Digital Twins in The Construction Industry
Digital Twins in The Construction Industry
This document is the author deposited version. You are advised to consult the
publisher's version if you wish to cite from it.
Published version
OMRANY, Hossein, AL-OBAIDI, Karam, HUSAIN, Amreen and
GHAFFARIANHOSEINI, Amirhosein (2023). Digital twins in the construction industry:
a comprehensive review of current implementations, enabling technologies, and
future directions. Sustainability, 15 (14): 10908.
Review
Digital Twins in the Construction Industry: A Comprehensive
Review of Current Implementations, Enabling Technologies,
and Future Directions
Hossein Omrany 1, * , Karam M. Al-Obaidi 2 , Amreen Husain 1 and Amirhosein Ghaffarianhoseini 3
1 School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia;
amreen.husain@student.adelaide.edu.au
2 Department of the Natural and Built Environment, College of Social Sciences and Arts,
Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield S1 1WB, UK; k.al-obaidi@shu.ac.uk
3 Department of Built Environment Engineering, The School of Future Environments, Auckland University of
Technology, Auckland 1010, New Zealand; amirhosein.ghaffarianhoseini@aut.ac.nz
* Correspondence: hossein.omrany@adelaide.edu.au
Abstract: This paper presents a comprehensive understanding of current digital twin (DT) imple-
mentations in the construction industry, along with providing an overview of technologies enabling
the operation of DTs in the industry. To this end, 145 publications were identified using a systematic
literature review. The results revealed eight key areas of DT implementation including (i) virtual
design, (ii) project planning and management, (iii) asset management and maintenance, (iv) safety
management, (v) energy efficiency and sustainability, (vi) quality control and management, (vii) sup-
ply chain management and logistics, and (viii) structural health monitoring. The findings demonstrate
that DT technology has the capacity to revolutionise the construction industry across these areas,
enabling optimised designs, improved collaboration, real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance,
enhanced safety practices, energy performance optimisation, quality inspections, efficient supply
chain management, and proactive maintenance. This study also identified several challenges that
Citation: Omrany, H.; hinder the widespread implementation of DT in construction, including (i) data integration and
Al-Obaidi, K.M.; Husain, A.; interoperability, (ii) data accuracy and completeness, (iii) scalability and complexity, (iv) privacy and
Ghaffarianhoseini, A. Digital Twins security, and (v) standards and governance. To address these challenges, this paper recommends
in the Construction Industry: A prioritising standardised data formats, protocols, and APIs for seamless collaboration, exploring
Comprehensive Review of Current semantic data modelling and ontologies for data integration, implementing validation processes and
Implementations, Enabling robust data governance for accuracy and completeness, harnessing high-performance computing
Technologies, and Future Directions.
and advanced modelling techniques for scalability and complexity, establishing comprehensive data
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908.
protection and access controls for privacy and security, and developing widely accepted standards
https://doi.org/10.3390/
and governance frameworks with industry-wide collaboration. By addressing these challenges, the
su151410908
construction industry can unlock the full potential of DT technology, thus enhancing safety, reliability,
Academic Editor: Aliakbar Kamari and efficiency in construction projects.
Received: 4 June 2023
Revised: 6 July 2023
Keywords: digital twin; digital technology; construction industry; intelligent construction; construction
Accepted: 10 July 2023 4.0; collaborative platforms
Published: 12 July 2023
1. Introduction
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
The construction industry has emerged as a major contributor to the global gross
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
domestic product (GDP), accounting for nearly 10% of the total output and generating
This article is an open access article
employment opportunities in various countries [1,2]. As per data recorded in 2017, the
distributed under the terms and
output of the construction industry was estimated to be approximately USD 10 trillion
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
worldwide [1,3]. In Australia, the building and construction sector accounted for 8.1% of
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
the national GDP and 9% of the employment rate in 2017, while in the UK and China, it
4.0/).
influenced 6.5% and 5.7% of their respective national GDPs [1]. However, the industry has
been plagued by the persistent issue of low productivity, which has prompted scholars
to emphasise the need for performance improvement in the industry [4–7]. One effective
influenced 6.5% and 5.7% of their respective national GDPs [1]. However, the industry has
strategy
been plaguedfor by
addressing
the persistentthisissue
challenge is the adoption
of low productivity, whichof hasdigital
promptedtechnologies,
scholars to which have
shown
emphasise promise
the need infor
enhancing
performance productivity.
improvement An in exemplar
the industry of[4–7].
