Lesson 6.

1 Aristotelian Mechanics
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, MARCH 11, 2018·
The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain what the Greeks considered to be the three types of
terrestrial motion.
What were the early ideas of Greek philosophers regarding motion?
Learn about it!
How do objects move? How do moving objects stop from moving? The Greek philosophers sought answers
to these questions about motion. Their ideas on motion were significantly influenced by Aristotle, a Greek
philosopher and astronomer. His ideas were accepted because they were based on observations and made
logical sense.
Ancient Greeks believed that the cosmos or the universe was divided into two realms – celestial and terrestrial.
The motion of the objects in the celestial realm was perfect and circular. They all revolved around Earth. On
the other hand, the motion in the terrestrial realm was unstable and imperfect, and there should be a cause for
motion.
Learn about it!
Types of Terrestrial Motion
According to Aristotelian mechanics, there are three types of motion: natural motion, voluntary motion, and
involuntary motion.
Natural Motion
Ancient Greek philosophers believed that all things in the terrestrial realm were made out of the four elements
– air, earth, fire, and water. Their natural motion is to go back to their natural state depending on the element
that composed them. Their motion was either upward or downward.
The natural state of objects made of earth was in the geosphere. For example, when a rock, an object made of
the element earth, was thrown upward, its tendency was to go back to its natural state. Therefore, it would
move downward, towards the Earth’s center. On the other hand, the natural state of objects made of air was in
the atmosphere. For example, the smoke from a flame would move upward to go back to its natural state.
Similarly, the natural state of objects made of water was in the hydrosphere while those made of fire was in the
thermosphere.
Learn about it!
Voluntary Motion
According to Aristotle, voluntary motion was an innate characteristic of humans and animals. The cause of
their motion was in themselves because they have the will to move.
Involuntary Motion
Involuntary motion was the characteristic motion of plants and minerals. They could not move because they
do not have the will to do so. They could only move due to mechanical forces.
Explore
Many years after Aristotle’s time, an Italian physicist, Galileo Galilei contradicted Aristotle’s ideas on motion.
What are his ideas on motion?
What do you think?
How do ancient Greek philosophers describe the motion of celestial bodies?
Key Points
The three types of terrestrial motion according to the Aristotelian mechanics are:
 natural motion where objects tend to go back to their natural state, which is based on the element that
composes them;
 voluntary motion of humans and animals due to their innate will to move; and
 involuntary motion of minerals and plants due to mechanical forces.
Test Question
1. Which of the following are the two realms that make up the cosmos according to ancient Greeks?
 A. terrestrial and natural
 B. celestial and natural
 C. natural and unnatural
 D. terrestrial and celestial
2. Which of the following describes the motion of the objects in the celestial realm according to Greek
philosophers?
 A. perfect and circular
 B. perfect and rectilinear
 C. unstable and circular
 D. unstable and rectilinear
3. Which of the following describes the motion of the objects in the terrestrial realm?
 A. perfect
 B. circular
 C. unstable
 D. rectilinear
4. Which of the following are the types of terrestrial motion according to Aristotelian mechanics?
 I. natural
 II. voluntary
  III. involuntary
 IV. cosmological
 A. I only
 B. II only
 C. II and IV
 D. I, II and III
5. Which of the following best explains why raindrops fall according to Aristotelian mechanics?
 A. Raindrops fall due to the gravitational attraction of the Earth.
 B. The involuntary motion of raindrops is to fall.
 C. The atmosphere can no longer hold the raindrops.
 D. The natural state of the rain is to go to the hydrosphere.
6. According to the Aristotelian mechanics, which of the following best describes the condition that will allow
terrestrial objects to move?
 A. There should be a cause of movement.
 B. The celestial bodies should be aligned perfectly.
 C. Their natural state is to move towards the ground.
 D. They should be composed mainly of Earth element.
7. Which of the following best explains why animals move?
 A. Their natural state is to move towards Earth's center.
 B. The gravitational attraction of Earth forces them to move.
 C. Their movements are dictated by the movement of celestial bodies.
 D. They voluntarily move die to their innate will to do so.
8. Which of the following best explains why plants are considered to have involuntary motion?
 A. It is their natural state not to move.
 B. They do not have the will to move.
 C. The gravity of the Earth stops them from moving.
 D. The celestial bodies stop them from moving.
9. Which of the following best describes the condition that will allow plants to move?
 A. There should be mechanical forces applied to them.
 B. There should be celestial forces applied to them.
 C. The Sun should be visible to give them energy.
 D. Plants can move on their own.
10. When terrestrial objects are unstable, they tend to go back to their natural state.
Find the correct matches for the natural state of the following:
 A. Geosphere : river; Hydrosphere : clay pot; atmosphere : flame; thermosphere : carbon dioxide
  B. Geosphere : clay pot; Hydrosphere : river; atmosphere : carbon dioxide; thermosphere : flame
 C. Geosphere : carbon dioxide; Hydrosphere : clay pot; atmosphere : flame; thermosphere : river
 D. Geosphere : river; Hydrosphere : flame; atmosphere : clay pot; thermosphere : carbon dioxide

Lesson 6.2 Diurnal Motion, Annual Motion, and Precession of the Equinoxes
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, MARCH 11, 2018·
The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain diurnal motion, annual motion, and precession of the
equinoxes.
When you look at the night sky, you will notice that stars appear to be attached to an imaginary spherical
surface. This spherical surface is known as the celestial sphere whose center is the Earth.
How do celestial bodies move in the celestial sphere?

Learn about it!

The movement of different celestial bodies can be described as diurnal motion, annual motion, and precession
of the equinoxes.
Diurnal Motion
Diurnal motion is the apparent daily revolution of the celestial sphere around the celestial poles as a direct
effect of the Earth’s rotation on its axis. In other words, it refers to the apparent movement of stars and other
celestial bodies around Earth. The circular path that the celestial bodies take to complete the diurnal motion is
called diurnal circle.
The apparent motion of celestial bodies viewed from Earth is east to west. If you observe the night sky, the
stars seem to move in a counter-clockwise direction (from east to west) with respect to Polaris or North Star.
Similarly, the apparent daily motion of the sun, which is the closest star to Earth, is counter-clockwise. You
can observe that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
Some stars, called circumpolar stars, never seem to go away from the horizon, or never set or rise. The closer
you get to the poles, the larger the circle of circumpolar stars is. On the other hand, the nearer you get to the
equator, the circle of circumpolar stars decreases until it vanishes at the celestial poles.

Learn about it!

Annual Motion
Annual motion is the apparent yearly movement of the stars as observed from Earth as a direct effect of the
Earth’s revolution around the sun.
The sun revolves 360 degrees a year around a path on the celestial sphere called the ecliptic. The sun moves
eastward with respect to the stars on the celestial sphere. It can be observed that the sun’s altitude changes with
season. Its altitude is at maximum during summer solstice and at minimum during winter solstice. Also,
sunrise and sunset points in the horizon changes with season. The sun rises north of east in the summer, and
south of east in the winter.
As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, different stars and constellations appear on the horizon throughout the
year. These are known as the constellations of the Zodiac.

Learn about it!

Precession of the Equinoxes
As the sun revolves around the ecliptic, it intersects the celestial equator twice during a year at two points.
These points are called the equinoxes: vernal and autumnal. During an equinox, the length of daytime is almost
equal to the length of nighttime. Vernal or spring equinox happens every March 20 while autumnal equinox
occurs every September 22. The gravitational force of the sun and the moon on Earth causes the cyclic
precession or “wobbling” of the Earth’s axis of rotation.
Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic as Earth ‘wobbles,’ and
this motion happens about every 26 000 years. At present, Earth’s North Pole points to Polaris. However, it
will eventually point to another star, Vega, because of precession.

Explore!
Different stars and constellations appear on the horizon throughout the year. These are known as the
constellations of the Zodiac. Research what these constellations of the Zodiac are and how they move as the
Earth wobbles.

What do you think?

How did astronomers know that the Earth is spherical?

Key Points
 Diurnal motion is the apparent daily motion of the stars, including the Sun as seen from the Earth due
to the Earth’s rotation.
 Annual motion is the apparent yearly motion of the stars, including the Sun as seen from the Earth due
to the Earth’s revolution around the Sun.
 Precession of the equinoxes is the apparent motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic as the Earth
wobbles.

Test Question
1. Which of the following refers to the surface where stars appear to be attached?
A. ecliptic
B. celestial poles
C. celestial sphere
D. diurnal circle
2. Which of the following is the path that the stars take in completing diurnal motion?
 A. celestial sphere
 B. ecliptic
 C. diurnal circle
 D. celestial poles
3. Which of the following is the path taken by the sun as it moves around the celestial sphere?
 A. diurnal circle
 B. celestial sphere
 C. celestial poles
 D. ecliptic
4. Which of the following is a consequence of the Earth’s rotation around its axis?
 A. The constellations change their position with season.
 B. The equinoxes wobble.
 C. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
 D. The North Star changes from Polaris to Vega.
5. What happens to the circle of circumpolar stars as you get closer to the poles?
 A. increases
 B. decreases
 C. remains the same
 D. changes position
6. During which time is the sun’s altitude at its maximum?
 A. summer solstice
 B. winter solstice
 C. autumnal equinox
 D. vernal equinox
7. Which of the following can be observed due to the Earth’s revolution around the Sun?
 I. The sun’s altitude changes with season.
 II. Circumpolar stars can be observed.
 III. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
 IV. Different constellations appear in the horizon throughout the year.
 A. I and II
 B. II and III
 C. II and IV
 D. I and IV
8. Which of the following can be observed when the sun intersects the celestial equator as it revolves around
the ecliptic?
 A. The length of daytime is greater than the length of night time.
 B. The length of daytime is lesser than the length of night time.
 C. Solar flares are more frequent.
 D. The length of daytime is equal to the length of night time.
9. Which of the following is the driving force that causes the Earth’s axis of rotation to wobble?
 A. gravitational force of the Sun and moon
 B. diurnal motion
 C. annual motion
 D. precession
Categorize the following observations or phenomena whether they are consequences of diurnal motion,
annual motion, or precession of the equinoxes.
10. Revolution of the stars around the celestial poles. The observation of stars that never seem to rise or set.
 A. Diurnal Motion
 B. Annual Motion
 C. Precession of the Equinoxes
11. The sun’s sunrise and sunset points in the horizon changes with season.
 A. Diurnal Motion
 B. Precession of the Equinoxes
 C. Annual Motion
12. Autumnal and vernal points change every about 26 000 years.
 A. Diurnal Motion
 B. Precession of the Equinoxes
 C. Annual Motion

Lesson 6.3 How the Greeks Knew That the Earth Is Spherical
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, MARCH 18, 2018·
The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how the Greeks knew that the Earth is spherical.
The shape of the Earth is oblate spheroid. It has bulging equator and squeezed poles.
Have you ever wondered what the early philosophers thought about the shape of the Earth?

Learn about it!

Around 500 B.C., most Greeks believed that the Earth was round, not flat. It was Pythagoras and his pupils
who were first to propose a spherical Earth.
In 500 to 430 B.C., Anaxagoras further supported Pythagoras' proposal through his observations of the
shadows that the Earth cast on the Moon during a lunar eclipse. He observed that during a lunar eclipse, the
Earth's shadow was reflected on the Moon's surface. The shadow reflected was circular.
Around 340 B.C., Aristotle listed several arguments for a spherical Earth which included the positions of the
North star, the shape of the Moon and the Sun, and the disappearance of the ships when they sail over the
horizon.
North Star
The North Star was believed to be at a fixed position in the sky. However, when the Greeks traveled to places
nearer the equator, like Egypt, they noticed that the North Star is closer to the horizon.
The Shape of the Sun and the Moon
Aristotle argued that if the Moon and the Sun were both spherical, then perhaps, the Earth was also spherical.
Disappearing Ships
If the Earth was flat, then a ship traveling away from an observer should become smaller and smaller until it
disappeared. However, the Greeks observed that the ship became smaller and then its hull disappeared first
before the sail as if it was being enveloped by the water until it completely disappeared.

Learn about it!

The Size of the Spherical Earth
Ancient scholars tried to provide proof of a spherical Earth and its circumference through calculations. It was
Eratosthenes who gave the most accurate size during their time. While he was working at the Library of
Alexandria in Northern Egypt, he received correspondence from Syene in Southern Egypt which stated that a
vertical object did not cast any shadow at noontime during the summer solstice. But this was not the case in
Alexandria where, at noon time during the summer solstice, a vertical object still casts a shadow. These
observations could only mean that the Sun, during this time in Alexandria, was not directly overhead.
Eratosthenes then determined the angle the Sun made with the vertical direction by measuring the shadow that
a vertical stick cast. He found out that in Alexandria, the Sun makes an angle of 7.2° from the vertical while 0°
in Syene. To explain the difference, he hypothesized that the light rays coming from the sun are parallel, and
the Earth is curved.
From his measurements, he computed the circumference of the Earth to be approximately 250 000 stadia (a
stadium is a unit of measurement used to describe the size of a typical stadium at the time), about 40 000
kilometers.

Try it!
Prepare a flashlight and two ping pong balls. In a dark room, align the flashlight and the balls horizontally.
Illuminate one ball with the flashlight and observe the shadow it casts on the ball behind it.
What is the shape of the shadow? How is the result of the experiment related to Aristotle's arguments about the
shape of the Earth?

What do you think?

