Strength of Materials-I

Chapter – 1

Stress and Strain

By Kejela T.
April1,2018
INTRODUCTION TO
CONCEPT OF STRESS
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter students will be able to
understand
• Types of forces and their effect in mechanical parts
• Types of stress and their application in Simple
Structures
• Stresses on inclined plane
• Ultimate and Allowable Stress; Factor of Safety
• The analysis of different mechanical components
 Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Forces and Stresses
1.3 Method of Section
1.4 Axial Loading; Normal Stress
1.5 Shearing Stress
1.6 Bearing Stress in Connections
1.7 Stress-Strain diagram
1.8 Stress on an Oblique Plane under Axial Loading
1.9 Ultimate and Allowable Stress: Factor of Safety
 1.1 Introduction
o Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied
mechanics that deals with the behavior of solid
bodies subjected to various types of loading
Engineering
Mechanics

Statics Mechanics of
Dynamics
Materials
 Statics
 Study of External Effects on
Rigid Bodies
Dynami
cs
 Study of Internal Effects and
Mechanics of Deformations that are Caused by
Materials the Application of Loads

 Other Names of Mechanics of Materials:

 Strength of Materials
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
 Mechanics of Solids
 The solid bodies considered include
• Bars with axial loads,
• Shafts in torsion,
• Beams in bending, and
• Columns in compression
 The principal objective of mechanics of materials is to
determine the
• Stresses,
in structures and their components due to the loads acting on
them.
• Strains, and

• Displacements
 If we can find these quantities for all values of the loads up to the loads that cause
failure, we will have a complete picture of the mechanical behavior of these
structures.
 1.2 Forces and Stresses
i) Force

 A force represents the action of one body on another and is

generally characterized by:

 its point of application,

 its magnitude, and

 its direction.

 It can be exerted by actual contact or at a distance, as in the case

of gravitational forces and magnetic forces
Classification of Forces

 Forces are classified as either contact or body forces.

• A contact force/Surface Force: is produced by direct physical

contact. Example: The force exerted on a body by a supporting
surface.

• A body force is generated by virtue of the position of a body with

in a force field such as a gravitational, electric, or magnetic
field. It acts throughout the body and associated with the units of
volume of the body.

example of a body force is your own weight.

 Forces may be further classified as either concentrated or
distributed

External and internal forces

• External forces: These are action forces which are applied

externally to an object

• Internal forces: These are forces which are internal reactions

to the applied external force
 The standard unit of force in the SI system is Newton (N).
ii) Stress
 It is a measure of the internal reaction between elementary
particles of a material in resisting separation, compaction,
or sliding that tend to be induced by external forces.

 Mathematically, it is expressed as the ratio of the load

applied to the cross sectional area.

Stress = Force /Area ……..……… (1.1)

The standard unit of stress in the SI system is : N/m 2 (Pa.) or

N/mm2 (MPa)
1.3 Method of Section
 One of the main problem of engineering mechanics of
solids is the investigation of the internal resistance of a
body, i.e. the nature of forces set up with in a body to
balance the effect of the externally applied forces.

 A free body diagram is used to investigate this problem.

 A free-body diagram is a diagram which shows all of the

externally applied active (action) and reactive (reaction)
forces to keep the body in state of static equilibrium.
 Suppose that external forces P1 and P2 are
applied on a body in fig.(a) and these external
forces are supported by reactive forces P3 and
P4 to make the body in equilibrium
 An arbitrary section ABCD is passed through
the body and separates it into two halves, fig.
(b) and (c). This process is called method of
section
 Since the body as a whole is in equilibrium,
the two halves are also in equilibrium and the
external forces are balanced by internal forces
S1, S2, and S3, fig.(b) and (c)
 The intensity of this internal forces with in a
given area is called stress.
 1.4 Axial Loading; Normal Stress
Normal Stress
 Consider a prismatic bar loaded axially at its both ends with a
force P, as shown in figure.
 Let us now take section mn, at an arbitrary distance from the left
end of the bar
 At the right-hand end of this free body (section
mn) we show the action of the removed part
of the bar (i.e., the part to the right of section mn) upon the part that
remains.
• This action consists of continuously distributed stresses, called
Normal Stresses, acting over the entire cross section, and the
axial force P acting at the cross section is the resultant of those
stresses.
 Symbolically normal stress is denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma).
• Therefore, the expression for the magnitude of the Normal stress is
P

A ……………. (1.2)

• Sign convention: Tensile stress are taken as positive and

compressive stresses are taken as negative.