suchOne technologies
effective is building
information modelling
strategy for addressing this(BIM),
challenge which
is thehas madeofadigital
adoption substantial impact
technologies, on the
which haveimprovement
shown
of promiseacross
practices in enhancing productivity. industry
the construction An exemplar of suchNevertheless,
[8–11]. technologies is building
the construction in-
information
dustry stillmodelling
faces daunting(BIM), which has made
challenges a substantial new
in embracing impact on the improvement
technologies due to resistance to
of practices across the construction industry [8–11]. Nevertheless, the construction indus-
change [12–14]. This inability to keep pace with technological advancements is a significant
try still faces daunting challenges in embracing new technologies due to resistance to
hurdle to the This
change [12–14]. modernisation
inability to keep of the
paceconstruction
with technological industry, particularly
advancements when evaluated
is a signifi-
against the automotive and manufacturing industries [2–4].
cant hurdle to the modernisation of the construction industry, particularly when evalu-
In the current
ated against era, the
the automotive rapid
and development
manufacturing of new
industries information technologies has brought
[2–4].
about In an
the unprecedented
current era, the rapid development
industrial of new information
transformation. technologies
One technology hashas garnered
that
brought about
significant an unprecedented
attention in recentindustrial
years, owingtransformation. One technology
to its potential that has gar-
to transform the construction
nered significant attention in recent years, owing to its potential to transform the construc-
industry, is the digital twin (DT). Fundamentally, DT implementation revolves around the
tion industry, is the digital twin (DT). Fundamentally, DT implementation revolves
generation of a digital representation of a physical entity, leveraging data to simulate the
around the generation of a digital representation of a physical entity, leveraging data to
actions and functions
simulate the actions of the physical
and functions entityentity
of the physical within its real
within environment,
its real environment,as as illustrated in
Figure 1. This
illustrated enables
in Figure 1. Thistheenables
augmentation of the physical
the augmentation entity’s
of the physical capabilities
entity’s with interactive
capabilities
feedback, data fusion
with interactive feedback,analysis, and iterative
data fusion analysis,decision optimisation
and iterative decision [3,4,15]. The term “digital
optimisation
[3,4,15].was
twin” The term “digital
initially twin” was initially
introduced by theintroduced
National by the National Aeronautics
Aeronautics and Spaceand Administration
Space Administration
(NASA) to describe(NASA) to describe the
the construction ofconstruction
two identical of two identical spacecraft
spacecraft that
that replicated the exact
replicated the exact conditions experienced by the vehicle during a mission [16]. However,
conditions experienced by the vehicle during a mission [16]. However, it was not until 2003
it was not until 2003 that Michael Grieves at the University of Michigan introduced the
that
conceptMichael Grieves
of a “digital at thetoUniversity
equivalent of Michigan
a physical product”, which introduced the concept
is widely recognised as the of a “digital
equivalent
first use of thetoterm
a physical
DT [17]. In product”, which
2006, Hribernik et is
al.widely recognised
[18] introduced asofthe
the idea thefirst use of the term
“prod-
DT [17]. Inas2006,
uct avatar” a means Hribernik
to establishet al.
an [18] introduced
information the ideaframework
management of the “product avatar” as a means
that facilitates
to establish an
a bidirectional flowinformation
of information management
centred aroundframework
the product. that facilitates
Ever since, a bidirectional
the concept of flow
DTinformation
of has undergone significant
centred improvements
around the product. and isEvernow since,
widely the usedconcept
across various
of DT in-
has undergone
dustries, including
significant manufacturing
improvements andasisa means for enhancing
now widely used the efficiency
across of their
various manu-
industries, including
facturing processes.
manufacturing as a means for enhancing the efficiency of their manufacturing processes.
Data Acquisition
Data Processing
Figure 1.1.AA
Figure conceptual model
conceptual of digital
model twin technology.
of digital twin technology.
AADT,
DT,integrated withwith
integrated a range of devices
a range such as such
of devices Internet
asofInternet
Things (IoT) devices,(IoT) devices,
of Things
data loggers, 3D scanners, thermal imaging cameras, and environmental sensors, has the
data loggers, 3D scanners, thermal imaging cameras, and environmental sensors, has the
capability to collect firsthand experiential data pertaining to physical assets [2,15]. The
application of a DT enables the prediction of possible failures, feedback to the system, and
reaction in accordance with the stimulant information [15]. A DT can also facilitate the
continuous monitoring of all processes involved in a given service, enabling the collection
of information pertaining to physical assets throughout their life cycles [3,8,15,19]. The
immense potential of DTs has sparked interest in their application within the construction
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 3 of 26
industry. An exemplary case of such implementation can be observed in the Ezhou Huahu
International Airport project, situated in the eastern region of Ezhou, Hubei Province,
China [20]. In this project, Bentley’s BIM and iTwin technology were utilised to develop
a DT for the airport, enabling seamless integration of extensive engineering and data
components. The implementation of the DT was highly effective, resulting in a remarkable
reduction of 200 days in the project’s delivery time and substantial cost savings of CNY
300 million.