What could life on Earth be like if it is not a sphere?

Key Points
The following observations led the Greeks to conclude that the Earth is sphere:
 The Earth casts a circular shadow on the Moon during a lunar eclipse.
 The North Star has different positions depending on the location of the observer.
 The Moon and the Sun are both spherical.
  A sailing ship becomes smaller and then its hull disappears first before the sail as if it is being
enveloped by the water until it completely disappears.
 The angle of the Sun with the vertical direction at noon time during a summer solstice varies from place
to place.

Test Questions
1. Which of the following is the shape of the Earth according to ancient Greeks?
 A. cylinder
 B. octagon
 C. flat disc
 D. sphere
2. What is the shape of the Earth as described by modern astronomy?
 A. ellipsoid
 B. hyperboloid
 C. oblate spheroid
 D. oblate paraboloid
3. Which of the following ancient Greek philosophers computed for the circumference of the Earth?
 A. Anaxagoras
 B. Pythagoras
 C. Eratosthenes
 D. Aristotle
4. According to Erastothenes’ computations what is the circumference of the Earth?
 A. 250 000 stadia
 B. 500 stadia
 C. 7.2 stadia
 D. 40 000 stadia
5. In which of the following is 250 000 stadia equal to?
 A. 40 000 kilometers
 B. 40 000 meters
 C. 40 000 miles
 D. 40 000 inches
6. In which of the following events can the circular shadow of the Earth be observed most notably?
 A. solar eclipse
 B. lunar eclipse
 C. summer solstice
  D. winter solstice
7. Which of the following describes the position of the North Star if you go farther away from the equator?
 A. closer to the horizon
 B. farther away from the horizon
 C. The North Star is fixed wherever you are on the Earth.
 D. It disappears completely.
8. Which of the following can be observed of a cruising ship if the Earth is a flat disc?
 A. It will shrink then only the sail will be visible until it completely disappears.
 B. It will become bigger and bigger.
 C. It will not change its size.
 D. It will become smaller and smaller until it disappears.
9. During which time did Eratosthenes observe the shadows cast by a vertical stick?
 A. noon time in summer solstice
 B. noon time in winter solstice
 C. during a lunar eclipse
 D. during a solar eclipse
10. According to Eratosthenes, which of the following explain why a vertical stick casts a shadow in
Alexandria but not in Syene?
 I. The Sun is directly overhead in Syene while in Alexandria, it is only almost directly overhead.
 II. The light rays coming from the sun are parallel, and the Earth is curved.
 III. The light rays coming from the sun are curved, and the Earth is flat.
 IV. The Sun is directly overhead in Alexandria while in Syene, it is only almost directly overhead.
 A. I only
 B. I and II
 C. III and IV
 D. II and IV

Lesson 6.4 How Plato's Problem of "Saving the Appearances" Constrained Greek Models of the Universe
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SUNDAY, MARCH 18, 2018·
The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how Plato’s problem in “saving the appearances”
constrained Greek models of the universe.
How did Plato’s ‘saving the appearances’ disproved the Greeks models of the universe?
Learn about it!
Greeks' Notion on the Movement of Planets
In Greek Astronomy, the philosophers favored a broader approach when it comes to theories on the movement
of planets. Greeks were able to formulate a scheme of planetary motion based on the present observations that
they account that time. The two most notable principles of Greek philosophers in describing the motion of the
stars, the sun, and the planets include the theory of planetary motion and the apparent motion of the planets.
The theory of planetary motion assumed that the planets must move ‘perfectly’ in a circular motion. In the
same way, the Greeks believed that the apparent motion of the planets were based on the uniformity of their
behavior as move on their orbits, without considering the irregularities in their movement. For example, in the
celestial sphere, the stars appear to rotate uniformly, from east to west, until they return back to their starting
point. From these ideas, Plato posed an important question to his students that revolved in the two main
principles of the Greek philosophers.
Plato’s ‘Saving the Appearances’
Before he posed his question, Plato first cited his observations about the stars and the planets. He explained
that the stars appear to move around the earth in a 'perfect' path. However, he described that some of the ‘stars’
appear to 'wander' across the sky, giving irregular figures throughout the year. He accounted the 'wandering
stars' as planets and that they move in a uniform and orderly manner in circles or in combinations of circles.
Finally, he asked his students on how can they explain all these observations about the planetary motion and
‘save the appearances’ (in today's term, 'fit the observations with the data').
He posed the question because the observations about the planetary motion and the apparent motions of the
planets did not seem to coincide with each other. Given that the planets move in a perfect path or in a uniform
circular motion, there were still apparent irregular motions of the planets or planets that still 'wander' across the
sky.

Learn about it!

Plato’s question was not meant for him to answer but instead, it became the goal of astronomers and
philosophers.
The Aristotelian System
Aristotle believed that all matter consists of a mixture of four elements: earth, water, air, and fire. Each of these
elements has a tendency to reach its ‘natural place’. However, these elements are only present in terrestrial
objects. In the case of the celestial bodies, a fifth element called aether, was the reason why the heavens were
created. The aether has its own motion based on its nature: pure and absolute. Its motion has no end and no
beginning; thus, its natural place is a circular motion. However, the Earth was an exception. It cannot have the
circular motion of the aether due to its nature, which was primarily composed of the element earth.
Based on this philosophy, Aristotle devised a system to explain the uniform and ordered movement of the
celestial bodies. In his system, the stars were embedded outside the largest sphere where the “prime mover” is
found. The prime mover keeps the stars moving in a constant motion, causing a friction to the smaller spheres
of the outer planets and the spheres where the sun and the inner planets were located.

Aristotle, however, was not able to explain the apparent motion of celestial bodies. Using his system, he was
not able to explain why the sun, the moon, Venus, and Jupiter seemed brighter, closer or farther from the Earth
at times. A set of uniform motions of the celestial bodies around the Earth means that these bodies cannot
change their distance from the Earth.

Learn about it!

The Heliocentric Theory
It was Aristarchus of Samus who first suggested a system that puts the sun at the center of the universe,
where the moon, the earth, and the five planets, revolved around the sun in different sizes of orbits at different
speeds. However, there were serious flaws that the ancient people saw in his system.
First, Aristarchus violated their philosophical doctrines: the Earth is immobile and its natural place is at the
center of the universe, and the position of the sun is differentiated from the celestial bodies. Second, he was not
able to provide mathematical computations and predictions of the celestial paths. Finally, the Greek thinkers
refuted Aristarchus idea by creative reasoning. They posed a scenario that if the earth moves around the sun,
the large orbit of the earth will carry itself closer or farther to a certain fixed star in the celestial sphere. Thus,
the angle at which the star is viewed will be different with the different points as observed in the earth annually
(known today as the annual parallax).

With all these flaws, the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus was disregarded by the Greek thinkers.

Learn about it!

The Modified Geocentric Model
Apollonius, Hipparchus, and an influential astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy modified the geocentric theory to
answer the question posed by Plato that had not been answered by the previous geocentric theory. This
modified theory states that:
1. The celestial bodies move in an eccentric path if these bodies do not move around in a uniform circular
motion around the stationary earth.
2. The celestial bodies, such as the sun or a certain planet, have two uniform circular motions, as depicted with
a small circle (epicycle) and a larger circle (deferent) which take different speeds and direction. The reversal in
the direction of motion is called retrograde motion. During this motion, the planets appear brighter because it
is closer to the earth.
However, with all these modifications in the previous geocentric theory, this modified theory still failed to
answer the question posed by Plato.
The Ptolemaic System
Of all the theories, systems, and ideas that had been laid down to answer Plato's question, Claudius Ptolemy
was the only one who was able to answer Plato's question. He still made a few modifications of the modified
geocentric theory and was able to explain about the planetary motion and the apparent motion of the planets.
This theory gave an accurate description of what could be observed given the instruments they use and was
based on the Greeks' philosophical and physical doctrine regarding nature and the celestial bodies.
However, the success of this theory in answering Plato's "saving the appearances" had been displaced with the
heliocentric theory, which is up to now, has been the accepted model of the universe.

Key Points
 The two most notable principles of Greek philosophers in describing the motion of the stars, sun, and
planets include the theory of planetary motion and the apparent motion of the planets.
 From these ideas, Plato posed an important question to his students that revolved in the two main
principles of the Greek philosophers.
 He explained that the stars, given that they are unchanging bodies, appear to move around the earth in a
perfect path.
 He described that some of the ‘stars’ appear to wander across the sky, giving irregular figures
throughout the year. He accounted them as planets and defined that these planets move in a uniform
and orderly manner in circles or combination of circles.
 He asked his students on how can they explain all these observations in the planetary motion and ‘save
the appearances’ (in today's term, 'fit the data').
Test Question
1. Which of the following is not one of the four elements that were believed to comprise the universe?
 A. fire
 B. earth
 C. human
 D. wind
2. Which of the following is not true about the Platonic Solids?
 A. The Platonic Solids are irregular polyhedrons.
 B. They are made up of triangles that could be broken apart.
 C. The Platonic Solids represent four different elements comprising the universe.
 D. When part of a Platonic solid binds with a part of another, they will be able to form some other
element.
3. Which of the following facts about present day knowledge of the universe is not in line with Plato’s
cosmos?
 A. There are seven planets in the entire universe.
  B. The moon and the sun are planets that revolve around the earth.
 C. The planets do not revolve around the Earth.
 D. The moon is the nearest planet to the Earth.
4. Which of the following is true about the Greek’s view of the moon and sun?
 A. The sun represents the element of fire, thus is represented by a tetrahedron.
 B. Both the moon and sun are planets that revolve around the Earth.
 C. The moon was revolving around the Earth while the sun was not.
 D. The sun is the nearest “planet” to the Earth.
5. What does the word “inscribed” means in the statement “the Platonic Solids can be inscribed in the
universe”?
 A. When all the platonic solids are put together, they would be like a puzzle that would fit inside the
universe.
 B. The outer edges of the Platonic solids can fit exactly within the shape of the universe.
 C. The platonic solids surround the shape of the universe, and they revolve around the shape of the
universe.
 D. All platonic solids could be placed on the diameter of the sphere, side by side.
6. Which of the following may be reasons why the Earth is believed to be the center of the universe?
 A. Both the moon and sun are planets that revolve around the Earth.
 B. The sun represents the element of fire, thus is represented by a tetrahedron.
 C. The moon was revolving around the Earth while the sun was not.
 D. The sun is the nearest “planet” to the Earth.
7. What does the word “inscribed” means in the statement “the Platonic Solids can be inscribed in the
universe”?
 A. When all the platonic solids are put together, they would be like a puzzle that would fit inside the
universe.
 B. The platonic solids surround the shape of the universe, and they revolve around the shape of the
universe.
 C. The outer edges of the Platonic solids can fit exactly within the shape of the universe.
 D. All platonic solids could be placed on the diameter of the sphere, side by side.
8. Which of the following may be reasons why the Earth is believed to be the center of the universe?
 A. They have formulated equations to prove that the Earth was at the center of the universe.
 B. For an Earth-based observer, the Earth does not seem to be moving from its position.
 C. It is affected most by the moon which is easily observed to revolve around the Earth, it was safe to
assume that all other bodies did so as well.
 D. All other celestial bodies seemed to revolve around the Earth, even the sun.
9. Which of the following may not be a strong influence of Plato’s Timaeus to the Greek’s view of the
universe?
 A. The Timaeus has stated a number of observable instances which makes it more realistic for the
Greeks.
 B. This was explained in a manner that involved Greek gods and goddesses, making it more believable
to the Greeks.
 C. It is similar to other models of the universe where the Earth is at the center.
 D. Plato was a famous philosopher at the time, whatever he said is always believed to be true.
10. Which of the following is a specific instance where Plato’s Universe is unique from the Geocentric Model
of the universe?
 A. It explained that the universe is created with only four elements.
 B. It provided an observation that the universe is in the shape of a sphere.
 C. All other bodies in the universe are observably moving around the Earth.
 D. It explained that the Earth was an immovable center of the sphere of the universe.

Lesson 6.5 The Models of the Universe: Eudoxus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, and Copernicus
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·TUESDAY, APRIL 10, 2018·
The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to compare and contrast the models of the universe by Eudoxus,
Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, and Copernicus.
What are the models of the universe proposed by different philosophers?

Learn about it!

Eudoxus’ Model
Eudoxus of Cnidus (born c. 395 – 390 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and mathematician, was the first to propose a
model of the universe based on geometry. His model composed of 27 concentric spheres with Earth as the
center. The Sun, the Moon, the planets, and the fixed stars have spheres. Each sphere is attached to a larger
sphere through a pole. The rotation of the spheres on their poles once every 24 hours accounts for the daily
rotation of the heavens. It is unclear whether Eudoxus regarded these spheres as physical entities or just
mathematical constructions.
Aristotle’s Model
Aristotle (born c. 384 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and astronomer, considered the model proposed by Eudoxus,
but he considered these spheres as physical entities. He thought that these spheres were filled with the divine
and eternal “ether” that caused the spheres to move. He introduced the Prime Mover, as the cause of the
movement of the spheres. His model composed of 56 spheres that guided the motion of the Sun, the Moon, and
five known planets. As the spheres move, they maintained the same distance from the Earth. Also, they moved
at constant speeds.

Learn about it!

