Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.

C
(Sami J.)

CHAPTER TWO
2. STRESS AND STRAIN OF AXIALLY LOADED MEMERS
2.1 Objectives
❖ Determination of axial stress, axial strain & their relationship.
❖ Developing the relation in between axial & lateral strains.
❖ Computing stress & strain on a structural member created in change of temperature.
❖ Determination of shear stress, shear strain and their correlation.

2.2 Introduction
The effect of externally applied forces can be measured in terms of the internal reacting
forces in a solid body of the members of a frame work, as described in Engineering
Mechanics I.
However, at that stage no mention was made of the cross-sectional size and shape of the
members. This aspect had no effect on the forces in the members, but conversely one
should be able to describe quantitatively the way in which two members of different cross-
sectional size would react to a particular value of force. This is done through the concept
of stress and strain.

2.3 Concept of stress

As we know that the main problem of strength of materials or mechanics of materials
(mechanics of deformable solids) is the investigation of the internal resistance of the body
subjected to externally applied forces may be due to any one of the following reasons.
❖ Due to service conditions.
❖ Due to environment in which the component works.
❖ Through contact with other members.
❖ Due to fluid pressures.
❖ Due to gravity or inertia forces.
When externally applied forces act on a deformable body, a body suffers a deformation.
From equilibrium point of view, this action should be opposed or reacted by internal forces
which are set up within the particles of material due to cohesion. These internal forces give
rise to a concept of stress. Therefore, let us define a stress.
Stress: is the intensity of force or the quantity of force acting on a unit of area or simply
the force per unit area.
The maximum stress a body can stand before it breaks is called the breaking stress or
ultimate stress.
𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

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Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.C
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Let’s consider a prismatic bar, the structural member having constant cross-section
throughout its length, which is subjected to axial loads P at the ends, as shown below.
Fig.1.1b, shows the bar before the loads
are applied and Fig.1.1c, shows the
elongated bar after the loads are applied.
The internal stresses produced in the
bar by the axial forces are exposed if we
make an imaginary cut at section m-n in
Fig 1.1c. Because this section is taken
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
Fig. 1.1a - c Prismatic bar in tension. the bar, it is called a cross-section.
If the bar shown in Fig.1.1c is assumed to be cut into two halves at section m-n, then each
portion of this bar is in equilibrium under the action of load P and the internal forces acting
at the section m-n as shown below.

Fig. 1.1d Imaginary cut at section m-n of prismatic bar.

As it is shown in the Fig.1.1d above, the part of the bar to the left (or right) of the cut can
be isolated and treated as free body diagram. The tensile load P acts at the left (or right)
hand end of this free body; at the other end are forces representing the action of the removed
part of the bar upon the part that remains.
Units: The basic units of stress in S.I units i.e. (International system) is newton per square
meter (N/m2 ) or Pascal (Pa). Other units are KPa = 103 Pa, MPa = 106 Pa, GPa = 109 Pa.
Sometimes N/mm2 units are also used, because this is an equivalent to MPa While US
customary unit is pound per square inch (psi).

2.3.1 Types of stresses

Only two basic stresses exist:
1) Normal or perpendicular stresses (tensile or compressive stresses) and
2) Shear or parallel or tangential stresses.
Other stresses either are similar to these basic stresses or are a combination of these.
Examples:
❖ Bearing stress is similar with that of compressive stress.
❖ Torsional stress, as encountered in twisting of a shaft is a shearing stress.
❖ Bending stress is a combination of tensile, compressive and shear stresses.
N.B: it must be kept in mind that the stress at any point in a body is basically resolved into
two components, one acts perpendicular to the area concerned and denoted by  (sigma)
and the other acts parallel to the area concerned and denoted by  (tau).

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Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.C
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1) Normal stress:
Normal stresses are the first type of stresses caused by the forces acting in a direction
perpendicular (normal) to the cut surface (cross-sectional area) of the material. They are
either tensile or compressive stresses and generally denoted by a Greek letter  (sigma).
Tensile means a material is under tension. Meaning that if the forces acting on a material
are trying to stretch it, then the resulting stresses are known as tensile stresses.
Compressive stresses are developed due to the pushing type loading on the material. If the
forces acting on a material are causing the material to be compressed, or trying to squash
it, we obtain compressive stresses.
N.B: it is usual to define tensile stresses as positive and compressive stresses as negative.