The growing interest in DT applications has also sparked a surge of attention in
academia, leading to a plethora of research developed to investigate the potential of this
technology across multiple domains in the construction industry. This has subsequently led
the current body of literature to become fairly fragmented when it comes to understanding
the present-day implementations of DTs in the construction industry. In response, review
studies have been developed with the purpose of solidifying the existing knowledge in this
area [1–4,8,15,18,21–24]. For instance, Opoku et al. [23] and Opoku et al. [24] investigated
barriers and drivers for adopting DT in the construction industry using a systematic litera-
ture review approach, respectively. In recent studies, Xie et al. [15] and Almatared et al. [19]
analysed the literature connected to DT applications in the construction industry using a
scientometric approach. In another review study, Zhang et al. [3] attempted to put forward
a unified definition for DTs as it applies to the construction industry. Hou et al. [22] also
provided a comprehensive literature review of DT applications in construction workforce
safety. In another study, Bortolini et al. [21] reviewed the opportunities for improving
energy efficiency in buildings by developing a DT. Salem and Dragomir [25] also carried
out a review study on the applications of DTs for construction project management.
Despite the significant contributions made by prior studies, the current state of knowl-
edge regarding DT implementations in the construction industry still remains fragmented.
The majority of the reviewed studies have focused on specific aspects of DT application
while overlooking potential areas where DTs can be deployed to improve industry practices.
This underscores the need for comprehensive research that consolidates the literature and
promotes the adoption of DT within the industry. To address this gap, the present paper
aims to achieve the following objectives using a systematic review of the literature: (i) to
provide a comprehensive understanding of current DT implementations in the construction
industry, (ii) to provide a state-of-the-art overview of technologies enabling the utilisation
of DTs in the industry, and (iii) to identify and discuss major challenges associated with
DT applications in the industry and provide recommendations for future development in
the field.
The outcomes of this study can be useful to multiple target groups. Firstly, practitioners
in the construction industry can benefit from the insights provided by this research, as
the findings identify potential areas where DTs can be applied to improve productivity
in the industry. This paper also offers a comprehensive overview of the challenges and
opportunities associated with DT implementations in the industry and its fundamental
technologies; hence, the outcomes can be used as a point of reference by scholars and
researchers for future development in the field.
2. Research Methodology
This paper used a systematic literature review approach to identify publications
pertaining to the implementations of DTs in the construction industry. A comprehensive
search was conducted across multiple databases, including Web of Science, ProQuest,
and Scopus, using a comprehensive set of keywords to capture relevant studies (Table 1).
Utilising multiple databases enhanced the robustness and comprehensiveness of the search
process, as it allowed for compensating the limitations of one source with the strengths of
others. These keywords were searched with respect to their applications in the construction
industry. The search scope was limited to scholarly “articles”, “review articles”, and “book
chapters”, chosen due to their comprehensive and reputable nature as recognised sources
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 4 of 26
of validated knowledge [9,26]. As a result, the initial search yielded 350 publications that
met the established search criteria.
After collecting the dataset, the first step involved removing duplicate records to
ensure data integrity. Duplicate removal was carried out by comparing and eliminating
redundant instances of data within the dataset. This led to the elimination of nearly
30 duplicate articles. Afterwards, a preliminary qualitative search was conducted to
evaluate the relevance of the selected materials. This assessment was based on an analysis
of the “titles”, “abstracts”, and “conclusions” of the identified sources. To ensure that only
resources directly related to the concept of DTs in the construction industry were considered,
several exclusion criteria were applied. Firstly, studies published in non-English languages
and non-peer-reviewed journals were excluded. Additionally, filtering functions in the
selected databases were used to eliminate resources from unrelated fields, such as medical
or agricultural sciences. As a result, 125 publications were excluded. Furthermore, only
studies directly related to the application of DTs in the construction industry were retained,
resulting
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEERin a final set of 145 relevant materials for an in-depth examination.
REVIEW 5 of 27 Figure 2 shows
the methodology steps and research direction.
Figure 3. The present directions and areas for implementing digital twins in the construction industry.
Figure 3. The present directions and areas for implementing digital twins in the construction indus-
try. Virtual Design in Construction
3.1.1.
DT technology is transforming the way that virtual design is performed in the con-
3.1.1. Virtual Design in Construction
struction industry. The implementation of this technology allows designers to optimise
their DT technology
designs for betteris transforming
performance the andway that virtual
increased design
viability is performed
by developing in the con-
high-fidelity
struction industry. The implementation of this technology allows
models of physical assets and systems [2,15,27]. In the context of simulation modelling,designers to optimise
their designs for better performance and increased viability by developing
the term “fidelity” pertains to the level of intricacy and authenticity depicted in the model, high-fidelity
modelscan
which of vary
physical
fromassets
simple and systems [2,15,27].