Aristarchus' Model
Aristarchus of Samos (born c. 310 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and mathematician, was the first to hypothesize
that the Sun is the center of the universe. He visualized that the Moon orbits around a spherical Earth which
then revolves around the Sun. He believed that the stars are very far away from the Earth as evidenced by the
absence of stellar parallax – that is, the stars do not change positions relative to each other as the Earth revolves
around the Sun.
Through geometrical models and mathematical computations, he concluded that the Sun is 20 times farther
from the Earth than the Moon is to the Earth; the Earth is about three times larger than the Moon; and the Sun
is 20 times larger than the Moon. He also reasoned out that smaller spheres orbit around larger ones. Thus, the
Moon orbits around the Earth, and the Earth orbits around the Sun.

Learn about it!

Ptolemy’s Model
The Sun, Moon, stars, and planets were believed to move in a uniform circular motion – the “perfect” motion
assigned to celestial bodies by the ancient Greeks. However, observations showed otherwise. The paths of the
celestial bodies are not circular, and they vary in distances. Babylonians even showed that some planets exhibit
a retrograde motion – a motion opposite to that of other planets.
To explain “imperfect motions” of heavenly bodies, Claudius Ptolemy (born c. 90 A.D.), a Greco-Egyptian
astronomer and mathematician, proposed his own geocentric (Earth-centered) model of the universe. He
accounted for the apparent motions of the planets around the Earth by assuming that each planet moved around
a sphere called an epicycle. The center of the epicycle then moved on a larger sphere called a deferent.
The Ptolemaic System
1. A planet moves counter-clockwise around the epicycle.
2. The epicycle’s center also moves counter-clockwise around the center of the deferent (indicated by the
+ sign in the image).
3. The center of the epicycle moves around the equant with a uniform speed.
4. The Earth is not exactly at the center of the deferent, or it is eccentric (off the center). This explains
why, as observed from the Earth, the Sun or a planet moves slowest when it is farthest from the Earth
and moves fastest when it is nearest the Earth.
5. The motion of the planet can be described by points 1-7 in the figure below. At point 4, the planet
moves in a retrograde (clockwise) motion. The planet is brightest at this point because it is closest to
the Earth.
Learn about it!
Copernicus' Model
In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus, a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer born in Poland, ended the
geocentric astronomy era by publishing his work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres wherein he
explained that the Sun, not the Earth, is the center of the universe.
In his work, he reiterated the ancient Greek concept that the motion of spherical heavenly bodies is uniform,
eternal, and circular. He then reasoned that because Earth is spherical, then its motion is circular. He added that
the Earth has three different motions: daily rotation on its axis, yearly motion around the Sun, and the
precession, or change in orientation, of its axis every 26 000 years.
He also proposed that the fixed stars are immovable. Their apparent movement is a consequence of the Earth’s
rotation. These stars are at immeasurable distances from the Earth, so there is no observable parallax.
By placing the Sun at the center of the universe and the orbits of Mercury and Venus in between the Sun and
the Earth, Copernicus’ model was able to account for the changes in the appearances of these planets and their
retrograde motions. The need for epicycles in explaining motions was eliminated.

Try it!
Parallax is the effect wherein an object’s position appears to change when viewed by an observer from
different positions. You can demonstrate this by looking at your forefinger at arm’s length. Cover your left eye
and look at your forefinger. Then transfer the cover on your right eye and observe the position of your
forefinger. What did you observe?

What do you think?

What models of the universe are accepted in the scientific community today?

Key Points
 Eudoxus’, Aristotle’s, and Ptolemy’s models have the Earth as the center of the universe while
Aristarchus’ and Copernicus’ models have the Sun as the center.
 Eudoxus’ model has 27 concentric spheres for the Sun, Moon, planets, and the stars whose common
center is the Earth.
 Aristotle’s model of the universe is composed of 56 spheres guiding the motion of Sun, Moon and the
five known planets.
 Aristarchus said that smaller celestial bodies must orbit the larger ones and since the Sun is much larger
than the Earth, then the Earth must orbit around the Sun.
 Ptolemaic model introduced the concepts of epicycle, deferent, and equant to explain the observed
“imperfect” motions of the planets.
 Copernicus’ model recognized that the Earth rotates on its axis, revolves around the Sun, and
undergoes precession.

Test Questions
1. How many concentric spheres accommodate the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars in Eudoxus’ model?
 A. 37
 B. 46
 C. 56
 D. 27
2. According to Aristotle, which of the following fills the spheres and causes them to move?
 A. ether
 B. water
 C. wind
 D. fire
3. Who was the first to propose a Sun-centered model of the universe?
 A. Copernicus
 B. Ptolemy
  C. Aristarchus
 D. Aristotle
4. Which of the following best explains why there is no observed stellar parallax according to Aristarchus and
Copernicus?
 A. The Sun is at an immeasurable distance from the Earth.
 B. The stars are at an immeasurable distance from the Earth.
 C. The planets are at an immeasurable distance from the Earth.
 D. The stars are at a measurable distance from the Earth.
5. Which of the following best describes Aristarchus’ reasoning why the Sun is the center of the universe?
 A. Smaller spheres should orbit around the larger ones.
 B. Larger spheres should orbit around the smaller ones.
 C. There is no observed stellar parallax.
 D. There is an observed stellar parallax. .
6. In the image below, which letter represents the deferent according to the Ptolemaic system?

 A. C
 B. A
 C. B
 D. D
7. In the image below, which of the following best describes the part labeled as B according to the Ptolemaic
system?

 A. It is the path of the planet as it revolves around the Sun.

 B. It is the path of the Earth as it revolves around the Sun.
 C. It is the path of the Earth as it revolves around the planet.
 D. It is the path of the planet as it revolves around the Earth.
8. According to the Ptolemaic system, which of the following best explains why planets sometimes move in a
retrograde motion?
 A. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the epicycle.
 B. It is the result of a planet’s simultaneous movement around the epicycle and the deferent.
 C. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the deferent.
 D. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the Earth.
9. By placing the Sun as the center of the universe, which of the following was eliminated from Ptolemy’s
model by Copernicus?
 A. epicycle and deferent
 B. stellar parallax
 C. the Earth as the center
  D. retrograde motion

6.7 Models of Astronomical Phenomena: Copernican, Ptolemaic and Tychonic

WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·TUESDAY, APRIL 10, 2018·
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to compare and contrast different models of astronomical
phenomena (Copernican, Ptolemaic, and Tychonic).
In Modern Science, what are the members of the present known Solar System?

Learn about it!

Today, the Solar System consists of eight planets namely Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune. All these planets revolve around a massive ball of helium and hydrogen known as the
Sun. There are other bodies within the Solar System such as moons that revolve around the planets, asteroids,
and planetoids.
Before this knowledge of our present-day Solar System, classical astronomers have developed various models
to explain how bodies in the universe are positioned with respect to each other. Three of the most popular
models are the Copernican, Ptolemaic and Tychonic models.
Ptolemaic Model
The Ptolemaic model known as the Geocentric model, was developed by an Egyptian astronomer Claudius
Ptolemy. It came from the Greek words geo meaning Earth and centric meaning center. This model explains
that the Earth is the center of the universe and everything else revolves around it. Each planet moves in a
circular path called epicycle which moves around a larger circular path called deferent. The moon revolves
around the Earth followed by the other planets.

Learn about it!

Copernican Model
This is also known as the Heliocentric model developed by a Polish mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus. It
came from the Greek words helios meaning sun and centric meaning center. This model explains that the
center of the universe is the Sun and that the majority of the planets revolve around it. Also, the epicycle
moves in an elliptical motion not circular. The moon revolves around both the Earth and the Sun while Earth
revolves around the Sun.
Tychonic Model
This model was developed by a Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. It was the combination of Ptolemaic and
Copernican models. This explains that the planets of the Solar System revolve around the Sun but the Earth is
the center of the universe.
The Sun, due to its massive size, attracts the remaining planets and drags them along its revolution around the
Earth - like metals attracted to a magnet! Simply put, the Sun revolves around the Earth and the planets revolve
around the Sun.

Explore!
Observe the night sky for a week. What do you notice at the stars? Why do they change position every night?
Also, why do you think the night sky changes with the seasons?

Try it!
Get a tablespoon of sand, a piece of paper, and a magnet. Place the sand on top of the piece of paper and the
magnet at the bottom of the paper. Move the magnet at any direction. What do you notice in the sand? Why do
you think the sand moved in the same direction the magnet did? How will you relate it to our topic for today?

What do you think?

Which of the three models of the Universe is most similar to the present day description of the Solar System?

Key Points
 Ptolemaic model – The Earth is at the center of the universe and everything in the universe revolves
around the Earth.
 Copernican model – The Sun is at the center of the universe and majority of the bodies in the universe
revolves around the Sun.
 Tychonic model – The Earth is at the center of the universe. The sun revolves around the Earth and all
the other planets revolve around the Sun.

6.8 Galileo's Astronomical Discoveries

WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·TUESDAY, APRIL 10, 2018·
The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how Galileo’s astronomical discoveries disprove Greek
beliefs of the universe.
How did Galileo's astronomical observations help astronomers look at the universe in a different point
of view?

Learn about it!

Galileo Galilei, a Renaissance Italian astronomer, used the telescope to observe the cosmos and his
discoveries provided evidence to prove or disprove existing Greek beliefs and models of the universe
Galileo’s Astronomical Discoveries and Observations
The Ptolemaic Model of the Universe proposed by a Greco-Egyptian astronomer Claudius Ptolemy posed that
the Earth is stationary and is the center of the universe and that the stars, planets, and the Sun revolve around it.
Phases of Venus
The Ptolemaic model believed that the Earth was stationary and all the others including the stars,
planets, and the Sun are revolving around it.
Galileo observed that the brightest planet, Venus, as seen from Earth, behaved similarly like the Moon. He
noticed that Venus has a systematic change in shadows and lighting, just like the lunar phases.
Galileo observed that Venus is in its “new phase” when it is in between the Earth and the Sun and waxes as it
moves in its orbit. During this phase, we cannot see Venus because no light from the Sun is reflected towards
us. Venus is in its “full phase” when the Sun is in between Venus and Earth. It is still not visible from Earth
because the Sun is blocking it. Through these observations, Galileo disproved that the other planets revolve
around the Earth.
Moons of Jupiter
Prior to the use of telescopes, the satellites or moons of Jupiter were unknown. When Galileo observed Jupiter,
he noticed that there were planet-like bodies close to it. He first noted that there were four bodies moving
around Jupiter. After some time, one of them disappeared and “hid” behind Jupiter. He later named the bodies
or satellites as Io, Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa.
The discovery of the moons of Jupiter disproved Ptolemaic Model by showing that not everything revolves
around the Earth.

Moons of Jupiter
Prior to the use of telescopes, the satellites or moons of Jupiter were unknown. When Galileo observed Jupiter,
he noticed that there were planet-like bodies close to it. He first noted that there were four bodies moving
around Jupiter. After some time, one of them disappeared and “hid” behind Jupiter. He later named the bodies
or satellites as Io, Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa.
The discovery of the moons of Jupiter disproved Ptolemaic Model by showing that not everything revolves
around the Earth.

Learn about it!

Supernovas
Before Galileo concretized the concept of supernovas, scientists have already observed new stars appearing in
the sky. These stars are called stellar nova or new stars. In 1604, Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer,
observed a nova in Prague. This nova was called a supernova because the nova exuded enormous amount of
light in just a short period indicating that it was exploding. It was also labelled as Kepler’s nova.
At the time, Kepler was working as a mathematician at Imperial court and as Galileo was also a
mathematician, they were able to compare their data of their observations of the said nova all over Europe.
They measured the parallax of the nova from different locations. A parallax is the angle that can be measured
when an observer looks at the same object from different locations. The greater the distance between the two
locations, the greater the parallax and the closer the object is to the observer, the greater the parallax. Galileo
and Kepler’s sets of data showed that there were no measurable parallax for the nova and the fixed stars which
means that they were at immeasurable distances from the Earth even farther than the moon. These observations
were able to show that the sky is changing.
Sizes of the Stars
Ancient Greek philosophers, led by Aristotle, believed that the sky was perfect and unchanging. Also,
the Ptolemaic model states that since everything revolves around the Earth, the stars’ distance from the
Earth would not change and they should be located at specific positions as seen from the Earth.
Given that the Earth is moving, the stars should appear to vary in sizes. However, Galileo noticed that “fixed
stars” did not change in size when observed with the naked eye and observed through a telescope. He then
postulated that if the stars have significant and immeasurable distances from the Earth, then their size as
observed from the Earth should remain constant. He was able to prove this through his observations of the
supernova in 1604.

Learn about it!

Lunar Craters
Ancient Greeks assumed that the moon had a smooth surface.
Galileo discovered that the surface of the moon was uneven and rough. He also observed that it had high points
(mountains and hills) and low points (trenches and ditches).
Sunspots
Greek philosophers have expressed the Sun as a source of light, but no other information about it is
available at the time.
Observers back then just thought that the spots found on the Sun are planets. Galileo clarified this idea. He
observed the movement of the sunspots and noticed that one spot took approximately 14 days to travel from
one side to the other while maintaining its constant speed. From these observations, he was able to deduce that
the Sun also rotates on an axis.

Explore
The invention of the telescope helped us discover more about the universe. As technology advances, newer
versions of the telescope are developed. How did the telescope evolve through the years after the Greeks’
version? What astronomical discoveries were made by the succeeding versions and who are the scientists
behind these discoveries?