Application of Normal stress:

• Truss in structural members, Frames in different machine

components, Piston rods in hydraulic systems, Connecting Rods in
IC engines, different Compression members, tension cable, etc.
 1.5 Shearing Stress
 The shearing force is applied
parallel/tangential to the cross
sectional area
  …………….. (1.3)
F
ave
A
Assumption: shear forces are non
collinear
Symbol for shear stress is Greek letter
tau (τ)
Single Shear Double Shear
 1.7Stress-Strain diagram
 The only way to determine how materials behave
when they are subjected to loads is to perform
experiments in the laboratory
 The usual procedure is to place small specimens
of the material in testing machines, apply the
loads, and then measure the resulting deformations
(such as changes in length and changes in
diameter).
 To obtain the stress-strain diagram of a material,
a tensile test is conducted on a specimen of the
material using tensile test machine shown on the
right
 One type of specimen commonly used for tensile
test is shown on the right
 The stress-strain diagram may then be obtained
by plotting ε as an abscissa and σ as an ordinate.

Figure 1.1 Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in

tension (not to scale)
 The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin O to point A, which
means that the relationship between stress and strain in this initial region is not
only linear but also proportional.

 Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists;
hence the stress at A is called the proportional limit

 The slope of the straight line from O to A is called the modulus of elasticity E

 With an increase in stress beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to
increase more rapidly for each increment in stress A-B.

 Consequently, the stress-strain curve has a smaller and smaller slope, until, at
point B, the curve becomes horizontal (see Figure.). Beginning at this point,
considerable elongation of the test specimen occurs with no noticeable increase
in the tensile force (from B to C).
 This phenomenon is known as yielding of the material, and point B is called the
yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the yield stress of the steel.

 In the region from B to C, the material becomes perfectly plastic, which means
that it deforms without an increase in the applied load.

 After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC,
the steel begins to strain harden

 Elongation of the test specimen in this region requires an increase in the tensile
load, and therefore the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D.

 The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress

(at point D) is called the ultimate stress

 Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load,

and fracture finally occurs at a point such as E in the Figure.

 The ductility of a material in tension can be characterized
by its elongation and by the reduction in area at the cross
section where fracture occurs.
 The percent elongation is defined as follows:

…………… (1.4)

• in which Lois the original gage length and L1 is the distance

between the gage marks at fracture

 The percent reduction in area measures the amount of

necking that occurs and is defined as follows:
……..….. (1.5)
  Materials that fail in tension at relatively low
values of strain are classified as brittle.
• Examples are concrete, stone, cast iron, glass,
ceramics, and a variety of metallic alloys.
• Brittle materials fail with only little elongation
after the proportional limit (the stress at point
A in Fig. below) is exceeded

Figure 1.2 Typical stress-strain diagram for a brittle

material showing the proportional
limit (point A) and fracture stress (point B)
 Linear Elasticity, Hook’s law, and poison’s ratio
 When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship between stress
and strain, it is said to be linearly elastic.
 The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or compression is
expressed by the equation

……………. (1.6)
Where:
σ is the axial stress,
ε is the axial strain, and
E is a constant of proportionality known as the modulus
of elasticity or Young’s modulus for the material and it is the
slope of the stress-strain diagram in the linearly elastic region,

Equation (1.6) is commonly known as Hooke’s law, named for the famous English
scientist Robert Hooke (1635–1703).
Shear Strain
 Shear strain is the distortion produced by shear stress on an
element or rectangular block as below.

 The shear strain, denoted by the Greek letter gamma (γ) is given
as

…………….. (1.9)
• For small angle

 Shear strain then becomes the change in the right angle.

• It is dimensionless and is measured in radians.
Hook’s law in Shear
 The properties of a material in shear can be determined
experimentally from direct-shear tests or from torsion tests.

 The latter tests are performed by twisting hollow, circular tubes,

thereby producing a state of pure shear.

 From the results of these tests, we can plot shear stress-strain

diagrams (that is, diagrams of shear stress τ versus shear strain γ).

 These diagrams are similar in shape to tension-test diagrams (σ

versus ε) for the same materials, although they differ in magnitudes.
 From shear stress-strain diagrams, we can obtain material properties such as the
proportional limit, modulus of elasticity, yield stress, and ultimate stress in
shear.

 For many materials, the initial part of the shear stress-strain diagram is a straight
line through the origin, just as it is in tension.