prototypes to highlyInimmersive
the context of simulation
models modelling,
[28]. Models with
the termlevels
varying “fidelity” pertains
of fidelity may to be
thesuitable
level of intricacy andphases
for different authenticity
of thedepicted in the model,
design process or for
which can different
addressing vary from simple
types prototypes
of design to highly
inquiries immersive
[2,4,15,27]. models
Typically, [28].of
the levels Models
fidelitywith
are
varying levels of fidelity may be suitable for different phases of the
classified into three categories including low, medium, and high tiers, which denote the design process or for
addressing different types of design inquiries
level of detail and accuracy present in the model [28]. [2,4,15,27]. Typically, the levels of fidelity
are classified
DT is one into
of thethree categories
technologies thatincluding
enable userslow,tomedium, and high
develop models tiers,
with highwhich denote
fidelity. This
the level ofallows
technology detailtheand accuracy
creation present
of digital in theofmodel
replicas [28].
physical assets, which can be used to analyse
DT is one
and optimise of the technologies
performance, that enable
simulate scenarios, andusers tooutcomes
predict develop models
[1,15,19].with
The high fidelity.
high-fidelity
This technology
models generatedallows
using DT the technology
creation of can digital replicas
thence of physical
provide assets, which
an unprecedented levelcan be
of ac-
used to analyse and optimise performance, simulate scenarios, and predict outcomes
[1,15,19]. The high-fidelity models generated using DT technology can thence provide an
unprecedented level of accuracy and detail, which can help designers and engineers to
make informed decisions throughout the design and development process. With the aid
of DT technology, designers can create virtual prototypes that are almost identical to their
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 6 of 26
curacy and detail, which can help designers and engineers to make informed decisions
throughout the design and development process. With the aid of DT technology, designers
can create virtual prototypes that are almost identical to their physical counterparts, allow-
ing for more precise testing and analysis. In this regard, attempts have been undertaken
to develop DT prototypes that can facilitate architectural building design [28,29]. For in-
stance, Kalantari et al. [28] developed a digital twin prototype called “Ph2D” that combines
physical and digital technology for architectural designs. The tool uses interconnectable
tiles that can be customised with 3D printing or digital design, allowing changes made
to a physical floorplan model to be reflected and analysed in a digital platform. Testing
the tool with 182 users showed that it was easy to use and increased the value of physical
prototyping in design. Non-designers also showed interest in using the tool, suggesting it
could be effective in design education and team communication.
Presently, the use of DT technology has begun to gain momentum in the construction
industry owing to its potential for optimising the design process. Studies attempted to
test the applicability of DT in civil infrastructure systems [30–32] and to optimise build-
ings’ design [33–37]. For instance, Lu and Brilakis [32] developed a slicing-based object
fitting method that generated a geometric DT of existing bridges and achieved an average
modelling distance of 7.05 cm and a modelling time of 37.8 s, which was a significant
improvement over manual methods. Other studies used DT technology for optimising
building design performance. For instance, Liu et al. [35] proposed a system for managing
green building operation costs based on digital twin technology, which led to improved
efficiency and quality in the management process. Studies also applied DT technology
for improving occupant comfort in buildings [36,38]. An example is the study carried out
by Hosamo et al. [38], who aimed to evaluate the comfort levels of occupants in two non-
residential buildings in Norway using a Bayesian network model. The proposed model was
developed based on integrating BIM, real-time sensor data, and occupant feedback while
using a DT approach to detect and predict issues that could impact comfort. The results
showed that the proposed method could increase the lifetime of HVAC by 10% or more,
leading to significant cost savings and more sustainable and energy-efficient buildings.
Indeed, DT is a promising technology capable of transforming the way virtual design is
performed in the construction industry. The technology enables users to create high-fidelity
digital replicas of physical assets, which can be used to simulate scenarios, analyse and
optimise performance, and predict outcomes with an unprecedented level of accuracy and
detail. DT has already been tested in various construction domains, including infrastructure
systems and building design, where it has shown potential for improving design efficiency,
reducing costs, and enhancing performance. The studies discussed highlight the advantages
of using DT technology in the construction industry, demonstrating its effectiveness in
optimising building design performance, managing green building operation costs, and
improving occupant comfort in buildings. Thus, the application of DTs in infrastructure
projects is becoming increasingly important, as it can lead to more sustainable and energy-
efficient buildings and infrastructure systems, ultimately contributing to the development
of smart cities and a more sustainable future.
modular components on-site. In another study, Jiang et al. [39] proposed a framework that
utilises high-fidelity DT to provide real-time information on resource status and construc-
tion progress, with the goal of facilitating planning, scheduling, and execution processes in
construction projects.
In addition, DT technology can also enhance collaboration and communication amongst
stakeholders involved in construction projects [40,43]. By providing a shared virtual envi-
ronment, DTs enable architects, engineers, contractors, and clients to visualise the project,
discuss design alternatives, and make informed decisions [40,43–45]. For instance, Pan
and Zhang [46] developed a DT framework that integrates BIM, IoT, and data mining
techniques for smart construction project management. The framework captures real-time
data and discovers hidden knowledge to simulate task execution and worker cooperation
in a virtual model. By predicting possible bottlenecks and optimising work and staffing
under changeable conditions, the framework facilitates more efficient project management.