Fig. 1.2a Normal (tensile or compressive) stresses.

Assuming that the stress has a uniform distribution over the cross-section, it can be seen
that its resultant is equal to the intensity ‘σ’ times the cross-sectional area ‘A’ of the bar.
Furthermore, from the equilibrium point of view as shown in Fig.1.1d and 1.2a at sections
m-n, a-a and b-b; it is also evident that the resultant must be equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the applied load P. From these observations the following relation
can be obtained.

𝑷
𝛔=
𝑨
But the stress distributions may be far from uniform, with local regions of high stress
known as stress concentrations. If the force carried by a component is not uniformly
distributed over its cross-sectional area, A, we must consider a small area, ‘A' which
carries a small load P, of the total force ‘P', then definition of stress at a point is:
𝜹𝑷 𝜹𝑷
𝛔= . Mathematically: 𝛔 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 .
𝜹𝑨 𝜹𝑨→𝟎 𝜹𝑨
If the equation σ = P/A is to be valid, the stress ‘σ’ must be uniformly distributed over the
cross-section of the bar. This condition is realized if the axial force P acts through the
centroid of the cross-sectional area. When the load P does not act at the centroid, bending
of the bar will result, and a more complicated analysis is necessary.

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Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.C
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The Fig.1.2a is also known as uniaxial state of stress, because the stresses act only in one
direction. However, such a state rarely exists, therefore we have biaxial and triaxial state
of stresses where either the two mutually perpendicular normal-stresses act or three
mutually perpendicular normal-stresses act as shown in the figures below:

Fig. 1.2b Biaxial state and triaxial state of stresses.

The following figures shows a typical specimen used for uniaxial tensile testing for
materials like timber or plastic and metal.
Necking

Fig. 1.2c Uniaxial tensile testing material.

Necking: The localized decrease in diameter in a specimen near the rupture point and it
occurs as the sample leaves the elastic deformation region and begins to deform plastically .
Question: At which position will the specimen break if the applied force P is increased up
to failure?
𝑃 𝑃
Answer: 𝜎1 = : 𝜎2 = 𝐴 : 𝐴2 < 𝐴1 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝜎2 >
𝐴1 2
𝜎1 , 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛!
∴ The specimen breaks at the maximum normal stress 2 along the plane with the minimum
cross-sectional area A 2 .
Example-1: A steel bar of rectangular cross-section, 3cm x 2cm, carries an axial load of
30KN. Estimate the average tensile stress over a normal cross-section of the bar.

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Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.C
(Sami J.)
Solution:
The area of a normal cross-section of the bar is: 𝐴 = 0.03 x 0.02 = 0.6 x 10−3 m2
𝑃 30 x 103
The average tensile stress over this cross-section is: 𝜎 = = 0.6 x 10−3 = 50𝑀𝑁/m2
𝐴

Example-2: A steel bolt 2.50cm in diameter carries a tensile load of 40KN. Estimate the
average tensile stress at the section-a and at the screwed section-b, where the diameter at
the root of the thread is 2.10cm.

Solution:
Π
The cross-sectional area of the bolt at the section-a is: 𝐴𝑎 = 4 (0.025)2 = 0.491 x 10−3 m2
𝑃 40 x 10 3
The average tensile stress over this cross-section is: 𝜎𝑎 = 𝐴 = 0.491 x 10− 3
= 81.4𝑀𝑁/m2
Π
The cross-sectional area of the bolt at the section-b is: 𝐴𝑏 = 4 (0.021)2 =
0.346 x 10−3 m2
𝑃 30 x 103
The average tensile stress over this cross-section is: 𝜎𝑏 = 𝐴 = 0.346 x 10− 3 = 115.6𝑀𝑁/m2

2) Shear stresses:
Shear stresses are the second basic stresses caused by a tangential force in which the
stressed area (area concerned) is a plane parallel to the direction of the applied load. The
forces, which are associated with the shearing of the material, referred to as shear forces
and the resulting force intensities are known as shear stresses and generally denoted by
the Greek symbol  (tau). The mean shear stress being equal to:
𝑃 𝐹 𝛿𝑃 𝛿𝐹
 𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = , shear stress at a point is equal to: 𝑎𝑣𝑒 = lim =
𝐴 𝐴 𝛿𝐴→0 𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐴

Fig. 1.3a Shear stresses between two glued blocks.