Try it!
Create a concept map of how Galileo’s discoveries proved and disproved both the Geocentric and Heliocentric
models of the Universe.

Key Points
 The Ptolemaic Model of the Universe posed that the Earth is stationary, the center of the universe, and
that the stars, planets, and the Sun revolve around it.
 Galileo’s astronomical observations helped weaken the Ptolemaic model by showing that the stars,
planets, and the Sun do not revolve around the Earth through his observations of the phases of
Venus, and the moons of Jupiter.
 He showed that the Earth is not stationary through his observations of the sizes of the stars showing
that they appear to have identical size because of the movement of the Earth and their immeasurable
distance from the Earth.
 Galileo disproved the belief that the sky, the Moon and the Sun are perfect and unchanging by showing
his observations of the supernova, lunar craters, and sunspots.

The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to compare and contrast the models of the universe by Eudoxus,
Aristotle, Aristarchus, Ptolemy, and Copernicus.
What are the models of the universe proposed by different philosophers?

Learn about it!

Eudoxus’ Model
Eudoxus of Cnidus (born c. 395 – 390 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and mathematician, was the first to propose a
model of the universe based on geometry. His model composed of 27 concentric spheres with Earth as the
center. The Sun, the Moon, the planets, and the fixed stars have spheres. Each sphere is attached to a larger
sphere through a pole. The rotation of the spheres on their poles once every 24 hours accounts for the daily
rotation of the heavens. It is unclear whether Eudoxus regarded these spheres as physical entities or just
mathematical constructions.
Aristotle’s Model
Aristotle (born c. 384 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and astronomer, considered the model proposed by Eudoxus,
but he considered these spheres as physical entities. He thought that these spheres were filled with the divine
and eternal “ether” that caused the spheres to move. He introduced the Prime Mover, as the cause of the
movement of the spheres. His model composed of 56 spheres that guided the motion of the Sun, the Moon, and
five known planets. As the spheres move, they maintained the same distance from the Earth. Also, they moved
at constant speeds.

Learn about it!

Aristarchus' Model
Aristarchus of Samos (born c. 310 B.C.), a Greek astronomer and mathematician, was the first to hypothesize
that the Sun is the center of the universe. He visualized that the Moon orbits around a spherical Earth which
then revolves around the Sun. He believed that the stars are very far away from the Earth as evidenced by the
absence of stellar parallax – that is, the stars do not change positions relative to each other as the Earth revolves
around the Sun.
Through geometrical models and mathematical computations, he concluded that the Sun is 20 times farther
from the Earth than the Moon is to the Earth; the Earth is about three times larger than the Moon; and the Sun
is 20 times larger than the Moon. He also reasoned out that smaller spheres orbit around larger ones. Thus, the
Moon orbits around the Earth, and the Earth orbits around the Sun.

Learn about it!

Ptolemy’s Model
The Sun, Moon, stars, and planets were believed to move in a uniform circular motion – the “perfect” motion
assigned to celestial bodies by the ancient Greeks. However, observations showed otherwise. The paths of the
celestial bodies are not circular, and they vary in distances. Babylonians even showed that some planets exhibit
a retrograde motion – a motion opposite to that of other planets.
To explain “imperfect motions” of heavenly bodies, Claudius Ptolemy (born c. 90 A.D.), a Greco-Egyptian
astronomer and mathematician, proposed his own geocentric (Earth-centered) model of the universe. He
accounted for the apparent motions of the planets around the Earth by assuming that each planet moved around
a sphere called an epicycle. The center of the epicycle then moved on a larger sphere called a deferent.
The Ptolemaic System
1. A planet moves counter-clockwise around the epicycle.
2. The epicycle’s center also moves counter-clockwise around the center of the deferent (indicated by the
+ sign in the image).
3. The center of the epicycle moves around the equant with a uniform speed.
4. The Earth is not exactly at the center of the deferent, or it is eccentric (off the center). This explains
why, as observed from the Earth, the Sun or a planet moves slowest when it is farthest from the Earth
and moves fastest when it is nearest the Earth.
5. The motion of the planet can be described by points 1-7 in the figure below. At point 4, the planet
moves in a retrograde (clockwise) motion. The planet is brightest at this point because it is closest to
the Earth.
Learn about it!
Copernicus' Model
In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus, a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer born in Poland, ended the
geocentric astronomy era by publishing his work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres wherein he
explained that the Sun, not the Earth, is the center of the universe.
In his work, he reiterated the ancient Greek concept that the motion of spherical heavenly bodies is uniform,
eternal, and circular. He then reasoned that because Earth is spherical, then its motion is circular. He added that
the Earth has three different motions: daily rotation on its axis, yearly motion around the Sun, and the
precession, or change in orientation, of its axis every 26 000 years.
He also proposed that the fixed stars are immovable. Their apparent movement is a consequence of the Earth’s
rotation. These stars are at immeasurable distances from the Earth, so there is no observable parallax.
By placing the Sun at the center of the universe and the orbits of Mercury and Venus in between the Sun and
the Earth, Copernicus’ model was able to account for the changes in the appearances of these planets and their
retrograde motions. The need for epicycles in explaining motions was eliminated.

Try it!
Parallax is the effect wherein an object’s position appears to change when viewed by an observer from
different positions. You can demonstrate this by looking at your forefinger at arm’s length. Cover your left eye
and look at your forefinger. Then transfer the cover on your right eye and observe the position of your
forefinger. What did you observe?

What do you think?

What models of the universe are accepted in the scientific community today?
Key Points
 Eudoxus’, Aristotle’s, and Ptolemy’s models have the Earth as the center of the universe while
Aristarchus’ and Copernicus’ models have the Sun as the center.
 Eudoxus’ model has 27 concentric spheres for the Sun, Moon, planets, and the stars whose common
center is the Earth.
 Aristotle’s model of the universe is composed of 56 spheres guiding the motion of Sun, Moon and the
five known planets.
 Aristarchus said that smaller celestial bodies must orbit the larger ones and since the Sun is much larger
than the Earth, then the Earth must orbit around the Sun.
 Ptolemaic model introduced the concepts of epicycle, deferent, and equant to explain the observed
“imperfect” motions of the planets.
 Copernicus’ model recognized that the Earth rotates on its axis, revolves around the Sun, and
undergoes precession.

Test Questions
1. How many concentric spheres accommodate the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars in Eudoxus’ model?
 A. 37
 B. 46
 C. 56
 D. 27
2. According to Aristotle, which of the following fills the spheres and causes them to move?
 A. ether
 B. water
 C. wind
 D. fire
3. Who was the first to propose a Sun-centered model of the universe?
 A. Copernicus
 B. Ptolemy
 C. Aristarchus
 D. Aristotle
4. Which of the following best explains why there is no observed stellar parallax according to Aristarchus and
Copernicus?
 A. The Sun is at an immeasurable distance from the Earth.
 B. The stars are at an immeasurable distance from the Earth.
 C. The planets are at an immeasurable distance from the Earth.
 D. The stars are at a measurable distance from the Earth.
5. Which of the following best describes Aristarchus’ reasoning why the Sun is the center of the universe?
 A. Smaller spheres should orbit around the larger ones.
 B. Larger spheres should orbit around the smaller ones.
 C. There is no observed stellar parallax.
 D. There is an observed stellar parallax. .
6. In the image below, which letter represents the deferent according to the Ptolemaic system?
  A. C
 B. A
 C. B
 D. D
7. In the image below, which of the following best describes the part labeled as B according to the Ptolemaic
system?
  A. It is the path of the planet as it revolves around the Sun.
 B. It is the path of the Earth as it revolves around the Sun.
 C. It is the path of the Earth as it revolves around the planet.
 D. It is the path of the planet as it revolves around the Earth.
8. According to the Ptolemaic system, which of the following best explains why planets sometimes move in a
retrograde motion?
 A. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the epicycle.
 B. It is the result of a planet’s simultaneous movement around the epicycle and the deferent.
 C. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the deferent.
 D. It is the result of a planet’s movement around the Earth.
9. By placing the Sun as the center of the universe, which of the following was eliminated from Ptolemy’s
model by Copernicus?
 A. epicycle and deferent
 B. stellar parallax
 C. the Earth as the center
 D. retrograde motion

Lesson 6.6 Astronomical Phenomena Known to Astronomers before the Advent of Telescopes
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·TUESDAY, APRIL 10, 2018·
The Earth in the Universe, Physical Science

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to cite examples of astronomical phenomena known to astronomers
before the advent of telescopes.
Which planets are easily seen in the sky without the aid of telescopes?

Learn about it!

Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are easily seen in the sky without the aid of telescopes. These
planets can be easily confused with stars and are only seen at specific times of the day. The best time to look
for these planets would be before sunrise and after sunset.
Even before the invention of the telescope, ancient people have already observed different astronomical
phenomena. The most observable objects in the sky are the sun and moon.
Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations used a primitive version of a sundial, called gnomon, in systematically
observing the motion of the sun. By looking at the shadows that the gnomon casts, they were able to observe
that the sun rises in the eastern part of the sky, reaches its highest point in midday, and sets in the western part
of the sky.
Also, they recorded that the points where the sun rises and sets on the horizon varies over a year and these
variations happen periodically. They observed that these variations are related to weather and so concluded that
seasonal changes in climate happen during a course of one year.

Learn about it!

Phases of the Moon

Ancient people have observed that the moon changes its path and its appearance within a period of 29.5 days.
They observed that the moon changes its appearance from thin semi-circular disk to full circular disk. These
phases of the moon is the basis of ancient calendars.
Lunar Eclipse
Besides their observation in the different phases of the moon, they also noticed that there are times when the
moon or part of it seemed to be covered by a shadow for a brief moment. A lunar eclipse occurs when the
Earth casts its shadow on the moon when the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon.
A phenomenon such as this is known as a lunar eclipse wherein the moon changes into a dark or blood red
color.
Solar Eclipse

Aside from lunar eclipse, the occurrence of a solar eclipse was also observed. Solar eclipse occurs when the
Moon is in between the Sun and the Earth and the moon partially or completely blocks out the sun.
The Motion of the Stars
It was also observed that the stars appear to be attached to a celestial sphere that rotates around an axis in one
day. This axis intersects the celestial sphere at a point in the northern sky and is presently close to the northern
star, Polaris. Also, the constellations’ positions in the night sky vary depending on the time of the year.
Visibility of Planets
Astronomers have discovered that Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are planets because they have
noticed that the stars are in a fixed position with respect to each other (like how constellations are always
grouped). But there are very bright stars that change positions periodically. These “stars” do not belong to any
group of constellations in the sky. Thus, they are called "wanderers” or planetes in Greek terms.

Explore!
Without using a telescope, try locating the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn in the night sky.
Do this every month to see if there are changes in their positions.

Try it!
Observe how and when a specific constellation changes its position in the night sky.

Key Points
Even before the advent of the telescopes, ancient astronomers were able to observe the:
 rising and setting of the Sun in the east and the west, respectively,
 point where the Sun rises and sets in the horizon varies in a year,
 phases of the moon,
 lunar eclipse,
 solar eclipse,
 daily and annual motion of the stars, and
 planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.
 Aristotle’s Concept of Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile
 Motion

 1. Vertical Motion
 Vertical motion is referred to as natural motion. In a
 natural motion
 , the
 object will move and will return to its natural state based on the object's material
 or composition - earth, water, air, and fire.





 For example, Aristotle believed that because a ball fell when
 thrown upward, its element was earth.


 
 Smoke goes up the air because it seeks its natural place in
 the atmosphere.



 Aristotelian concept of natural motion is largely vertical
 motion which is falling or rising.
Aristotle’s Concept of Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile
Motion

1. Vertical Motion
Vertical motion is referred to as natural motion. In a
natural motion
, the
object will move and will return to its natural state based on the object's material
or composition - earth, water, air, and fire.

For example, Aristotle believed that because a ball fell when

thrown upward, its element was earth.

Smoke goes up the air because it seeks its natural place in

the atmosphere.

Aristotelian concept of natural motion is largely vertical

motion which is falling or rising.

Aristotle’s Concept of Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile Motion

1. Vertical Motion Vertical motion is referred to as natural motion. In a natural motion, the object will move
and will return to its natural state based on the object's material or composition - earth, water, air, and fire.
For example, Aristotle believed that because a ball fell when thrown upward, its element was earth. Smoke
goes up the air because it seeks its natural place in the atmosphere. Aristotelian concept of natural motion is
largely vertical motion which is falling or rising.
2. Horizontal Motion
An object moving in a
violent motion
requires push or pull to maintain
horizontal motion. Motion continues only so long as there is an applied force to an
object. When the force is removed, motion stops.

The example at the right shows

piled boxes of food donations. The boxes
will remain on the floor unless a push or
a pull force is applied.
Violent motion is imposed motion
caused by pushing or pulling.

