Module 1: Properties &

Structure of matter

Properties of matter
● Explore homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures through practical
investigations:
○ Using separation techniques based on physical properties
■ Heterogenous mixtures:
● Two or more substances that are physically bonded together. They
can often be separated using physical means such as filtering and
distillation.
■ Homogenous mixtures:
● Two or more substances that are uniformly bonded together in a
fixed ratio. .
Distillation prac image:
 ○ Calculating percentage composition by weight of component elements and/or
compounds

● Investigate the nomenclature of inorganic substances using International Union of Pure

and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) naming conventions
● Classify the elements based on their properties and position in the periodic table through
their:
○ Physical properties
 ○ Chemical properties

Atomic structure and Atomic mass

● Investigate the basic structure of stable and unstable isotopes by examining:

○ Their position in the periodic table
■ As you go down the periodic table atoms have more energy levels.
■ Elements in the same group of a periodic table portray similar chemical
reactions. Eg- noble gases don’t react at all.
○ The distribution of electrons, protons and neutrons in the atom
■ Protons and neutrons are situated in the nucleus of the atom while the
electrons are situated around the atom.
○ Representation of the symbol, atomic number and mass number (nucleon
number)
■
● Model the atom’s discrete energy levels, including electronic configuration and spdf
notation.
○ Spdf notation uses three principles:
■ Hund’s rule’
● States that electrons prefer to occupy an empty shell in the same
energy level before pairing up.
■ Aufbau principle
● Electrons will fill the lowest energy orbital first
■ Pauli exclusion principle
● The maximum number of electrons for each orbital is 2 and
electrons must be of “opposite” spin
○ Spdf is the theory that there are 4 different energy levels - s, p, d and f and these
shells have subshells.
● Calculate the relative atomic mass from isotopic composition
● Investigate energy levels in atoms and ions through:
○ Collecting primary data from a flame test using different ionic solutions of metals
■ The flame test is a qualitative test used to observe the metals
characteristic colours when burnt. Some of the colours are as follows:
● Barium → Apple green
● Calcium → Brick red
● Lead → Grey-blue
● Copper → Green
● Iron (2+.3+) → Orange brown
● Sodium → Yellow
● Potassium → Violet
● Lithium → Deep red
● Strontium → Crimson
○ Examining spectral evidence for the Bohr model and introducing the Schrödinger
model
■ Bohr’s model:
● Bohr’s model suggests that there are only a fixed number of shells
and these shells have fixed energy levels. Electrons can only move
between these shells. They may not exist within these shells.
● The proof used to support this theory is the absorption spectra
and the emission spectra. The absorption spectra is emitted when
an atom gets excited and moves up an energy level. The emission
spectra can be observed when an electron relaxes and moves
down energy levels. An element’s absorption and emission spectra
match with each other. EG: hydrogen
 ■ Schrodinger’s model:
● Investigate the properties of unstable isotopes using natural and human-made
radioisotopes as examples, including but not limited to:
○ Types of radiation
■ There are three types of radiation:
● Alpha - This emits a helium particle and is the one with the least
penetrating power due to the mass of the radiation.
● Beta - Emits an electron particle and has medium penetration
power.
● Gamma - Emits rays and can penetrate almost anything. 10cm of
lead is required to stop it from penetrating.
○ Types of balanced nuclear reactions

Periodicity
● Demonstrate, explain and predict the relationships in the observable trends in the
physical and chemical properties of elements in periods and groups in the periodic table,
including but not limited to:
○ State of matter at room temperature
■ Most elements on the periodic table are solids at room temperature with
the exception of 2 liquids, 5 diatomic gases and 6 monatomic gases.
● Liquids- Mercury and Bromine
 ● Diatomic gases - Oxygen, Hydrogen, Chlorine, Fluorine, Nitrogen
(FONCH)
● Monatomic gases (Noble gases) - Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton,
Xenon and Radon
○ Electronic configurations and atomic radii
■ Atomic radii and electronic configurations increase as you go down the
periodic table. Atomic radius decreases along the periodic table from left
to right. This due to the increased electrostatic attraction (the electron
shielding effect) due to the number of increased protons between the
nucleus and the outer shells.