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Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.C
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Shear stress can be single or double based on the number of breaking junction. The single
shear takes place on the single plane (in the case of lap joints of rivets) and the shear area
is the cross-sectional area of the rivet.

Fig. 1.3b Rivet connection in which the rivet is loaded in single shear stress.

Because the loads are not exactly in line, they are said to be off-set and, therefore, the load
on the rivet is called a shearing load, i.e., the rivet is said to be in shear. If the rivet
material does not have sufficient shear strength to resist the loads, the rivet will break (shear
off) as shown in the above figure and the loads acting on them will move apart. The same
effect can be caused by loads pushing on the ends of the two metal bars joined by the rivet.
The double shear takes place in the case of Butt joints of rivets. The force transferred as
bearing on the rivet is resisted by the stress developing on the sections K-K’ and L-L’ of
the rivet. This stress developed on a surface created due to a force tangential or parallel to
the surface (e.g. ‘F’ in Fig. 1.3c (iii)) is called shear stress. Here, as we have two planes
resisting shear the rivet is said to be in double shear and the shear area is twice of the
cross-sectional area of the rivet.
Since the rivet as a whole is in equilibrium, any part of it is also in equilibrium. At each
cut section, a shear force F equivalent to P/2, as shown in Fig. 1.3c (iii), must be developed.
Thus the shear occurs over an area parallel to the applied load. This condition is termed
direct shear. Therefore, by dividing the total shear force F by the cross-sectional area A
over which it acts, we can determine the average shear stress in the section:
𝐹
 𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝐴

Fig. 1.3c Rivet connection in which the rivet is loaded in double shear stress.

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Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.C
(Sami J.)
Example-3: Three steel plates are held together by a 1.5cm diameter rivet. If the load
transmitted is 50KN, estimate the shearing stress in the rivet.

Solution:
There is a tendency to shear across the planes in the rivet shown by broken lines. The area
resisting shear is twice the cross-sectional area of the rivet;
Π
The cross-sectional area of the rivet is: 𝐴 = 4 (0.015)2 = 0.177 x 10−3 m2
𝑃 25 x 103
The average shearing stress in the rivet is then: 𝜏 = = 0.177 x 10−3 = 141𝑀𝑁/m2
𝐴

Bearing stress: is actually a type of normal stress (i.e. compressive stress) and created
when one object presses against another. Example:
❖ The contact between beam and column.
❖ The contact between column and footing.
❖ The contact between footing and ground.

Fig. 1.4a Formation of bearing stress in structural elements.

Consider the pinned connection shown in Fig 1.4b below. This joint consists of a clevis A,
a bracket B, and a pin C. As the force P is applied, the bracket and the clevis press against
the rivet in bearing, and a non-uniform pressure develop against the pin (as Fig. 1.4b). The
average value of this pressure is determined by the projected area of the pin into the bracket
(or clevis). This is called the bearing stress.
𝑃
The bearing stress in the bracket then equals 𝜎𝑏 = . This stress is distributed over the
𝑡1 ∗𝑑

pin and represented by . Here t 1 is the thickness of the bracket and d is the diameter of
𝑃
the pin. Similarly, the bearing stress in the clevis is given by 𝜎𝑏 = 2(𝑡∗𝑑). This stress is also

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Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.C
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distributed over the pin and represented by and , in which t is the thickness of the
clevis.
The force transferred as bearing on the pin is resisted by the stress developing on sections
m-n and p-q of the pin. This stress developed on a surface created due to a force tangential
or parallel to the surface (e.g. V in Fig. 1.4b (c)) is called shear stress. In this example as
we have two planes resisting shear, the pin is said to be in double shear.

