Lecture 3&4

*Subject-verb agreement*

Subject-verb agreement is a fundamental concept in grammar, referring to the rule that a verb must
agree with its subject in number (singular or plural). Here are some key points to remember:

1. Singular subjects take singular verbs.

2. Plural subjects take plural verbs.

3. Indefinite pronouns (e.g., everyone, someone) take singular verbs.

4. Collective nouns (e.g., team, family) can take either singular or plural verbs, depending on the
context.

5. Compound subjects connected by "and" take plural verbs.

6. Compound subjects connected by "or" or "nor" take singular verbs.

7. Singular subjects with plural modifiers (e.g., "the team of experts") take singular verbs.

8. Verbs agree with the subject, not the complement (e.g., "The winner of the contest is...").

Examples:

- Singular: "The cat sleeps." (One cat)

- Plural: "The cats sleep." (Multiple cats)

- Indefinite pronoun: "Everyone is attending." (Singular verb)

- Collective noun: "The team is winning." (Singular verb) or "The team are all winners." (Plural verb)

- Compound subject: "John and Mary are attending." (Plural verb)

Remember, subject-verb agreement is crucial for clear and effective writing and speaking!

*Article*

In grammar, there are two main types of articles:

1. Definite Article: "the"

Used to refer to a specific, previously mentioned noun or a noun that is already known to the reader or
listener.
The definite article "the" is also used with superlative adjectives and adverbs to indicate that something
is the most or least in a particular category.

Examples:

- "She is the best singer in the world." (superlative adjective)

- "This is the most delicious cake I've ever tasted." (superlative adjective)

- "He runs the fastest in our school." (superlative adverb)

In these examples, "the" is used to emphasize that the person or thing is the most exceptional or
extreme in some way.

So, to recap, "the" is used:

- To refer to a specific, previously mentioned noun

- To refer to a noun that is already known to the reader or listener

- With superlative adjectives and adverbs to indicate the most or least in a category

Examples:

- "I'm reading the book you recommended." (specific book)

- "The sun is shining." (specific sun)

Indefinite Articles: "a" and "an"

Used to refer to a non-specific noun or a noun that is not previously mentioned.

- "a" is used before nouns that start with a consonant sound: "a cat", "a book"

- "an" is used before nouns that start with a vowel sound: "an apple", "an elephant"

Examples:

- "I need a pen." (any pen)

- "She's an engineer." (non-specific engineer)

- "The" is used for both singular and plural nouns.

- "A" and "an" are used only for singular nouns.

It's important to understand the difference between definite and indefinite articles to communicate
effectively and accurately in English.
*Sentence fragments*

Sentence fragments are groups of words that don't form a complete sentence. They lack a subject, verb,
or both, and can't stand alone as a complete thought. Here are some exam ples:

1. "The big red car." (Lacks a verb)

2. "Running down the street." (Lacks a subject)

3. "Because I was tired." (Lacks a main clause)

Types of sentence fragments:

1. *Phrases*

: Groups of words without a subject or verb.

Example: "In the morning"

2. *Dependent clauses:* Clauses that can't stand alone, often starting with subordinating conjunctions
like "because," "although," or "if."

Example: "Because I was tired"

3. *Gerund phrases:* Phrases starting with a gerund (-ing form), lacking a subject or main verb.

Example: "Eating a sandwich"

4. *Infinitive phrases:* Phrases starting with an infinitive (to + verb), lacking a subject or main verb.

Example: "To eat a sandwich"

To fix sentence fragments, you can:

1. Add a subject or verb to make it a complete sentence.

2. Connect it to an independent clause using proper punctuation.

3. Rewrite it as a complete sentence.

Remember, sentence fragments can be useful in writing for emphasis or style, but in standard writing,
it's generally best to use complete sentences for clarity.

*Run-on sentences*

Run-on sentences are sentences that contain two or more independent clauses (i.e., clauses that could
stand alone as separate sentences) without proper punctuation or conjunctions to separate them.