 For this linearly elastic region, the shear stress and shear strain are proportional,
and therefore we have the following equation for Hooke’s law in shear

………….... (1.10)

• in which G is the shear modulus of elasticity (also called the modulus of

rigidity).

 The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear are related by the following
equation: ………………… (1.11)
Poisson’s Ratio
 When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial
elongation is accompanied by lateral contraction

 The lateral strain ε’ at any point in a bar is

proportional to the axial strain ε at that same point if
the material is linearly elastic.

 The ratio of these strains is a property of the material

known as Poisson’s ratio denoted by the Greek letter
ν (nu), can be expressed by the equation

…………(1.7)
 

 
𝑦
 
𝑧

 
𝑥
 Axial load and deformation
 Consider a homogeneous rod BC of length L and
uniform cross section of area A subjected to a centric
axial load P.
 If the resulting axial stress σ = P/ A does not exceed the
proportional limit of the material, we may apply
Hooke's law and write
 From which it follows that
……… (i)
 Recalling that the strain ε was defined as
………. (ii)

 Substituting for ε from (ii) into (i)

…………. (1.13)
 1.8 Stress on an Oblique Plane under Axial
Loading
 Axial forces on a two force member result in only
normal stresses on a plane cut perpendicular to the
member axis.

 Transverse forces on bolts and pins result in only

shear stresses on the plane perpendicular to bolt or
pin axis

 However, either axial or transverse forces may

produce both normal and shear stresses with respect
to a plane other than one cut perpendicular to the
member axis
 Pass a section through the member forming an angle θ
with the normal plane.

 From equilibrium conditions, the distributed forces

(stresses) on the plane must be equivalent to the force
P.
 Resolve P into components normal and tangential to
the oblique section,σo σθ Ao Aθ.. (i)

• The average normal and shear stresses on the oblique

plane are F P cos  P
    cos 2    0 cos 2 
A A0 / cos  A0
.…………. (ii)
V P sin  P sin 2
    sin  cos    0
A A0 / cos  A0 2 ……………..(iii)
Maximum Stresses

 The maximum normal stress occurs

when the reference plane is
perpendicular to the member axis,

…………………. (iv)

 The maximum shear stress occurs for

a plane at + 45o with respect to the axis

……… (v)
 Multi axial Loading; Generalized Hooke's Law
 Consider structural cubic element of an isotropic
material with all its sides unit length subjected to loads
acting in the directions of the three coordinate axes and
producing normal stresses σx, σy, and σz, which are all
different from zero. This condition is referred to as a
multi axial lauding.

 Under the given multi axial loading, the element will

deform into a rectangular parallelepiped of sides equal,
respectively, to 1 + εx, 1 + εy, and 1 + εz, where εx, εy, and
εz denote the values of the normal strain in the directions
of the three coordinate axes.
 In such multi axial loading the strain components ε x, εy,
and εz can be expressed in terms of the stress components
σx, σy, and σz as

…………… (i)

 This relation is referred to as the generalized Hooke's

law for the multi-axial loading of a homogeneous
isotropic material
1.9 Ultimate and Allowable Stress: Factor of Safety
 Factors to be considered in design include

• Functionality

• Strength

• Appearance

• Economics, and

• Environmental effects

 However, when studying mechanics of materials, our

principal design interest is strength, that is, the capacity of
the object to support or transmit loads.
1.9 Ultimate and Allowable Stress: Factor of Safety
 Factors to be considered in design include

• Functionality

• Strength

• Appearance

• Economics, and

• Environmental effects

 However, when studying mechanics of materials, our principal design

interest is strength, that is, the capacity of the object to support or
transmit loads.
•  
 If structural failure is to be avoided, the loads that
a structure is capable of supporting must be greater
than the loads it will be subjected to when in service

 Or the actual strength of a structure must exceed the

required strength

 The ratio of the actual strength to the required

strength is called the factor of safety (F.S.):
Factor of Safety (F.S) = = …… (1.5)
Allowable Load and Allowable Stress:
 The maximum load that a structural member or a
machine component will be allowed to carry under
normal conditions of utilization is considerably
smaller than the ultimate load.

 This smaller load is referred to as the allowable load

and sometimes called working load or design load.
The Corresponding Stress is called allowable Stress
•  For ductile materials the factor of safety is established

with respect to yielding of the structure and thus the
allowable stress can be given as

Allowable Stress, σall =

 For brittle materials the factor of safety is established

with respect to ultimate stresses instead of the yield
stress and thus the allowable stress can be given as

Allowable Stress, σall =