Fig. 1.4b Pin connection in which the rivet is loaded in bearing and double shear stress.
Example-4: The connection shown in the figure consists of five steel plates, each 1cm
thick, joined by a single 1.6cm diameter bolt. The total load transferred between the plates
is 120KN, distributed among the plates as shown.
(a) Calculate the largest shear stress in the bolt, disregarding friction between the plates.
(b) Calculate the largest bearing stress acting against the bolt.

Solution: Plates joined by a bolt.

d = diameter of bolt = 1.6cm
t = thickness of plates = 1cm

Free body diagram of bolt.

Section A-A: Shear = V = 40KN
Section B-B: Shear = V = 20KN, Hence the maximum shear force in bolt (V max ) = 40KN.
𝑉 40 x 10 3 40 x 103
(a) Maximum shear stress in bolt is: 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝜋∗(0.016)2 ⁄4 = 199MN/m2
𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝜋∗(d) 2 ⁄4
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 60 x 103
(b) Maximum bearing stress in bolt is: 𝜎𝑏 = = = 375MN/m2
𝑑∗𝑡 (0.016)∗(0.010 )

Where Fmax = maximum force applied by a plate against the bolt.

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Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.C
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Torsional stress:
The term ‘torsion’ refers to the twisting of a structural member caused by a moment couple
or eccentric loads that produce rotation about its longitudinal axis. One of the most
common examples of a structural member subjected to torsional moments is a spandrel
(edge) beam.
Torsional loading is pictured in figure below, which shows a straight bar supported at one
end and loaded two pairs of forces. Each pair of forces form a couple that tends to twist
the bar about its longitudinal axis. The moment of a couple is equal to the product of one
of the forces and the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces. Thus,
the first couple has a moment T1 = P1 d1 and the second has a moment T2 = P2 d2 .

Fig. 1.4c Bar subjected to forces causing a moment of couple.

Couples that produce twisting of a bar, such as couples T1 and T2 in Fig. 1.4d (i) below
are called torques, twisting couples, or twisting moments. Couples can also be represented
by curved arrows or double-headed vector following the right-hand screw sign convention.
This torque induces shearing stress in the bar. The relationship between shear stress and
torque referred to as torsion formula and would have the following form.
𝑇𝑟
=
𝐽
Where, τ - shear stress, T – torque, r – distance from the center, J – polar moment of inertia.

Fig. 1.4d Bar subjected to torsion by twisting couples T1 and T2 and eccentric load.

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Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.C
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Example-5: A torque T0 is transmitted between two flanged shafts by means of four 20mm
bolts (see figure below). The diameter of the bolt circle is d = 150mm. If the allowable
shear stress in the bolts is 90MPa, what is the maximum permissible torque? (Neglect
friction between the flanges).

Solution: Shafts with flanges.

d B = bolt diameter = 20mm
d = diameter of bolt circle = 150mm
τallow = 90MPa
T0 = torque transmitted by bolt = 4F * (d/2) = 2Fd
Where F = shear force in one bolt.
But Fallow = allowable shear force in one bolt = τallow * Abolt = (90MPa) (Π/4) (20mm2 ) =
28.27KN.
⸫ Tmax = maximum allowable torque = 2Fallow *d = 2*(28.27KN) (150mm) = 8.48KN.m.

Bending stress: is a combination of tensile, compressive and shear stresses and denoted
by σb . It is the stress developed in the member because of bending load and can be
calculated by flexural formula.
𝑀 σb
=
𝐼 𝑦
Where, σb - bending stress, M – moment, y – distance from the N.A, I – moment of inertia.

Fig. 1.4e Beam subjected to pure bending moment.

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Fig. 1.4f Stress distribution in beam subjected to pure bending moment.

From triangle similarity,
σmax σb
=
𝐶 𝑦
Then the bending stress at any distance y-from the neutral axis, becomes:
y
σb = . σmax
𝐶

2.3.2 General State of stress at a point

The state of stress at any interior point of a loaded body is called the general or a triaxial
state of stress. Let us, consider any point ‘q' in the interior of the body and pass a cutting
plane through a point 'q' perpendicular to the x - axis as shown below.

Fig. 1.5a Representation of general state of stress at a point.