○ First ionisation energy and electronegativity

■ Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an
atom. The second ionisation energy is always higher than the first
ionisation energy as removing an electron from a neutral atom is harder
than removing an electron from a positive ion.
■ Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract bonding electrons.
■ Electronegativity and ionisation energy decreases as you go down the
periodic table and increases as you go across. This is due to the electron
shielding effect. As the number of shells increases as you go down the
periodic table, the attraction to the nucleus is also reduced. For
electronegativity, this means that the electrons don’t have strong attraction
forces to the protons in the nucleus. For ionisation energy, it means that
lesser energy is required to remove an electron because the electrostatic
attraction is weak. Attraction to the nucleus is increased when you go
across the periodic table as the number of protons increases in the
nucleus. For electronegativity, this means that electrons are more
attracted to the protons due to the proximity. For ionisation energy, it
means that removing an electron from the valence shell is harder
because of the stronger electrostatic attraction.
○ Reactivity with water
 ■ Only very reactive metals undergo a chemical reaction with water. This
produces salt and hydrogen.
■ Eg: Sodium+Water. Sodium + Water → Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen

Bonding
● Investigate the role of electronegativity in determining the ionic or covalent nature of
bonds between atoms
○ Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract bonding electrons.
○ Ionic bonding occurs between an atom of low electronegativity and high
electronegativity.
○ Covalent bonding occurs between atoms who have the same electronegativity
● Investigate the differences between ionic and covalent compounds through:
○ Using nomenclature, valency and chemical formulae (including Lewis dot
diagrams)
■ Ionic compounds
● Occurs between a metal and a non-metal through donating and
accepting electrons. To name an ionic compound always start with
 the metal followed by the non-metal. The non-metal ends with
“-ide”
● To write the chemical formula, the charge should be written and
then crossed over. The formula for an ionic compound is always
empirical.

■ Covalent molecular
● The bonding between 2 or more nonmetals through the sharing of
electrons.
● To name: start with the element towards the left hand side of the
periodic table. Second element is given the suffix -ide. They are
also given a prefix based on the number of each element in the
bond.
 ● The formula for this bonding is a molecular formula.
○ Examining the spectrum of bonds between atoms with varying degrees of
polarity with respect to their constituent elements’ positions on the periodic table
■ When one element is more electronegative than the other compound, a
temporary inequality is created within the compound depicting a
temporary dipole. The shape of the molecule determines whether dipoles
cancel out or add up to give a net dipole.
■ To determine whether a particular molecule is polar:
● Identify any polar bonds
● Determine whether these add up to give a net dipole or whether
they cancel out to make a non-polar molecule.
■ Types of intermolecular forces:
● Dipole-Dipole forces:
○ Dipole-Dipole forces are stronger than dispersion forces. It
has dipole-dipole and dispersion forces.
○ Not all molecules have dipole-dipole force, it will only
have this force if the molecule is polar.
○ Because polar molecules have slightly positive and slightly
negative ends, they are able to line up so that the positive
end of one molecule attracts the negative end of another
molecule. This electrostatic attraction holds the molecule
together. This is a PERMANENT force.
○ The more electronegative a molecule is, the stronger a
dipole-dipole force is.
● Dispersion forces
○ Dispersion forces occurs in ALL molecules
○ Dispersion forces are TEMPORARY forces The higher the
mass of a molecule, the stronger a dispersion force is. .
○ Dispersion forces are weak intermolecular forces that arise
from electrostatic attractions between instantaneous
dipoles neighbouring molecules.
 ● Hydrogen bonding
○ Hydrogen bonding only occurs between hydrogen and
fluorine, oxygen and fluorine. This is the strongest type of
bonding.
○ Hydrogen bonding is FON