Aristotle classified any motion

that required a force as a "violent motion". (He did not mean violent in the sense
that it is marked by the use of harmful or destructive physical force.)
2. Horizontal Motion
An object moving in a violent motion requires push or pull to maintain horizontal motion.
Motion continues only so long as there is an applied force to an object. When the force is removed, motion
stops. The example at the right shows piled boxes of food donations. The boxes will remain on the floor unless
a push or a pull force is applied.
Violent motion is imposed motion caused by pushing or pulling.
Aristotle classified any motion that required a force as a "violent motion". (He did not mean violent in the
sense that it is marked by the use of harmful or destructive physical force.)
. Projectile Motion
Aristotle believed that the projectile motion of an object is parallel to the ground until it is the object's time to
fall back into the ground. An impetus will be kept by the object until such time that the initial force is
forgotten, and the object returns to its natural state to stop moving and fall to the ground.
He viewed projectile motion as natural and violent motion. He said that heavy objects fall faster than light
ones.
Aristotle's Explanation:
• Initial motive force transfers to the medium initially surrounding the object a "power" to act as a motive
force.
• Medium then forces object into new region, which is then imparted with the "power" to act

Galileo’s Concept of Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile Motion

1. Vertical Motion
In the absence of a resistance, objects would fall not depending on their weight, but in the time of fall.
Also, if the object encountered a resistive force from a fluid equal or greater than its weight, it will slow down
and reaches a uniform motion until it reaches the bottom and stops.
2. Horizontal Motion
An object in motion, if unimpeded, will continue to be in motion, and an external force is not
necessary to maintain the motion. If the Earth’s surface is very flat and extended infinitely, objects that are
pushed will not be impeded. Thus, the objects will continue to move. This kind of motion, however, is not
evident in nature.
3. Projectile Motion
Galileo performed experiments on uniformly accelerated motion using an inclined plane, and used the same
apparatus to study projectile motion.
Galileo was credited for quantifying the <rate of fall= by measurement of distance and time and plotting it
graphically. He was able to slow down the <fall= using ramps rather than viscous materials as Aristotle did
resulting to significantly different conclusions related to the <rate of fall=.
He correctly measured motion in two independent directions (horizontal and vertical) and deduced that the
<rate of fall= is better measured in terms of downward acceleration.
He used geometry to provide better description (kinematics) of projectile motion whereby horizontal motion
has zero acceleration (constant speed horizontally) and content vertical acceleration.

By varying the ball's horizontal velocity and vertical drop, Galileo was able to determine that the path of a
projectile is parabolic.
He believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform motion in the horizontal direction and uniformly
accelerated motion in the vertical direction. If it is not impeded, it will continue to move even without an
applied force.
For example, when you shoot a ball in a basketball ring, the ball does not need a force to keep it moving.

7.3 How Galileo Inferred That Objects in Vacuum Fall with Uniform Acceleration
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·MONDAY, FEBRUARY 10, 2020·
Universal Laws in Physics, Physical Science

Objective

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how Galileo inferred that objects in vacuum fall with
uniform acceleration.

Recall that a body moving with uniform acceleration changes its speed by a constant value per unit of time.

Imagine yourself holding a bowling ball and a ping pong ball. If you drop these balls simultaneously,
which ball do you think would have greater acceleration upon reaching the ground? Why?

Galileo proved with his experiments that when objects are dropped simultaneously, they will reach the ground
at the same time regardless of their masses and air resistance. In another set of experiments, he discovered that
objects fall with uniform acceleration.

Galileo was fascinated by the behavior of falling objects. He knew that falling objects increase their speed as
they go down. This change in speed is acceleration. However, he did not have any equipment to measure this
change, so he used inclined planes to lessen the acceleration of the moving bodies. He was then able to
investigate the moving bodies carefully.

On his experiment, he had observed the following:

 A ball rolling down an inclined plane increases its speed by the same value after every second. For
example, the speed of a rolling ball was found to increase by 2 m/s every second. This means that the
rolling ball would have the following speeds for every given second
  As the inclined plane becomes steeper, the acceleration of the rolling ball increases.

 The maximum acceleration of the rolling ball was reached when the inclined plane was positioned
vertically as if the ball is simply falling

These observations lead Galileo to conclude that regardless of the mass of objects and air resistance, falling
objects would always have uniform acceleration.

Example

Hold a book and a piece of paper at the same height, then drop them simultaneously. Did the objects reach the
ground at the same time? If no, which object reached the ground first?

Now, perform the same procedure, but this time, crumple the paper. Did the objects reach the ground at the
same time? If no, which object reached the ground first?

This experiment agrees with Galileo’s findings that when there is little or no air resistance, objects that are
dropped simultaneously will reach the ground at the same time, regardless of their masses. Given that both
objects (paper and book) reached the ground simultaneously, we can infer that the increase in speed of each
object is equal. Therefore, falling objects have the same acceleration when there is no air resistance (e.g.
vacuum).

Recall the question at the start of this lesson regarding the bowling and ping pong balls. When these balls are
thrown from the same height and in a vacuum, they will fall at the same acceleration regardless of their masses.

Explore

Given two one peso coins, released at the same time, Coin A is dropped while Coin B is thrown horizontally
coming from the same height. Which one do you think would reach the ground first?

Try it!

If an object falls with an acceleration of 5 m/s2 what would be its speed after 3 s given its starts at 0 m/s at 0s?

What do you think?

If a speedometer is attached to a falling object and the reading increases by 10 m/s every second, what is the
object’s acceleration?

Key Points

 A body with uniform acceleration changes its speed by a constant value.

 Galileo proved that when objects are released simultaneously from a certain height, they reach the
ground at the same time, regardless of their masses and air resistance.

 Galileo discovered that all objects fall with the uniform acceleration in vacuum.

Question
1. Galileo proved that all falling objects fall with the same ______.

 A. speed

 B. velocity

 C. energy

 D. acceleration

2. What material did Galileo use to study the acceleration of a falling body?

 A. inclined planes

 B. balls

 C. horizontal planes

 D. rings

3. As Galileo changed the angle of inclination of the planes he used, what happened to the value of the
acceleration of the rolling ball?

 A. The acceleration of the rolling ball stayed the same as the steepness of the plane was increased.

 B. The acceleration of the rolling ball decreased as the steepness of the plane was increased.

 C. The acceleration of the rolling ball became zero as the steepness of the plane was increased.

 D. The acceleration of the rolling ball increased as the steepness of the plane was increased.

4. At what position of the inclined plane did Galileo find the greatest acceleration of the rolling ball?

 A. when the plane is inclined at 60°

 B. when the plane is inclined at 45°

 C. when the plane is inclined at 90°

 D. when the plane is inclined at 30°

5. Three objects A, B, and C with masses 5 kg, 8 kg, and 15 kg, respectively, were dropped simultaneously.
Neglecting air resistance, which object will have the greatest acceleration upon reaching the ground?

 A. The three objects will have the same acceleration.

 B. Object C will have the greatest acceleration.

  C. Object B will have the greatest acceleration.

 D. Object A will have the greatest acceleration.

6. Three objects A, B, and C with mass 5 kg, 8 kg, and 15 kg, respectively, were dropped simultaneously.
Neglecting air resistance, which object will reach the ground first?

 A. Object C will reach the ground first.

 B. Object B will reach the ground first.

 C. The three objects will reach the ground at the same time.

 D. Object A will reach the ground first.

7. A rolling stone was found to pick up a speed of 3 m/s every second. What will be its speed after 5 s if it
started with 0 m/s at 0 s?

 A. 25 m/s

 B. 15 m/s

 C. 9 m/s

 D. 3 m/s

8. Which of the following statements agrees with Galileo’s concept of falling objects?

 I. Falling objects fall with changing speed.

 II. Falling objects fall with constant acceleration.

 III. Falling objects fall with constant speed.

 IV. Falling objects fall with changing acceleration.

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. I and IV

9. What is the acceleration of a body after 5 s if its speed increases by a value of 8 m/s every second?

 A. 8 m/s2
  B. 0 m/s2

 C. 16 m/s2

 D. 40 m/s2

10. After how many seconds will a body have a speed of 20 m/s if it has a uniform acceleration of 5 m/s2 and
started from 0 m/s at 0 seconds?

 A. 5 seconds

 B. 3 seconds

 C. 4 seconds

 D. 2 seconds

7.1 Aristotelian Conceptions: Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile Motion
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·TUESDAY, DECEMBER 10, 2019·
Universal Laws in Physics, Physical Science

Objective

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain Aristotle’s conceptions in motion (vertical motion,
horizontal motion, and projectile motion).

Aristotle is one of most influential Greek philosophers whose ideas were the basis for many concepts that
time.

How did he view and explain the motion of objects?

Aristotle’s view on motion was based on his observations, which made his ideas acceptable and stood for many
years.

Motion is an object’s change in position with respect to time. According to Aristotle, motion can either be a
natural motion or a violent motion.

Natural Motion
An object will move and will eventually return to its natural state depending on the composition that the object
is made of. An object made of material similar to earth will return to earth or an object that is similar to air will
return to the air. For example, a ball mostly resembles the earth so when it is thrown upward its natural
tendency is to go back to Earth, its natural state or the smoke mostly resembles the air so its natural tendency is
to go up the atmosphere.

Violent motion

An object will move if an external force such as pushing or pulling is applied to it. No motion will take place
unless there is a 'mover' in contact with an object.

Aristotle’s View on Projectile Motion

Aristotle believed that the motion of an object is parallel to the ground until it is the object's time to fall back
into the ground. An impetus will be kept by the object until such time that the initial force is forgotten, and the
object returns to its natural state to stop moving and fall to the ground.

Example

A cannon is fired which give the cannonball an impetus that will dictate its course until such time that the
impetus is forgotten, and the cannonball will naturally fall to the ground.

What do you think?

What ideas challenged the Aristotelian principle of motion?

Key Points

 According to Aristotle, motion can either be a natural motion or a violent motion.

  An object will move and will eventually return to its natural state depending on the composition that
the object is made of. This referred as the natural motion of an object.

 An object will move if an external force such as pushing or pulling is applied to it. This is referred as
the violent motion of an object.

 The motion of an object is parallel to the ground until it is the object's time to fall back into the ground.
This is referred as the projectile motion of an object.

Test Question

1. Which of the following is an example of a violent motion?

 A. water flowing in a river

 B. a dropped pen falling to the ground

 C. rocks falling from a mountain

 D. a ball kicked from the ground

2. According to Aristotle, which of the following elements would a rock go back to if thrown upward?

 A. earth

 B. air

 C. water

 D. fire

3. According to Aristotle, which of the following objects shows a projectile motion?

 A. a leaf falling from a tree

 B. a fired cannon ball

 C. a coin tossed in the air

 D. the rain falling from the sky

4. Which of the following are true about the natural motion of an object according to Aristotle?

 I. An object will return to its natural state depending on its composition.

  II. An object will return to the ground if it has a similar material with the earth.

 III. An object will go back to the air if it has a similar material with the air.

 IV. An object will fall to the ground because it is thrown upward.

 A. I only

 B. I and III

 C. I, II and III

 D. All of the above

Ariel shot an arrow from a distance.

5. According to Aristotle, which of the following is true about this scenario?

 A. The shooting of an arrow shows a projectile motion.

 B. The shooting of an arrow shows a violent motion.

 C. The shooting of an arrow shows a natural motion.

 D. The shooting of an arrow shows a free fall motion.

A pebble shot using a slingshot.

6. According to Aristotle, which of the following is true about the scenario?

 A. The pebble experienced a projectile motion.

 B. The pebble experienced a violent motion.

 C. The pebble experienced a natural motion.

 D. The pebble experienced a free fall motion.

A crate full of fish is pulled by two men.

7. According to Aristotle, which of the following are true about this scenario?

 I. The crate experiences a violent motion.

 II. The crate experiences an external force.

 III. The crate experiences a projectile motion.

 IV. The crate experiences momentum.

  A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. All of the above

Geoffrey released his toy balloon. He watched it as it slowly rises in the air.

8. According to Aristotle, which of the following are true about this scenario?

 A. The balloon experiences a violent motion.

 B. The balloon experiences a projectile motion.

 C. The balloon experiences a natural motion.

 D. The balloon experiences a free fall motion.

A boy was pushed from a height of a water slide.

9. According to Aristotle, which of the following is true about this scenario?

 A. The boy experienced a projectile motion due to an impetus.

 B. The boy experienced a violent motion due to an external force.

 C. The boy experienced a natural motion due to its similarities to earth.

 D. The boy experienced a free fall due to the absence of external force.

10. Which of the following best explains why Aristotle’s view on motion stood for many years?

 A. Aristotle’s ideas are readily proven through observation.

 B. Aristotle was a very influential Greek philosopher.

 C. People at the time were gullible to the ideas of the philosophers.

 D. Aristotle supported his ideas with laboratory experimentation.

Explanation:
  According to Aristotle, violent motion is caused by an external force, either a push or a pull, applied in
an object. Therefore, the ball experienced a violent motion when pushed through kicking.

 According to Aristotle, an object made of material similar to earth will return to earth or an object
similar to air will go back to the air. Rocks are most similar to earth; thus, rocks thrown upward will
fall back to the earth.

 For the projectile motion, Aristotle believed that the motion of an object is parallel to the ground until it
is the object's time to fall back into the ground. Therefore, the fired cannon ball shows a projectile
motion.

 An object will move and will eventually return to its natural state depending on the composition that
the object is made of. An object made of material similar to Earth will return to earth or an object that is
similar to air will return to the air.

 For the projectile motion, Aristotle believed that the motion of an object is parallel to the ground until it
is the object's time to fall back into the ground. Therefore, an arrow shot from a distance traveling
parallel to the ground shows a projectile motion.

 For the projectile motion, Aristotle believed that the motion of an object is parallel to the ground until it
is the object's time to fall back into the ground. Therefore, a pebble shot using a slingshot traveling
parallel to the ground shows a projectile motion.

