measure and calculate Z and Y parameters for a given two-port system.
Apparatus:
 Resistors.
 Variable Power supply.

 Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, Digital CRO, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:

V1
V2

Theory:
In two ports network port variables are port currents and port voltages. To describe
relationship between ports voltages and currents, two linear equations are required.
In the two port network, there are four variables. These are the voltages and currents
at the input and output ports, namely V1, I1 and V2, I2.
From this two are independent and two are dependent variables.
By expressing V1 and V2 in terms of I1 and I2
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2
From these equations we can find out all Z parameters out of which Z11 and Z22 can
be treat as input and output impedance of given circuit.

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Network Theory (3131103)

I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2
From these equations we can find out all Y parameters out of which Y11 and Y22 can
be treat as input and output impedance of given circuit.

Procedure:
 Connect dc power supply V1 and keep output port open circuited i.e. I2=0.
 Measure the current I1 by connecting milliammeter.
 Measure voltage V2 across open path.
 From these values of V1, V2, I1 and I2 (I2=0) find input driving point
impedance.
i.e. Z11 = V1/I1 where I2 = 0
& Find forward transfer impedance
i.e. Z21 = V2/I1 where I2 = 0
 Connect dc power supply V2 and keep input port open circuited i.e. I1=0.
 Measure the current I2 by connecting milliammeter in series with supply .
 Measure the voltage V1 across open path by multimeter.
 From this value of V2 , V1 , I2 and I1( I1=0) find output driving point
impedance that is Z22 = V2/I2 where I1 = 0
& Z12 = V1/I2 where I1 = 0
 Calculate z-parameters theoretically. These values should be approximately
equal to the practical values of z-parameters.
 Same procedure will be done for finding out Y parameters of circuit.
 Here in this circuit two same networks would be in parallel so Y parameter of
these two networks will be added. Check this theoretically as well as
practically.

Calculation and Observation Table:

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Network Theory (3131103)

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Network Theory (3131103)

Z Parameter Y Parameter
𝑍 𝑍 𝑌 𝑌
𝑍 𝑍 𝑌 𝑌
Theoretically Practically Theoretically Practically

Quiz :
1. Two port networks are connected in parallel. The Combination is to be
represented as a single two port network. The parameters of this network are
obtained by addition of individual.
(a) Z – parameter (b) h – parameter (c) Y – parameter (d) ABCD parameter.

Conclusion:

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66
Network Theory (3131103)

Experiment

11 Date:

OBJECTIVE:
To determine and evaluate Transmission and Hybrid parameters in given circuit diagram.
Apparatus:
 Resistors.
 Variable Power supply.

 Breadboard, Digital Multimeter, Digital CRO, connecting wires and probes.

Circuit Diagram:

V1
V2

Network (a)

V2
V1

Network (b)

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Network Theory (3131103)

Theory:
Sr. Parameter Equation Condition for Condition for
No. Symmetrical Reciprocal
1 Impedance V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2
Z11 = Z22 Z12 = Z21
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2
2 Admittance I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2
Y11 = Y22 Y12 = Y21
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2
3 Hybrid V1 = h11V2 + h12I1
Δh = 1 h12 = - h21
I2 = h21V2 + h22I1
4 Inverse V2 = g11V1 + g12I2
Δg = 1 g12 = - g21
Hybrid I1 = g21V1 + g22I2
5 Transmission V1 = AV2 – BI2
A=D AD – BC =1
I1 = CV2 – DI2
6 Inverse V2 = A’V1 – B’I1
A’ = D’ A’D’ – B’C’ =1
Transmission I2 = C’V1 – D’I1
From above table you can find out any of the parameter and conclude whether that
network is symmetrical or reciprocal or not.

Procedure:
 To find Transmission Parameter, Connect dc power supply V1 and keep
output port open circuited i.e. I2=0.
 Measure the current I1 by connecting milliammeter.
 Measure voltage V2 across open path.
 From these values of V1, V2, I1 and I2 (I2=0) find A and C parameter.
i.e. A = V1/V2 where I2 = 0
& Find forward transfer impedance
i.e. C = I1/V2 where I2 = 0
 Keep output port short circuited i.e. V2=0.
 Measure the current I1 by connecting milliammeter in series with supply.
 Measure the voltage V1 across open path by multimeter.
 From this value of V2 , V1 , I2 and I1( I1=0) find output driving point
impedance that is B = V1/I2 where V2 = 0

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Network Theory (3131103)

& D = I1/I2 where V2 = 0

 Calculate Transmission parameters theoretically. These values should be
approximately equal to the practical values of ABCD - parameters.
 Same procedure will be done for finding out hybrid parameters of circuit.

 Inverse hybrid parameter can be calculated by inversing out matrix calculated

in hybrid parameter.

Calculation and Observation Table:

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Network Theory (3131103)

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Transmission Parameter Hybrid Parameter

𝐴 𝐵 ℎ ℎ
𝐶 𝐷 ℎ ℎ
Theoretically Practically Theoretically Practically

Network
(a)

Network
(b)

Quiz :
1. The input voltage V1 and I1 for linear passive network is given by V1 = AV2 + BI2
I1 = CV2 + DI2. Now consider the following network

1 10Ω 2

1' 2'

𝐴 𝐵
Which one of the following is transfer matrix of the network shown above?
𝐶 𝐷
1 0 1 10 0 1 0 10
(a) (b) (c) (d)
0 10 0 1 10 0 1 0
Conclusion:

Faculty Signature

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Network Theory (3131103)

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Marks

72