COVALENT BOND >IONIC BOND >ION-DIPOLE >HYDROGEN BOND >DIPOLE-DIPOLE

>DISPERSION FORCE

○ Modelling the shapes of molecular substances

■
● Investigate elements that possess the physical property of allotropy
○ Allotropes are compounds that have the same element but are bonded in different
manners. Carbon has 2 allotropes - graphite and diamond.
■ Graphites is an allotrope of carbon that is bonded hexagonally and is held
together by weak intramolecular forces. This means that graphite is
relatively weaker and can be easy to break. It also conducts electricity.
■ Diamond is another allotrope of carbon that is bonded in a lattice. The
lattice-like structure makes the forces between the atoms strong and
therefore making it one of the hardest substances.
● Investigate the different chemical structures of atoms and elements, including but not
limited to:
○ Ionic networks
■ An attraction and combination between a cation and an anion
■ They are large structures that naturally exist due to intermolecular
electrostatic attractions.
■ They conduct electricity when molten or aqueous as for substances to
conduct electricity, they must have charged particles that are free to
move. Ionic compounds are hard.
■ There are no discrete molecules and their formulas are empirical.
○ Covalent networks (including diamond and silicon dioxide)
■ It doesn’t have an independent existence. The formula does not tell you
exactly how much there is in one molecule.
■ Have covalent bonding throughout the structure and are similar to ionic
lattice but have higher melting points and generally do not conduct
electricity
○ Covalent molecular
■ Substances that can have independent existence. It is an empirical
formula and can never be simplified.
■ The bonds are still covalent bonds - electrons are still being shared.
■ Are usually amorphous liquids or gases, volatile, have low boiling points,
are poor conductors, and are soft.
○ Metallic structure
 ■ The valence electrons of the metals leave the outer shell. This sea of
delocalised electrons are free to move around the positive metal ion
lattice structure and it holds the whole lattice together.
■ This gives metals the characteristic of being able to conduct electricity
due to the electrons being able to move around freely.
● Explore the similarities and differences between the nature of intermolecular and
intramolecular bonds and the strength of the forces associated with each, in order to
explain the:
○ Physical properties of elements and compounds
■ Intramolecular forces are much stronger than Intermolecular forces.

Metallic Bonding Polar covalent molecular Non-polar Covalent molecular Covalent lattice Ionic lattice

Melting/Boiling points High Low Very low Very high High

Electrical/Heat conductivity Good conductor Poor conductor Poor conductor Poor conductor Poor conductor as solid, great
conductor as liquid

Malleability/Ductility High N/A (low) N/A (low) low low

Solubility in water Insoluble Soluble Small ions are partially soluble Insoluble Sometimes soluble
whereas big ones are insoluble

Explain the trend in electronegativity and ionisation energy across periods and down groups in

the periodic table. Support your explanation with relevant concepts.

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract bonding electrons. Ionisation energy is the
energy required to remove an electron from the valence shell.

Electronegativity and ionisation energy decreases as you go down the periodic table and
increases as you go across. This is due to the electron shielding effect. As the number of shells
increases as you go down the periodic table, the attraction to the nucleus is also reduced. For
electronegativity, this means that the electrons don’t have strong attraction forces to the protons
in the nucleus. For ionisation energy, it means that lesser energy is required to remove an
electron because the electrostatic attraction is weak.

Attraction to the nucleus is increased when you go across the periodic table as the number of
protons increases in the nucleus. For electronegativity, this means that electrons are more
attracted to the protons due to the proximity. For ionisation energy, it means that removing an
electron from the valence shell is harder because of the stronger electrostatic attraction.

Polarity summary
 ● Think definition of electronegativity
● If 2 elements are same
○ No distribution in polarity (even distribution of shared pair)
○ NON-POLAR molecule
○ Eg - O2 N2 Cl2 etc
● If 2 elements are different
○ Polar bond if there is a difference in polarity
○ If not 100% polar
■ Must check symmetry. Shape/Geometry is important
■ Is it symmetrical?
● Yes → non-polar
● No → polar

Shapes

● X Ray diffraction evidence showed angle/shape theory

● Bond repulsion theory gives shape
● GET SHAPES PICTURE FROM LIZ

Intermolecular forces

● Polar molecule
○ Dipole dipole forces
○ Permanent dipole (separation of charge) moment
● Dispersion force
○ Directly proportional to mass
○ Mass is proportional to elections therefore, more mass = more electrons so more
random movement results in higher temporary dipole
○ Found in ALL molecular compounds
○ Random motion of electrons
● Hydrogen bonding
○ MUST BE POLAR
○ Criteria:
■ H atom directly bonded to F,O,N (very electronegative) → Makes H bare
“bare”. Looking for electrons → lone pairs
■ The H bond is the electrostatic attraction between the H-atom of one
molecule and the lone pair of another molecule.
● Bonding
○ Intramolecular (within)
■ Metallic
● (Metals)
● Sea of delocalised electrons
■ Ionic
● (Metal+non-metal)
● Lattice structure
 ■ Covalent
● (Non-metal + metal)
● Covalent molecular
● Covalent network
○ Strong interactions
○ Lattice
○ Intermolecular (between)
■ Dispersion
● Weak
● ‘Momentary dipoles that exist between molecules due to random
movement of electron pairs proportional to mass
■ ‘H bonding
● H attached to F,O,N
● Strong dipole
● Strong interactions
● Dependent on polarity on electronegativity
■ Dipole-Dipole
● Polarity
● Polar compound attraction between + & _ ends between
molecules.
● Eg: H2S & Hcl
● Dependent on electronegativity
● If the net dipole is not 0. Ie. dipole doesn’t cancel out