Examples:
- "I went to the store and I bought some milk and eggs" (two independent clauses without proper
punctuation)

- "I love reading books I find it really relaxing" (two independent clauses without proper punctuation)

Types of run-on sentences:

1. Compound sentence run-on: Two independent clauses without a conjunction or punctuation.

Example: "I went to the store I bought some milk"

2. Complex sentence run-on: An independent clause and a dependent clause without proper
punctuation.

Example: "I went to the store because I needed milk and eggs"

To fix run-on sentences, you can:

1. Use a period to separate the clauses into two separate sentences.

Example: "I went to the store. I bought some milk and eggs."

2. Use a conjunction (like and, but, or) to connect the clauses.

Example: "I went to the store, and I bought some milk and eggs."

3. Use a semicolon to separate the clauses.

Example: "I went to the store; I bought some milk and eggs."

4. Use subordination to make one clause dependent.

Example: "I went to the store because I needed milk and eggs."

Remember, run-on sentences can be confusing and hard to read, so it's important to use proper
punctuation and conjunctions to separate clauses and create clear, concise sentences!

*Modifiers*

Modifiers are words or phrases that provide additional information about other words or phrases in a
sentence. They can modify nouns, verbs, adjectives, or other modifierfs, and can provide details such as:

- *Time* : "Yesterday, I went to the store."

- *Place* : "In the park, we had a picnic."

- *Manner* : "She sings beautifully."

- *Frequency* : "I often visit my family."

*Types of modifiers:*

1. *Adjectives* : Modify nouns or pronouns.

Example: "The big red car."

2. *Adverbs* : Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Example: "She drives carefully."

**3. ** *Prepositional phrases:*** Modify nouns or verbs.

Example: "In the morning, I exercise."

*4. ** Relative clauses:* Modify nouns or pronouns.

Example: "The book, which is on the table, is mine."

*5. Participial phrases:* Modify nouns or pronouns.

Example: "The woman, walking down the street, is my friend."

Proper placement of modifiers is important to avoid ambiguity or confusion. For example:

- "Having studied all night, the exam was easy." (Incorrect - implies the exam studied all night)

- "Having studied all night, I found the exam easy." (Correct - implies the speaker studied all night)

Remember, modifiers help clarify and provide additional information, but need to be used carefully to
ensure clear and accurate communication!

*Word classes in English*

In English, there are four main word classes; nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. These are considered
**lexical words,* and they provide the main meaning of a phrase or sentence.

The other five word classes are; prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and interjections.
These are considered *functional words* , and they provide structural and relational information in a
sentence or phrase.

English Word classes, also known as parts of speech, and are grouped into based on their grammatical
properties and functions. Here are the main word classes:

*1. Nouns (N)*

- Proper nouns (e.g., John, London)

- Collective nouns (e.g., family, team)

- Abstract nouns (e.g., happiness, freedom)

*2. Verbs (V)*

- Action verbs (e.g., run, jump)

- Linking verbs (e.g., be, seem)

- Helping verbs (e.g., will, would)

- Transitive verbs (e.g., write, paint)

- Intransitive verbs (e.g., sleep, laugh)

*3. Adjectives (Adj)*

- Quantitative adjectives (e.g., three, many)

- Qualitative adjectives (e.g., happy, blue)

- Demonstrative adjectives (e.g., this, that)

*4. Adverbs (Adv)*

- Manner adverbs (e.g., quickly, loudly)

- Time adverbs (e.g., yesterday, soon)

- Place adverbs (e.g., here, there)

- Frequency adverbs (e.g., often, rarely)

*5. Pronouns (Pron)*

- Personal pronouns (e.g., I, you)

- Possessive pronouns (e.g., mine, yours)

- Demonstrative pronouns (e.g., this, that)

*6. Prepositions (Prep)*

- Words showing location (e.g., in, on, under)

- Words showing direction (e.g., to, from, up)

*7. Conjunctions (Conj)*

- Coordinating conjunctions (e.g., and, but)

- Subordinating conjunctions (e.g., because, although)

*8. Interjections (Intj)*

- Words expressing emotion (e.g., oh, wow)

*9. Articles (Art)*

- Definite articles (e.g., the)

- Indefinite articles (e.g., a, an)

Understanding word classes helps with:

- Grammar and syntax analysis

- Vocabulary building

- Effective communication

- Language teaching and learning