Furthermore, the study demonstrated that the framework has great potential for facilitat-
ing data communication and exploration, leading to a better understanding, prediction,
and optimisation of physical construction operations. In another study, Jiang et al. [40]
proposed a blockchain-enabled DT collaboration platform aimed at facilitating modular
construction fit-out operations. The outcomes showed that DT technology can provide
a virtual environment for real-time monitoring, decision-making, and communication
between various stakeholders involved in the project. The integration of blockchain and DT
technology helps in ensuring data integrity, security, and trustworthiness, thereby enabling
more effective collaboration among stakeholders.
In summary, the use of DT technology for the purpose of construction management
and planning has the potential to revolutionise the industry, providing significant benefits
such as improved productivity, enhanced collaboration, and better project outcomes.
In the context of building maintenance, DTs are virtual models that replicate the phys-
ical characteristics of a building. These models can be created using 3D modelling software
and can be populated with data collected with sensors that monitor the performance and
condition of the building in real-time [52,55]. The data collected with DTs can be then
analysed using analytics techniques such as artificial intelligence to identify patterns and
anomalies that indicate potential maintenance issues. For instance, Arsiwala et al. [37]
presented a solution that facilitates the automated monitoring and control of carbon diox-
ide emissions linked to current assets by integrating IoT, BIM, and artificial intelligence.
Another example is the research carried out by Xie et al. [52], which developed a DT model
enabling continuous monitoring and anomaly detection for building facilities. The results
showed that the proposed framework allowed for ongoing monitoring of assets, utilising
the data management capabilities provided by the DT.
In summary, DT technology is an effective tool for improving safety and risk manage-
ment in construction. Its virtual replicas allow real-time monitoring and identification of
potential safety hazards, leading to better safety practices and incident prevention. The
incorporation of DT with cutting-edge technologies such as deep learning and mixed reality
demonstrates its remarkable effectiveness in enhancing the capabilities of this technology,
presenting construction safety managers with innovative perspectives to comprehensively
assess safety conditions.
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fibre, and wireless technologies such
asasZig-Bee,
twistedBluetooth,
pair, coaxial cable,
Wi-Fi, and optical
ultra-wide bandfibre, andand
(UWB), wireless technologies
near-field such as
communication
Zig-Bee, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, ultra-wide band (UWB), and near-field
(NFC) [98,113]. Long-distance wireless transmission can utilise technologies such as communication
(NFC) [98,113].digital
GPRS/CDMA, Long-distance wireless
ratio, spread transmission
spectrum can utilise
microwave technologieswireless
communication, such as
GPRS/CDMA, digital ratio, spread spectrum microwave communication,
bridge, and satellite communication [97,99,101,105]. In this regard, a wide array of wireless
bridge, andprogram
application satellite interfaces
communication
(APIs)[97,99,101,105].
is commonly being In this regard,toafacilitate
utilised wide array of
data
application program interfaces (APIs) is commonly being utilised
exchange between different software applications, ensuring seamless data transmis- to facilitate data
exchange
sion at the between
software different
level [98].software applications,
The emerging 5G andensuring seamlessshow
6G technologies data transmis-
promise
sion at the software level [98]. The emerging 5G and 6G technologies show promise
in meeting the requirements for high data rates, reliability, coverage, and low latency
in meeting the requirements for high data rates, reliability, coverage, and low latency
in DT applications [114,115].
in DT applications [114,115].
The connection technological aspect of DTs is vital for enabling real-time interaction
betweenThetheir
connection
varioustechnological
components.aspect of DTs
However, theislack
vitaloffor enabling real-time
uniformity interaction
in interfaces, proto-
between their various components. However, the lack of uniformity in interfaces,
cols, and standards presents a daunting challenge [27,97–100,116]. Hence, it becomes nec- protocols,
and standards
essary presents
to investigate a daunting challenge
interconnection [27,97–100,116].
theories, standards, andHence,devices it becomes
that cannecessary
support
to investigate interconnection theories, standards, and devices
heterogeneous multi-source elements [27,97,116]. To handle the growing that can support heteroge-
data traffic, Qi
neous multi-source elements [27,97,116]. To handle the growing data traffic, Qi et al. [27]
et al. [27] recommended that multi-dimensional multiplexing and coherent technologies
recommended that multi-dimensional multiplexing and coherent technologies should be
should be further developed, leading to possible enhancement in bandwidth and reduc-
further developed, leading to possible enhancement in bandwidth and reduction in latency.
tion in latency. Additionally, the development of ultra-large-capacity routers and innova-
Additionally, the development of ultra-large-capacity routers and innovative network ar-
tive network architectures is crucial for managing large volumes of data and achieving
chitectures is crucial for managing large volumes of data and achieving efficient network
efficient network control. Considering the rising bandwidth and energy consumption,
control. Considering the rising bandwidth and energy consumption, new strategies and
new strategies and approaches are needed to promote green communication [117].
approaches are needed to promote green communication [117].