The corresponding force components can be shown in the table below.
Force component when the cutting plane pass through point 'q' is perpendicular to
the x - axis the y - axis the z - axis
dFx xx . dax yx . day zx . daz
dFy xy . dax yy . day zy . daz
dFz xz. dax yz. day zz. daz
The Area surrounding
the point ‘q’ dax day daz

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Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.C
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Co-ordinate systems
In three-dimensional space we require three independent co-ordinates to specify the unique
position of a point relative to the chosen set of axes. To represent the stresses using three
independent co-ordinates we attach two subscripts to the symbol '', for normal stresses
and to the symbol '', for shear stresses.
❖ First subscript: indicates the direction of the normal to the surface.
❖ Second subscript: indicates the direction of the stress.
Note: in the case of normal stresses, the double script notation may be dispensed with as
the direction of the normal stress and the direction of normal to the surface of the element
on which it acts is the same. Hence, a single subscript notation is sufficient to define the
normal stresses. But in the case of shear stresses, the single subscript notation is not
practical, because such stresses are in direction parallel to the surfaces on which they act.
So, we have two directions to specify, that of normal to the surface and the stress itself.
a) Cartesian - co-ordinate system: This is a simple extension of the two-dimensional
case where a third axis, the z-axis, has been added. In this system, we make use of
the axes, X, Y and Z. Therefore, the normal stresses have been represented by x,
y and z and the shear stresses are represented by xy ,yx , yz, zy , zx , & xz.

Fig. 1.5b Cartesian - co-ordinate system.

b) Cylindrical - co-ordinate system: This is an extension of the polar co-ordinate
system. In this system we make use of co-ordinates r,  and Z. Thus, the normal
stress components acting over an element is being denoted by r,  and z and the
shear stress components are designated by r,r, z, z,zr, and rz.

Fig. 1.5c Cartesian - co-ordinate system.

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Strength of Materials 4 CEng 2016 E.C
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Sign convention
Direct stresses or normal stresses: - Tensile = +ve, Compressive = –ve.
Shear stresses: - Tending to turn the element C.W = -ve, C.C.W = +ve.
❖ A general state of stress at a point involves all the normal stress components,
together with all the shear stress components as shown in earlier figures. To define
the state of stress at a point:

Therefore, we will need only six components to specify the state of stress at a point i.e. x,
y , z, xy , yz, and zx .
Complementary shear stresses:
The existence of shear stresses on any two sides of the element
induces complementary shear stresses on the other two sides of
the element to maintain equilibrium.
On planes AB and CD, the shear stress  acts. To maintain the
static equilibrium of this element, on planes AD and BC, ' should
act. We shall see that ' which is known as the complementary
shear stress would come out to equal and opposite to the .
Let us prove this thing for a general case as discussed below:
The figure shows a small rectangular element with sides of
length x, y and z parallel to x, y and z-directions. All
nine normal and shear stress components may act on the
element. The resulting forces applied to the element are in
equilibrium in x, y and z-direction.
Assumption: The weight of the element is neglected.
Since the element is a static piece of solid body, the moments applied to it must also be in
equilibrium. Let ‘O' be the center of the element and consider the axis through the point
‘O'. The resultant force associated with normal stresses x , y and z acting on the sides
of the element each pass through this axis, and therefore, has no moment. Now forces on
top and bottom surfaces produce a couple which must be balanced by the forces on left-
and right-hand faces. i.e. the complementary shear stresses are equal in magnitude. Thus,
τxy ∗ ∆𝑦 ∗ ∆𝑧 ∗ ∆𝑥 = τyx ∗ ∆𝑥 ∗ ∆𝑧 ∗ ∆𝑦 => 𝛕𝐱𝐲 = 𝛕𝐲𝐱
τyz ∗ ∆𝑥 ∗ ∆𝑧 ∗ ∆𝑦 = τzy ∗ ∆𝑥 ∗ ∆𝑦 ∗ ∆𝑧 => 𝛕𝐲𝐳 = 𝛕𝐳𝐲
τzx ∗ ∆𝑥 ∗ ∆𝑦 ∗ ∆𝑧 = τxz ∗ ∆𝑦 ∗ ∆𝑧 ∗ ∆𝑥 => 𝛕𝐳𝐱 = 𝛕𝐱𝐳

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