 According to Aristotle, a violent motion occurs in an object which moves when an external force such
as pushing or pulling is applied to it. Therefore, the crate full of fish experiences a violent motion with
an external force applied by two men pushing it.

 According to Aristotle, a natural motion occurs when an object made of material similar to earth will
return to earth or an object that is similar to air will return to the air. The balloon that slowly rises into
the air has a similar composition to air, thus, experiencing a natural motion.

 According to Aristotle, an object will move if an external force such as pushing or pulling is applied to
it. Therefore, the boy experienced a violent motion due to the external force or pushing.

 Aristotle 's ideas were accepted and stood for many years because he was a very influential Greek
philosopher. It was not until the Middle Ages that his views in motion were under modifications and
criticisms.

7.2 Galilean Conceptions: Vertical Motion, Horizontal Motion, and Projectile Motion
 WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·TUESDAY, DECEMBER 10, 2019·
Universal Laws in Physics, Physical Science

Objectives

In this lesson, you should be able to describe how Galileo used his discoveries in mechanics (and astronomy)
to address scientific objections to the Copernican model.

Why do objects move?

Scientists and philosophers alike have been trying to answer this question even before 300 B.C. One of the
well-known philosophers who attempted to do this was Aristotle. His attempt was based on inductive-
deductive reasoning and was accepted for centuries.

However, Galileo Galilei challenged the Aristotelian view of motion when he had his actual and thorough
experiments. He disagreed with most of Aristotle’s claims and provided his own description of motion.

Galilean Conceptions vs. Aristotelian Conceptions

According to Aristotle, motion can be either natural or violent motion. In a natural motion, the object will
move and will return to its natural state based on the object's material or composition. In contrast, an object
moving in a violent motion requires an external force (push or pull) for the object to move.

He also had his view on the projectile motion of an object. He believed that an object thrown at a certain
angle is given an impetus—a force or energy that permits an object to move. It will continue to move in such
state until the object’s impetus is lost, and the object returns to its natural state, causing it to stop and fall to the
ground.

Galileo disproved Aristotle’s claims and believed that the motion of objects is not simply due to the
composition of objects. He mentioned that motion can be described by mathematics and the changes in some
physical variables such as time and distance. Using his actual and thorough experiments, he was able to prove
that:

1. an object in uniform motion will travel a distance that is proportional to the time it will take to travel;

2. a uniformly accelerating object will travel at a speed proportional to some factor of time; and
 3. an object in motion, if unimpeded, will continue to be in motion; an external force is not necessary to
maintain the motion.

Galileo's Conceptions of Motion

Horizontal motion

An object in motion, if unimpeded, will continue to be in motion, and an external force is not necessary to
maintain the motion. If the Earth’s surface is very flat and extended infinitely, objects that are pushed will not
be impeded. Thus, the objects will continue to move. This kind of motion, however, is not evident in nature.
For example, if a ball is pushed on an infinitely flat plane, the ball will continue to roll if unimpeded.

Vertical motion

In the absence of a resistance, objects would fall not depending on their weight, but in the time of fall. Also, if
the object encountered a resistive force from a fluid equal or greater than its weight, it will slow down and
reaches a uniform motion until it reaches the bottom and stops. For example, without any resistance, a 1-kg
object will be as fast as a 10-kg object when falling because they fall with the same amount of time, given that
they are released from the same height. Also, a stone dropped in the ocean will sooner or later travel at
constant speed.
Projectile motion

Galileo believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform motion in the horizontal direction and uniformly
accelerated motion in the vertical direction. If it is not impeded, it will continue to move even without an
applied force. For example, when you shoot a ball in a basketball ring, the ball does not need a force to keep it
moving.
Explore!

In a vacuum chamber, a 1-kg object and 10-kg object was dropped at a certain height and at the same time.
Which of the following objects will reach the ground first?

Try it!

Who has a more acceptable view of falling objects, Aristotle or Galileo? Try to test it in the following activities
below. Take note that in every activity, both objects should be dropped at the same time and at the same
height.

1. Drop a book and a flat sheet of paper coming.

2. Drop a book and a sheet of paper crumbled to a ball.

3. Drop a book with a small flat sheet of paper on top of it.

In all three cases, which object reach the ground first? Whose view is more acceptable then, and why?

Key Points

 Galileo believed that an object in uniform motion will travel a distance that is proportional to the time it
took to travel; a uniformly accelerating object will travel with a speed proportional to some factor of
time; and an object in motion, if unimpeded, will continue to be in motion; an external force is not
necessary to maintain the motion.

 Galileo believed that a projectile is a combination of uniform motion in the horizontal direction and
uniformly accelerated motion in the vertical direction.

Questions

1. Which of the following does Galileo believe about motion?

 A. A violent motion is caused by an external force.

  B. Objects will continue to be in uniform motion if unimpeded.

 C. Objects move because of their elemental composition.

 D. Heavier objects fall faster than lighter objects if there is no resistance.

2. According to Galileo, an object in uniform motion will travel a distance that is proportional to _____.

 A. time

 B. acceleration

 C. velocity

 D. speed

3. If the object encountered a resistive force from a fluid equal or greater than its weight, it will ______.

 A. have a uniform motion

 B. accelerate

 C. disappear

 D. slow down

4. A metal ball dropped in a pool went down slowly. This means that the resistive force on the ball is _______.

 I. equal to its weight

 II. less than its weight

 III. greater than its weight

 IV. equal to zero

 A. I and III

 B. II and IV

 C. II and III

 D. All of the above

5. Which of the following agrees with Galileo’s view of motion?

 A. A feather will be as fast as an iron ball if dropped in a vacuum.

  B. If a 10-kg boulder is dropped to the sea, it will stop midway.

 C. Planets revolve around the Sun because of a Prime Mover.

 D. Smoke rises because the sky is its natural place.

6. Which of the following is true about the projectile of an arrow when shot?

 A. It has a continuous applied force from the person who shot the arrow.

 B. It creates a vacuum that sucks air in, and the air pushes the arrow.

 C. It rises because arrows are mostly air.

 D. It has both uniform motion and uniformly accelerating motion.

7. Which of the following agrees with Galileo’s view of motion?

 A. A flying baseball has both uniform motion and uniformly accelerating motion.

 B. A box will stop sliding in a frictionless plane if the applied force is removed.

 C. A balloon rises because it is mostly air, and the sky is its natural place.

 D. An iron ball will always fall faster than a rubber ball.

8. According to Galileo's view, which will reach the floor of the vacuum chamber first, a sheet of paper or a
bowling ball?

 A. The bowling ball will reach the vacuum chamber.

 B. The sheet of paper will reach the vacuum chamber.

 C. They will reach th e same time.
 D. They will not reach the floor and will be sucked in the vacuum.
A box sliding on the floor slowly stops.
9. Why is this so?
 A. There was a force that impeded the sliding box.
 B. The applied force from the pusher disappeared.
 C. The resistive force from the floor is equal to the applied force.
 D. The boxes are usually made of earth, so the box, being a heavy element, stops.
Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity that an object could travel when it is falling with air resistance.
When an object is at terminal velocity, its velocity becomes constant.
10. Which Galilean concept helps explains this?
  A. The object’s traveled distance depends on the time.
 B. An external force is not necessary to maintain the movement of the object.
 C. Due to a resistive force, an object slows down and reaches a uniform motion.
 D. Any object will fall at the same rate.

.6 The Three Laws of Motion

WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·THURSDAY, APRIL 9, 2020·
Universal Laws in Physics, Physical Science

Objective

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain each of Newton’s three laws of motion.

The systematical study of motion started way back from the ancient civilizations when they started observing
and predicting the motion of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies. Aristotle stated that motion can be
classified as ‘natural’ and ‘violent’ motion.

Natural motion can be observed in nature, such as falling of leaves while violent motion is one that is
unnatural and instigated by other factors. For example, it is natural for a rock to roll down the hill, but in order
for the rock to move up the hill, someone or something must push it upward.

After a couple of millennia, several more scientific studies about motion has been made.

Sir Isaac Newton in 1687 published his book entitled Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (The
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) which contains his treatise on motion and the three laws of
motion.

The laws of motion are useful ways of thinking about the motion of everyday objects. Though considered as a
scientific law, it still has limitations.

The laws of motion are valid when the objects we are analyzing are not travelling at the speed of light nor the
object is too small.

Inertia

Inertia is the existing state of matter, whether at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless a net
external force is applied to change its state. It is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of
motion.
1st Law: The Law of Inertia

An object at rest or in motion will stay at rest or in motion with constant velocity unless acted upon by a net
external force.

According to this law, an object at rest will remain at rest unless you push or pull them with enough net force.

For instance, when a book is at rest on the table several forces act on it: the downward force exerted by gravity
and the upward or normal force exerted by the table on the book. When we say net force, the sum of all the
forces acting on the object is equal to zero thus, it is at rest or there is no change in its speed. In the case of the
book, the downward and normal force are of the same magnitude but opposite in direction that is why they add
up to zero.

The same is true for objects that are moving. If no net force acts on a moving object, then it will neither
increase nor decrease its speed. Therefore, it will continue to move with constant speed in a straight line.

For instance, why do we move forward when the driver steps on the brakes after moving at a constant speed in
a straight line? When the car moves, our body moves with it. Based on the first law, in the absence of a net
force, an object will move at a constant speed. When net external force is applied, in this case, when the driver
steps on the brakes, then there is a change in the velocity of the car; however, because of inertia, our body
tends to stay in motion that is why our body moves forward involuntarily.

On the other hand, when we are on a car that is at rest, our body is also at rest. When a net external force is
applied to the car that starts the car moving, our body tends to stay at rest that is why our body moves
backwards involuntarily.

Inertia and Mass

An object’s inertia depends on its mass. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. It is a quantity that only
depends on the inertia of an object. This implies that heavier objects are harder to move or when it is already
moving, it is hard to stop. Simply put, the greater the mass, the greater the amount of inertia.

2nd Law: The Law of Acceleration

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force exerted on the object and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.

This can be mathematically expressed as

where
a is the acceleration of an object

F is the force applied on an object

m is the mass of an object

The second law picks up where the first law ends. The law of acceleration describes the change that will
happen if a force is applied on an object. Acceleration is the amount of change in speed and/or direction of
movement an object.

Let’s look at the first part of the law of acceleration:

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force applied on an object.

For instance, the first crate is pushed to the right by a single man which causes it to accelerate. What will
happen if two persons will push the same crate?

Increasing the amount of force applied on an object also increases the acceleration of the object. When a
quantity is in direct proportion to another quantity, there is an increase in the first quantity. In this case, the
force applied will result in the increase of the other quantity, the acceleration of the object.

Now let’s look at the second part of the law of acceleration:

The acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

For instance, when the man pushes the crate to the right, it accelerates to the right. What do you think will
happen if the mass of the crate is doubled?
In this case, increasing the mass of the object makes it harder to accelerate. This is in agreement with the first
law of motion. Therefore, in order to accelerate a heavy object, one must apply a great amount of force. Simply
put, the acceleration of the object will depend on two things: the mass of an object and the force applied on it.

3rd Law: The Law of Action and Reaction

When an object exerts a force on another object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force to the
first object.

Have you ever wondered why you don’t fall when you lean on a post? When you lean on a post you are
exerting force on the post and in return the post exerts force on you, preventing you from falling. The amount
of force that the post exerts on you is the same as the amount of force that you exert on it.

In the interaction of objects, force always comes in pairs. Consider your movement when you are walking.
Your feet is pushing the ground downward, we can label this as the action force. On the other hand, the
reaction is provided by the second object on which the feet is in contact with, and it is equal and opposite to
the direction of the reaction force. Thus, the reaction force is the ground that pushes your feet up, which
actually enables you to walk.

Action and reaction do not cancel each other out. Unlike in the first law of motion where the forces act on an
object, these forces are acted on different objects such as the action force acted by your feet to the ground, and
the reaction force acted by the ground to your feet.
Explore!

In the game of bowling, a heavy ball is rolled down an alley to hit the duckpins. When the bowling ball and the
duckpins interact, can you identify the action and reaction forces here? What are the effects of the action and
reaction forces on the bowling ball and the duckpins?

What do you think?

What is the difference between Newton's first law of motion with Galileo's concept of inertia?

Key Points

 Sir Isaac Newton in 168 states that an object at rest or in motion will stay at rest or in motion with
constant velocity unless acted upon by a net external force.

 The first law of motion states that an object at rest or in motion will stay at rest or in motion with
constant velocity unless acted upon by a net external force.

 The second law of motion states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force
exerted on the object and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

 The third law of motion states that when an object exerts a force on another object, the second object
exerts an equal and opposite force to the first object.
7.6 Test Question

1. Who is the Greek philosopher who first studies motion based on his observations?

 A. Plato

 B. Epicurus

 C. Aristotle

 D. Galen

2. Who proposed the laws of motion in 1687?

 A. Sir Isaac Newton

 B. Galileo Galilei

 C. Francis Bacon

 D. Aristotle

3. Which law of motion implies that forces always come in pairs?

 A. Law of Inertia

 B. Law of Momentum

 C. Law of Acceleration

 D. Law of Action and Reaction

A cart is moving with a constant speed on a level surface.