From the discussion above, this study found that a five-layered model demonstrates
From the discussion above, this study found that a five-layered model demonstrates
key technologies that are framed under three areas to enhance awareness, response, and
key technologies that are framed under three areas to enhance awareness, response, and
prediction. Figure 4 shows the three areas including collect, compute, and visualise and
prediction. Figure 4 shows the three areas including collect, compute, and visualise and
how they encompass the five-layered model and enable these technologies for the con-
how they encompass the five-layered model and enable these technologies for the construc-
struction industry.
tion industry.
Figure
Figure4.4. AAmodel
modelfor
forenabling
enablingsoftware
softwareand
andhardware
hardwaretechnologies
technologieswithin
withinaadigital
digitaltwin
twinfor
forthe
the
construction
constructionindustry.
industry.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 27
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 16 of 26
3.3.Current
3.3. CurrentChallenges
Challengesand andFuture
FutureDirections
Directions
Despitethe
Despite theimmense
immense potential
potential of of
DTDT technology,
technology, its broad
its broad adoption
adoption in construction
in the the construc-
tion industry faces various obstacles. These impediments must be
industry faces various obstacles. These impediments must be addressed to unlockaddressed to unlock the
the full
full benefits of DTs and drive the industry towards enhanced efficiency and
benefits of DTs and drive the industry towards enhanced efficiency and productivity. This productivity.
This section
section aims to aims
shedtolight
shedonlight
the on the primary
primary challenges
challenges that hinder
that hinder the effective
the effective imple-
implementa-
mentation and utilisation of DT technology in construction, along with
tion and utilisation of DT technology in construction, along with recommending solutions recommending
tosolutions
overcome to the
overcome the highlighted
highlighted challenges. challenges.
A summaryAof summary of these is
these challenges challenges
discussedisand
dis-
cussed and
illustrated inillustrated
Figure 5. in Figure 5.
Challenges related to data quality, such as Managing model complexity entails not only The absence of standardised practices and
missing or incorrect information, can undermine handling extensive data but also organising, frameworks hampers interoperability and
the effectiveness and trustworthiness of the DT visualising, and interpreting it effectively to consistency across various projects and
model, leading to flawed analysis and decision- support informed decision-making. stakeholders
making processes
Scalability & Complexity Criteria & Guidelines
Data Accuracy &
Completeness
Figure5.5.AAsummary
Figure summaryof of
various obstacles
various to and
obstacles future
to and directions
future for using
directions forDT technology
using in construction.
DT technology in con-
struction.
• Data integration and interoperability: The seamless consolidation and merging of a
• virtual model andand
Data integration IoT interoperability:
sensor data outline Thethe fundamental
seamless basis for
consolidation themerging
and functional-
of a
ity of a DT. As evident from various research studies, the data generated
virtual model and IoT sensor data outline the fundamental basis for the functionality with DTs
encompasses a wide from
of a DT. As evident rangevarious
of types, collected
research usingthe
studies, diverse sensors, evolving
data generated with DTs into
en-
heterogeneous datasets that encompass image data, video data, positioning
compasses a wide range of types, collected using diverse sensors, evolving into het- data, en-
vironmental
erogeneous data, mechanical
datasets data, and
that encompass moredata,
image [27,118,119]. These
video data, datasets need
positioning data,to be
envi-
effectively incorporated within BIM models. However, acquiring these
ronmental data, mechanical data, and more [27,118,119]. These datasets need to be data involves
sourcing
effectively from distinct and
incorporated diverse
within BIMarrangements such asacquiring
models. However, buildingthese
management sys-
data involves
tems, each operating on different software platforms and having separate
sourcing from distinct and diverse arrangements such as building management sys- syntax and
representations
tems, each operating[27,118,119]. Consequently,
on different the complexity
software platforms of DTseparate
and having models syntax
increases,
and
giving rise to incorporation
representations [27,118,119].and interoperability
Consequently, challenges of
the complexity at DT
bothmodels
the syntax and
increases,
semantic stages.
giving rise to incorporation and interoperability challenges at both the syntax and
To addressstages.
semantic this challenge, it is imperative to prioritise the development of standard-
ised data formats,
To address this protocols, anditapplication
challenge, is imperativeprogramming
to prioritiseinterfaces (APIs) that
the development facilitate
of standard-
seamless collaboration and data exchange among diverse software systems
ised data formats, protocols, and application programming interfaces (APIs) that facilitate and stake-
holders.
seamless collaboration and data exchange among diverse software systems and rules,
By establishing universally recognised file formats and data interchange stake-
effective
holders.communication
By establishingand cooperation
universally can be achieved
recognised across
file formats different
and platforms. rules,
data interchange This
collaborative
effective communication and cooperation can be achieved across different platforms. life-
approach enables smooth information sharing throughout the project This
cycle, thereby maximising the benefits and effectiveness of DT implementation in the
collaborative approach enables smooth information sharing throughout the project
construction industry.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 17 of 26
Studies also suggested that semantic models and ontologies offer viable approaches to
address the challenges related to data integration and interoperability in DT models [120,121].