4. Which of the following are the most likely to happen?

 I. It will continue moving.

 II. It will stop when it encounters a block along the way.

 III. It will stop after 10 minutes.

 IV. It will stop when after 10 minutes and continue moving again.

 A. I and II

 B. II and III
  C. I and III

 D. II and IV

5. Which of the following objects has the greatest amount of inertia?

 A. 1-kg rice

 B. 4-kg cotton

 C. 3-kg steel nail

 D. 2-kg mangoes

6. Which of the following is true about the law of acceleration?

 A. When a force is applied on an object, it tends to increase its mass.

 B. When the object’s mass is small, a small amount of force is required to accelerate it.

 C. Acceleration depends of two things: the object’s size and the force applied on it.

 D. The greater the mass of the object the easier it is to change its state of motion.

According to the 2nd law, the mass of the object is inversely proportional to its acceleration.

7. Which of the following statements best explains the relationship assuming that the force applied is constant?

 A. The acceleration decreases when the mass of the object also decreases.

 B. When the mass of the object is increased, it has no effect in its acceleration.

 C. Increasing the mass of the object decreases the rate of its acceleration.

 D. Increasing the mass of the object decreases the rate of its acceleration by ½.

When one man pulls a box with a constant force, the box accelerates.

8. What will happen to the acceleration if two men pull the box with a mass that has been tripled?

 A. It will decrease.

 B. It will increase.

 C. It will remain the same.

 D. It will be zero.

When one man pulls a box with a constant mass and force, the box accelerates.
9. What will happen to the acceleration if another box with the same mass is added and two men will pull the
box?

 A. It will increase.

 B. It will be zero.

 C. It will be the same.

 D. It will decrease

Jose and Fernando, Fernando being the heavier one, are on their roller skates, facing each other with their
palms together. At the same moment, they pushed against each other with the same amount of force.

10. Which of the statements best describes what will happen to them?

 A. Fernando will move faster to the right while Jose will move slower to the left.

 B. Both Fernando and Jose will move with the same velocity at different direction.

 C. Jose will move faster to the left while Fernando will move slower to the right.

 D. None of them will move because the force will cancel out.

8.1 Reflection, Refraction, Transmission, and Absorption of Light

WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 5, 2020·
Light: A Wave and a Particle, Physical Science

Objective

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe what happens when light is reflected, refracted,
transmitted, and absorbed.

What happens to light when it interacts with matter?

When light interacts with matter, it can be reflected, refracted, transmitted, or absorbed.

Reflection
Reflection occurs when light bounces back as it hits a reflecting surface, such as a mirror. This phenomenon
can be described using light rays.

The ray of light that hits the reflecting surface is called an incident ray. After hitting the surface, it bounces off
as a reflected ray. The incident ray and the reflected ray form angles with the normal line, which is a line
perpendicular to the reflecting surface. These angles are called angle of incidence and angle of reflection,
respectively.

The relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection is illustrated in the law of
reflection. This law states that the angle of incidence, the angle of reflection, and the normal line are found on
the same plane; and the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Types of Reflection

There are two types of reflection: regular reflection and irregular reflection.

 Regular reflection, also known as specular reflection occurs when light strikes a smooth surface like
a mirror, and light rays are reflected in one direction.

 Irregular reflection or diffuse reflection occurs when light strikes a rough surface, and light rays are
reflected in random directions.
Refraction

Refraction is the bending of light due to the change in its speed when it obliquely passes two different media.
When light travels from a medium with a low refractive index to a medium with a higher refractive index, it
slows down and refracts closer to the normal line. On the other hand, when light travels from a medium with a
high refractive index to a medium with a lower refractive index, it speeds up and refracts away from the
normal line.

The light ray that is entering a different medium is called the incident ray while the bent ray is called the
refracted ray.
Refractive index describes how light propagates through a medium. A higher refractive index means the light
propagates slower, and its direction changes more upon entering a medium. A lower refractive index means the
light travels faster, and its direction changes less upon entering a medium.

Transmission

Transmission is the passing of light through a material without being absorbed. For instance, an incoming
light will just pass through a glass window as transmitted light.
The extent of the transmission of light depends on the type of the material the light strikes. Transparent and
translucent materials transmit light, but opaque materials do not. If light is not transmitted, it may have been
reflected or absorbed.

Absorption

Absorption of light occurs when light strikes a material, and the energy that it carries is absorbed by the atoms
of the material and is converted into thermal energy.

White light is composed of different components of a spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
violet (ROYGBIV). When an object reflects all the components of light, it appears white. However, when an
object absorbs all the components of light, it appears black.

Selective absorption describes the tendency of an object to absorb specific frequencies of light. An object that
appears with a particular color means that the object absorbs most of the frequencies and reflects only the color
of the object. For instance, the leaf absorbs all the frequencies of light except for green. The green color is
reflected and perceived by the observer’s eye.
Explore!

Imagine a marching band that marches in a straight line from a solid ground into a muddy land.

What do you think will happen to the speed of the marching band as it moves from the solid ground to the
muddy land? How can you relate this with the refraction of light?

Try it!

Get a number of colored pieces of cellophane and a flashlight. Then ask somebody to shine the flashlight on
the cellophane.

Answer the following questions:

1. What can you say about the color that passes through the cellophane and the color of the cellophane
used?

2. What happened to the rest of the spectrum colors that you did not see?
What do you think?

Can light be reflected and refracted at the same time?

Key Points

 Reflection is the bouncing back of light when it strikes a surface.

 Refraction is the bending of light due to the change in its speed when passing two different media.

 Transmission is the passing of light through a material without being absorbed.

 Absorption of light occurs when light strikes a material, and the energy that it carries is absorbed by
the atoms of the material and is converted into thermal energy.

Questions

1. What do you call the bouncing of light as it strikes a surface?

 A. absorption

 B. refraction

 C. reflection

 D. transmission

2. What property of light changes when light obliquely passes through two different media?

 A. wavelength of light

 B. frequency of light

 C. speed of light

 D. color of light

3. What type of reflection occurs when light strikes a smooth reflective surface?

 A. specular reflection
  B. geometric reflection

 C. diffuse reflection

 D. irregular reflection

4. When light is transmitted, what type of material does it strike on?

 I. translucent

 II. opaque

 III. luminous

 IV. transparent

 A. A only

 B. A and B

 C. A, B and C

 D. A and D

A flower appears yellow.

5. Which of the following statements is correct?

 A. The yellow component of light that strikes the flower is reflected while the rest are absorbed.

 B. The yellow component of light that strikes the flower is absorbed while the rest are reflected.

 C. The yellow component of light that strikes the flower is refracted while the rest are reflected.

 D. The yellow component of light that strikes the flower is absorbed while the rest are refracted.

6. Which of the following situations will cause light to bend?

 A. When light strikes a surface obliquely and passes from one medium to another.

 B. When light strikes a reflective surface.

 C. When light strikes a surface and is absorbed by the material.

 D. When light strikes a surface and is completely transmitted.

7. Which of the following describes how light behaves when it travels from a medium of low refractive index
to a medium with a higher refractive index?
  A. As light travels from a medium of low refractive index to a higher refractive index, the light speeds
up and refracts closer to the normal line.

 B. As light travels from a medium of low refractive index to a higher refractive index, the light slows
down and refracts closer to the normal line.

 C. As light travels from a medium of high refractive index to a lower refractive index, the light slows
down and refracts away from the normal line.

 D. As light travels from a medium of low refractive index to a higher refractive index, the light speeds
up and refracts away from the normal line.

8. What happens to light when it is absorbed by the material?

 A. Light is converted into other forms of energy.

 B. Light remains as light contained in the material.

 C. Light cannot be absorbed by any object.

 D. Light vanishes into air.

9. A black object appears black because _______________.

 A. all the components of light are transmitted by the object.

 B. all the components of light are reflected by the object.

 C. all the components of light are absorbed by the object.

 D. all the components of light are refracted by the object.

10. When light strikes an object, it appears white. This means that all the components of the light is______ .

 A. diffused

 B. reflected

 C. absorbed

 D. refracted

8.2 The Emergence of Light: Newton and Descartes

WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 5, 2020·
Light: A Wave and a Particle, Physical Science
Objective

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how Newton and Descartes described the emergence of
light in various colors through prisms.

Descartes viewed light as waves while Newton believed that light was composed of tiny particles called
corpuscles. Both of them knew that when light passed through a prism, different colors were produced.

How did the two scientists explain the separation of light into different colors when it passed through a
prism?

Two of the many scientists who studied the behavior of light were Rene Descartes and Sir Isaac Newton.
Separately, they conducted experiments using a prism to explain the emergence of the colors of light upon
passing it.

Rene Descartes's View on the Emergence of Colors of Light

Rene Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who first studied and explained the
concept of refraction. In one of his experiments, he produced a rainbow by using a water-filled glass sphere
and sunlight. He explained that refraction of light caused the formation of rainbows. He then studied the
refraction and emergence of colors of light in a prism. He observed that the different colors of light refracted at
varying degrees. He noted that the red light refracted more than the blue light.

Descartes explained the emergence of the colors of light using the concept of the plenum, the invisible
substance that permeated the universe. He thought that light was a disturbance that traveled through the
plenum. He pictured the particles of plenum as tiny balls which were in contact, and rotating with the same
speed. He explained that when these particles passed through the prism and encountered a slit on the edge,
their rotational speed would change. This change resulted in the emergence of a color. Other parts of the slit
produced other colors of light.

Sir Isaac Newton's View on the Emergence of Colors of Light

Sir Isaac Newton was an English physicist and mathematician who was famous because of his contributions
in describing motion and the nature of light. His studies included the emergence of colors as light passed
through a prism. In his experiment, he saw that the red light refracted the least while the violet light refracted
the most. According to Newton, this difference in refraction occurred due to the differences in the mass of the
colors of light.

Newton believed that particles of matter exert equal force to the particles of light regardless of its color. He
then explained that when light particles passed through an interface of matter, the colors of light which have
different mass and inertia will be deflected at varying degrees. He noted that particles with greater mass and
inertia are deflected less when acted upon by the same force. For instance, particles of red light have more
mass than those of violet light. Therefore, red light was deflected less than the violet light.

Try it!

Create a Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences of Newton and Descartes’ view on the
emergence of light in various colors through prisms.

What do you think?

The ideas of Descartes and Newton are not the same. Can you cite instances where their ideas are parallel?

Key Points

· Rene Descartes believed that colors emerge from light when the rolling balls that make up a substance
change speed when light passes through it. When the balls encounter a slit on the edge of a prism, the ball next
to the slit starts to rotate which causes the change in the speed of the rotation of the balls and this change
produced a color.

· Sir Isaac Newton believed that light colors emerge upon passing a prism due to the difference in the mass
and inertia of the colors that caused the difference of deflection of each.

Questions

1. Which of the following describes how Rene Descartes viewed the nature of light?

 A. Light is composed of corpuscles.

  B. Light is composed of nothing.

 C. Light is a wave.

 D. Light is composed of particles.

2. Which of the following describes how Sir Isaac Newton viewed the nature of light?

 A. Light is indivisible

 B. Light is composed of particles.

 C. Light is a wave.

 D. Light is composed of white particles.

3. What material did Descartes use as a model of a raindrop to study the occurrence of a rainbow?

 A. prism

 B. water-filled glass cube

 C. vacuum

 D. water-filled glass sphere

4. Which of the following describes the very fine substance that Descartes believed where light travels on?

 A. The very fine substance is composed of tiny particles.

 B. The very fine substance is composed of tiny specks dusts.

 C. The very fine substance is composed of tiny bits of paper.

 D. The very fine substance is composed of tiny balls.

5. Which of the following describes the force that the particles of a matter exert to the particles of light?

 A. The force that the particles of a matter exert to the particles of light are of different amount.

 B. The force that the particles of a matter exert to the particles of light are of varying amount.

 C. The force that the particles of a matter exert to the particles of light are of equal amount

 D. The force that the particles of a matter exert to the particles of light have no significant amount

6. Which of the following describes how the colors of light emerge through prism according to Descartes?
  I. The light colors emerge upon passing a prism due to the difference in the mass of the colors of light.

 II. The difference in the inertia of the colors caused the difference of deflection of each which leads to
their emergence upon passing a prism.

 III. The light colors emerge when light particles change the speed of rotation of the tiny balls that
compose the very fine substance where light travels on.

 IV. Upon passing through the slit on the edge of a prism, the tiny balls on the slit starts to rotate, and
this rotation causes a change in the speed of rotation of the neighboring balls, and this change produces
color.

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. I and IV

7. Which of the following describes how colors of light emerge through prism according to Newton?

 I. Upon passing through the slit on the edge of a prism, the tiny balls on the slit starts to rotate, and this
rotation causes a change in the speed of rotation of the neighboring balls and this change produces
color.

 II. The light colors emerge when light particles change the speed of rotation of the tiny balls that
compose the very fine substance where light travels on.

 III. The light colors emerge upon passing a prism due to the difference in the mass of the colors of
light.

 IV. The difference in the inertia of the colors caused the difference of deflection of each which leads to
their emergence upon passing a prism.