Semantic modelling involves utilising semantic web-based techniques to align data streams,
active sensing data, and proprietary relational datasets and combine them with user prefer-
ences to establish a dynamic structure of elements [27]. Contrarily, ontologies provide a
formal and explicit representation of concepts within a specific domain that can be shared
among stakeholders [122]. Therefore, it is essential to explore semantic data modelling
for sensor data, BIM model data, and data from other systems to facilitate the standard-
isation of DT data by promoting data integration and interoperability. In this regard,
Tuhaise et al. [118] recommended the use of semantic web-based technologies as an effec-
tive solution to overcome the limitations of IFC standard models. These technologies offer
flexible methods for integrating data across diverse domains and scales, thereby enabling
interoperability among different data sources and systems.
• Data accuracy and completeness: The accuracy of data utilised in a DT is of utmost
importance, as it forms the foundation for accurate analysis, simulations, and decision-
making processes [4,123,124]. Challenges related to data quality, such as missing
or incorrect information, can undermine the effectiveness and trustworthiness of a
DT model, leading to flawed analysis and decision-making processes. Inaccurate
and incomplete data can stem from various factors, including human errors during
data acquisition or entry, difficulties in integrating data from diverse sources with
inconsistencies in formats and structures, limitations or malfunctions of sensors used
for real-time data capture, and gaps in information that may be unavailable or inade-
quately recorded [1,15,123]. Therefore, measures should be taken to ensure that data
integrated into a DT is precise, up-to-date, and complete.
To achieve data accuracy, thorough validation processes should be implemented to
identify and rectify any errors or inconsistencies. Data quality control mechanisms, such
as data cleansing and verification, can be used to enhance the accuracy and reliability
of information captured within a DT. Additionally, establishing robust data governance
practices and protocols can help ensure that data are continuously monitored, updated, and
maintained throughout the lifecycle of a DT. Data completeness is equally crucial to avoid
gaps or missing information that could compromise the integrity of a DT. It is essential to
capture and integrate all relevant data from various sources, including BIM models, sensor
data, historical records, and operational data. This comprehensive approach allows for
a holistic representation of the physical asset or system being modelled, enabling more
accurate simulations and analysis.
• Scalability and complexity: The successful realisation of DT technology in the con-
struction industry encounters challenges associated with scalability and effectively
managing the growing complexity of models. Scalability refers to a DT’s capacity
to accommodate large-scale construction projects and intricate infrastructure while
maintaining optimal performance [103,125]. As projects increase in size and complex-
ity, accurately capturing and representing all relevant aspects within a DT becomes
progressively more arduous.
Addressing scalability challenges necessitates the development of robust systems and
infrastructure capable of efficiently handling the expanding volume of data generated
with DTs. This entails harnessing high-performance computing capabilities such as cloud
computing, fog computing and edge computing technologies [126,127], using efficient
mechanisms for data storage and processing, and utilising scalable network architectures.
These measures facilitate seamless integration and analysis of substantial data quantities,
enabling DTs to meet the demands of expanding projects. Moreover, effectively managing
model complexity is a critical factor. Complex construction projects involve numerous
interdependent elements, including structural components, systems, and processes, all
of which must be accurately reflected in a DT. This calls for the utilisation of advanced
modelling techniques and methodologies capable of capturing the intricate relationships
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 18 of 26
and interactions among various project components. Managing model complexity entails
not only handling extensive data but also organising, visualising, and interpreting it
effectively to support informed decision-making.
• Privacy and security: The widespread use of DT technology in the construction indus-
try faces a significant challenge related to privacy and security [97,128]. DTs generate
and handle extensive volumes of sensitive project and asset data, necessitating the
utmost care in ensuring data privacy, protecting against cyber threats, and complying
with data governance regulations [27,97]. Hence, robust security measures should be
implemented in order to safeguard DT data and prevent unauthorised access [129].
To address the challenge of privacy and security, it is crucial to establish comprehensive
data protection protocols and encryption mechanisms. This involves using state-of-the-art
cybersecurity technologies and practices to mitigate potential risks [129]. Additionally, im-
plementing access controls, authentication procedures, and user permissions helps restrict
data access to authorised individuals or entities, enhancing the overall security posture of
the DT ecosystem. Moreover, data governance plays a critical role in ensuring compliance
with relevant regulations and standards. This entails establishing clear policies and proce-
dures for data collection, storage, sharing, and retention. By adhering to established data
governance frameworks, organisations can demonstrate accountability and transparency
in handling sensitive data, building trust among stakeholders.