 A. I and II

 B. II and III

 C. III and IV

 D. II and IV

8. According to Newton, which of the following statements is true?

  A. Violet deflected the most because it has the most mass.

 B. Red deflected the most because it has the least mass.

 C. Violet deflected the most because it has the least mass.

 D. Red deflected the most because it has the most mass.

9. Which of the following is true about the mass and inertia of the colors of light?

A. The greater the mass of a color of light, the greater is its inertia.

B. The greater the mass of a color of light, the lesser is its inertia.

C. The mass of a color of light does not affects its inertia.

D. The lesser the mass of a color of light, the greater is its inertia.

10.Arrange the following colors of light according to increasing amount of deflection when light passes
through a prism.

 a. blue

 b. green

 c. orange

 d. yellow

 A. a,b,c,d

 B. d,b,c,a

 C. c,d,b,a

 D. a,d,c,b

8.3 Waves
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 5, 2020·
Light: A Wave and a Particle, Physical Science

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to cite examples of waves (e.g., water, stadium, sound, string, and
light waves).

Waves are disturbances produced by vibrating particles of matter. They transfer energy as they propagate
through a medium or space.

Waves can be classified in two ways. They can be classified based on (1) how they propagate; and (2) the
orientation of the wave propagation relative to the direction of energy transfer.

Mechanical and Electromagnetic Waves

Waves can be classified based on how they propagate or their ability to transmit energy through a vacuum.
They can be either mechanical or electromagnetic waves.

There are waves that can only propagate when a medium is available; they are called mechanical waves.
Some examples of these waves are:

 Sound waves, which can travel fastest on solids.

 Water waves, which need water to propagate.

 Seismic waves, which can travel through and on the surface of Earth.

 Stadium waves, which can propagate through the movement of the people in a stadium.

 Slinky, string, and jump rope waves, which can propagate when used.

There are waves that can still travel even without a medium. These types of waves are called electromagnetic
(EM) waves. They are produced by the vibration of charged particles. There are seven EM waves arranged
either from increasing frequency or decreasing wavelength. They are the following:

 Radio waves, which are used to transmit radio and TV signals.

 Microwaves, which are used in microwave ovens and in sending messages through cellular phones.

 Infrared, which has a medical application in detecting heat leaks.

 Visible light, which is the only EM wave that can be seen by the naked eye.

 Ultraviolet, which is blocked by the ozone layer because too much of this can cause skin cancer.

 X-rays, which can penetrate through most of the things and also used for medical purposes.
  Gamma rays, which are more penetrating than X-rays and also used for medical purposes.

Longitudinal and Transverse Waves

Waves carry energy, and the direction of the energy transfer relative to the direction of the wave is the other
way of classifying waves. Waves can either be longitudinal or transverse.

Longitudinal waves propagate parallel to the direction of the energy transfer. The movement of these waves is
back and forth, and they carry the energy in that direction as well. Longitudinal waves are composed of regions
of compressions and rarefactions.

Compressions are regions where the particles are closest to each other. Rarefactions are regions where the
particles are furthest from each other. Examples of these waves are the sound waves and earthquake waves.
Transverse waves propagate perpendicular to the direction of the energy transfer. They move in up and down
manner and they carry the energy back and forth. These waves are composed of various parts such as crests,
troughs, amplitudes, and wavelengths.

The crest is the top of the wave while the trough is the bottom of the wave. The amplitude is the maximum
displacement of the wave from the horizontal axis or its origin. The wavelength refers to distance between a
crest and a crest or a trough and a trough. Examples of these waves are the EM waves and waves on a string.

Explore!

Surface waves are the combination of transverse and longitudinal waves. How will you describe the
movement of a surface wave?

Try it!

Get a slinky and make the transverse and longitudinal waves. Did you observe the same pattern as stated in the
discussion?

What do you think?

During the old times, when there were no phones yet, people tend to place their ear on the ground to know if
there are people or animals heading to their place. What do you think are the reasons behind this scenario?

Key Points

1. Waves can be classified in two ways. They can be classified based on (1) how they propagate; and (2)
the direction of wave propagation relative to the direction of energy transfer.

2. Mechanical waves need a medium to propagate. Examples of mechanical waves are water waves and
sound waves.
 3. Electromagnetic waves do not need any medium to propagate. Examples of these waves include
microwaves and X-rays.

4. Transverse waves travel perpendicularly relative to the direction of energy transfer.

5. Longitudinal waves travel in a parallel direction relative to the direction of energy transfer.

Questions

1. What type of wave propagates parallel to the direction of energy transfer?

 A. transverse wave

 B. mechanical wave

 C. longitudinal wave

 D. electromagnetic wave

2. What is carried by a wave as it travels?

 A. color

 B. energy

 C. light

 D. particle

3. Waves can be classified into groups. Which of the following statements give the correct basis of classifying
waves?

 I. based on the direction and the amount of energy exerted to create the wave

 II. based on their ability or inability to transmit energy through a vacuum

 III. based on the direction of wave propagation relative to the direction of energy transfer

 IV. based on the ability to change the direction of the wave relative to the direction of energy transfer

 A. I and II

 B. I and III

 C. II and III
  D. III and IV

4. Which of the following is not an electromagnetic wave?

 A. microwave

 B. visible light

 C. X-ray

 D. sound wave

5. Which does not belong to the group?

 A. sound wave

 B. jump rope wave

 C. water wave

 D. radio wave

6. Which of the following statements is not true?

 A. All EM waves are transverse waves.

 B. A sound wave is an example of a mechanical wave.

 C. All mechanical waves are longitudinal waves.

 D. All waves are transverse and longitudinal waves.

7. Visible light wave can be classified as ___________.

 I. longitudinal wave

 II. electromagnetic wave

 III. transverse wave

 IV. mechanical wave

 A. I and II

 B. II and IV

 C. I and III
  D. II and III

8. How are sound wave and stadium wave similar?

 A. They both need medium to travel on.

 B. They both do not need medium to travel on.

 C. They are both transverse waves.

 D. They are both longitudinal waves.

9. Which is an example of a wave that is both transverse and longitudinal?

 A. surface wave

 B. sound wave

 C. light wave

 D. stadium wave

10. How are mechanical waves different from electromagnetic waves?

 A. Mechanical waves are produced by vibration of charged particles while EM waves are produced on
a medium.

 B. Mechanical waves need a medium to travel on while EM waves do not.

 C. Mechanical waves are transverse while EM waves longitudinal.

 D. Mechanical waves do not need medium to travel on while EM waves do.

8.8 Dispersion, Scattering, Interference, and Diffraction of Light

WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·FRIDAY, APRIL 10, 2020·
Light: A Wave and a Particle, Physical Science

Dispersion

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to differentiate dispersion, scattering, interference, and diffraction
of light.

Light is a wave and a particle at the same time; as a wave, it can be dispersed, scattered, interfered, and
diffracted.

Dispersion is the separation of white light into its seven color components when there is a refraction or
bending of light. White light is composed of the different color spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, and violet. Each color has its own wave frequency; different light frequencies bend at different amounts
when they pass through a prism. When white light passes through a prism, it will refract two times making the
separation of the colors noticeable.

Light scattering is the ability of particles to absorb light and scatter it in all directions. Scattering of light
components depends on the size of the particles or scatterers; small particles scatter components of short
wavelengths (high frequency) while larger particles scatter longer wavelengths (low frequency).

Our atmosphere is composed of tiny particles that scatter the color components of white light. The atmosphere
has an abundance in nitrogen and oxygen particles, which can scatter higher frequency components of white
light. They scatter violet the most, followed by blue, green, and so on. This selective scattering is called the
Rayleigh scattering. Our eyes are more sensitive to blue frequencies of light, which is why we see the sky as
blue.

Another example is the clouds. Clouds appear white because the water droplets in the clouds are larger than the
wavelength of light which scatter all the colors of light equally. This type of scattering is known as Mie
scattering.
Diffraction

Diffraction is the bending of light when it encounters an obstacle or an opening. A shadow is usually formed
when light meets an obstacle. The bending of light is not very much noticeable, but when you look around the
edges of a shadow, you will notice blurred areas or diffraction fringes; these are the areas where diffraction of
light occurs.

The amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength of light and the size of the obstacle. Also, the smaller the
opening, the greater is the diffraction of light as shown in diagrams A, B, and C below. The longer the
wavelength, the greater is the diffraction of light as shown in diagrams D and E below.

Example

Diffraction effects are sometimes not helpful when viewing objects under the microscope. When the
wavelength of light has the same size as the object, diffraction blurs the image. When the wavelength of light
is larger than the size of the object, there is no image seen.

Interference

Interference is the result of the superposing of waves from different sources. If you examine a shadow formed
by the diffraction of light, you will see fringes on the edge of the shadow. These fringes or the interference of
light waves are the result of the diffraction of light at different sides of the objects or obstacle which causes the
shadow to be fuzzy. When this property was observed in the visible light, it was considered as a clear proof of
the wave nature of light.

Constructive and Destructive Interference

Constructive interference happens when two identical parts of two waves meet such as a crest of one wave
meets the crest of another wave of the same wavelength; this would result in a new wave with the same
wavelength but twice the amplitude.

Destructive interference happens when two opposite parts of two waves meet for example a crest of one wave
meets the trough of another wave which would result in the cancellation of the two waves.

The image below shows diffraction of light from two sources or openings. As the waves from these two
openings meet, they interfere and produce interference patterns. The bright fringes are the areas where the
waves interfere constructively, while the dark fringes are the areas where the waves interfere destructively.
Try it!

Try to see diffraction and interference by holding two pencil leads side by side then shine a laser beam on the
slits and project the image on a wall. Describe what you see. Can you distinguish interference from diffraction?

What do you think?

How do dispersion, scattering, interference, and diffraction of light prove the wave nature of light?

Key Points

 Dispersion is then separation of white light into its seven color components when there is a refraction
or bending of light. When white light passes through a prism, it will refract two times, making the
separation of the colors noticeable.

 Light scattering is the ability of particles to absorb light and scatter it in all directions.

 Diffraction is the bending of light when it encounters an obstacle or an opening.

 Interference is the result of the superposing of waves from different sources.

 Constructive interference happens when two identical parts of two waves meet, such as when a crest
of one wave meets the crest of another wave of the same wavelength.

 Destructive interference happens when two opposite parts of two waves meet, for example a crest of
one wave meets the trough of another wave, resulting in the cancellation of the two waves.

8.8 Test Questions

1. Which of the following refers to the separation of white light into its component colors when it is refracted?

 A. diffraction

 B. scattering

 C. dispersion
  D. interference

2. In which of the following phenomena can diffraction of light be observed?

 A. rainbows

 B. shadows

 C. blue sky

 D. white clouds

3. Which of the following must occur in order to produce a wave that has the same wavelength but twice the
amplitude of the two waves that meet?

 A. Constructive interference where identical parts of two different waves meet.

 B. Constructive interference should occur where opposite parts of two different waves meet.

 C. Destructive interference should occur where opposite parts of two different waves meet.

 D. Destructive interference should occur where identical parts of two different waves meet.

4. Which of the following best describes the relationship between the amount of diffraction and size of the
obstacle?

 A. The larger the size of the obstacle, the greater is the diffraction.

 B. The size of the obstacle does not affect the amount of diffraction.

 C. The amount of diffraction depends only on the wavelength of light.

 D. The smaller the size of the obstacle, the greater is the diffraction.

5. Which of the following best explain why the sky is blue?

 I. The atmosphere is composed of tiny particles that scatter components of light with shorter
wavelengths.

 II. Blue is a component of light that has long wavelength and is scattered easily by particles of the
atmosphere.

 III. Blue is a component of light that has short wavelength and is scattered easily by particles of the
atmosphere.
  IV. The atmosphere is composed of tiny particles that scatter components of light with longer
wavelengths.

 A. I and II

 B. I and III

 C. II and IV

 D. III and IV

6. Which of the following best explain why light is dispersed when it passes through a prism?

 I. The speed of light changes as it travels from air to the prism.

 II. The colors of light have different frequencies; thus, they are refracted at different amounts producing
ROYGBIV.

 III. The speed of light remains constant as it travels from air to the prism.

 IV. The colors of light have different frequencies; thus, they are refracted by the same amount.

 A. I and II

 B. I and III

 C. II and IV

 D. III and IV

7. Which of the following best explain why clouds are white?

 I. The water droplets in the clouds are larger that the wavelength of light.

 II. The water droplets in the clouds are smaller that the wavelength of light.

 III. Only white light is scattered by the water droplets; thus we see white light.

 IV. All the components of light are scattered equally by the water droplets; thus we see white light.

 A. I and II

 B. I and III

 C. II and IV

 D. I and IV
8. Which of the following statements best describe Rayleigh from Mie scattering?

 I. Rayleigh scattering is the scattering of shorter-wavelength component of light.

 II. Rayleigh scattering is the scattering of all the components of light equally.

 III. Rayleigh scattering explains why clouds are white.

 IV. Rayleigh scattering explains why the sky is blue.

 A. I and II

 B. I and III

 C. II and IV

 D. I and IV

9. Which of the following best explain why diffraction is sometimes not helpful when viewing objects under
the microscope?

 I. When the wavelength of light is smaller as the object, there is no image seen.

 II. Diffraction of light helps magnify the size of the object observed under the microscope.

 III. When the wavelength of light has the same size as the object, diffraction blurs the image.

 IV. When the wavelength of light is larger than the size of the object, there is no image seen.

 A. I and II

 B. I and III

 C. II and IV

 D. III and IV

10. In an interference pattern, what do the white bands and dark bands of light represent?
 I. White bands represent constructive interference while dark bands represent destructive interference.

 II. White bands represent destructive interference while dark bands represent constructive interference.

 III. White and dark bands both represent constructive interference.

 IV. White and dark bands both represent destructive interference.

 A. I only

 B. I and III

 C. II and IV

 D. I and IV