Collaboration between industry stakeholders, technology providers, and cybersecurity
experts is also essential in developing comprehensive privacy and security frameworks for
DTs. Regular audits and vulnerability assessments can identify potential weaknesses and
allow for prompt remediation. Additionally, fostering a culture of cybersecurity awareness
and training among employees helps establish a strong defence against cyber threats. By
prioritising privacy and security in the functioning of this technology, the building and
construction industry can instil confidence in stakeholders, protect sensitive data, and
ensure the responsible and ethical use of DT capabilities.
• Standards and governance: The lack of widely accepted standards for the development
and implementation of DT technology poses a significant challenge to its widespread
use in the construction industry [27,124,130]. This absence of standardised practices
and frameworks hampers interoperability and consistency across various projects
and stakeholders. To address this challenge, it is imperative to establish industry-
wide standards and governance frameworks that promote harmonisation and enable
seamless data exchange.
Developing robust standards for DT implementation necessitates collaboration among
industry experts, researchers, and technology providers. These standards should encom-
pass different aspects of DT development, including data formats, models, communication
protocols, and interoperability guidelines. By defining and using these standards, the con-
struction industry can ensure consistency and compatibility among different DT solutions,
facilitating effective data integration and exchange.
In addition to standards, the establishment of governance frameworks is crucial to pro-
vide guidelines and best practices for the utilisation of DT technology. These frameworks
can address concerns related to data ownership, access, sharing, and usage rights. They
can also outline guidelines for data security, privacy, and ethical considerations, promoting
the responsible and transparent use of DTs. Implementing industry-wide standards and
governance frameworks will foster collaboration and cooperation among stakeholders in-
volved in DT projects, facilitating the exchange of information, knowledge, and experiences,
ultimately leading to improved project outcomes and enhanced efficiency. Furthermore,
standardised practices and governance frameworks contribute to the long-term sustain-
ability of DT initiatives, ensuring their continued relevance and adaptability in a rapidly
evolving industry.
To achieve widespread adoption of DT technology in the construction industry, active
participation from stakeholders is essential in the development and implementation of stan-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 19 of 26
4. Conclusions
The existing state of knowledge regarding DT implementations in the construction
and building industry remains fragmented, with a limited focus on specific aspects and
limited exploration of its potential. To address this gap, this paper approached the literature
aiming to realise three objectives: (i) provide a comprehensive understanding of current
DT implementations, (ii) offer a state-of-the-art overview of facilitating expertise, and
(iii) identify challenges and provide recommendations for future development. To this end,
the current paper used a systematic literature review technique to analyse 145 materials
retrieved from multiple sources. The findings identified eight areas in which DT technology
has been implemented in the construction industry. These include (i) virtual design,
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 20 of 26
(ii) project planning and management, (iii) asset management and maintenance, (iv) safety
management, (v) energy efficiency and sustainability, (vi) quality control and management,
(vii) supply chain management and logistics, and (viii) structural health monitoring.
The findings of this study indicate that DT technology has the capacity to revolu-
tionise the construction industry across the identified areas of implementation. In virtual
design, DT technology allows for the creation of high-fidelity models that optimise de-
signs, simulate scenarios, and predict outcomes with increased accuracy and detail. This
technology has been applied to improve architectural designs and enhance occupant com-
fort in buildings. DT technology also improves project planning and management by
enabling the simulation of design scenarios, evaluating impacts on timelines and costs,
and facilitating collaboration among stakeholders. Additionally, DT technology enhances
asset management and maintenance by providing real-time monitoring of physical assets,
enabling predictive maintenance, and reducing operational costs. It has been particularly
effective in monitoring civil infrastructure, such as bridges and dams, and analysing data
from sensors to identify potential issues. Furthermore, DT technology contributes to safety
management by allowing the identification of safety hazards and risks at construction sites
using constant monitoring, leading to improved safety practices and incident prevention.
It can also monitor worker activities and provide real-time observations of safety hazards.
DT technology supports energy efficiency and sustainability by tracking and analysing
energy consumption patterns, optimising energy performance, and simulating scenarios
for design choices. The results of this review pointed out that DT technology can be used to
evaluate the viability of green alternatives and enable dynamic sustainability assessment.
DT technology also offers significant potential for improving current practices in
quality control and management in the construction industry. DTs enable real-time moni-
toring and virtual simulations, allowing for the early detection and resolution of potential
issues, which can subsequently result in higher-quality construction outcomes. DTs also
facilitate accurate virtual representations of components, enabling quality inspections and
continuous monitoring of performance and maintenance requirements. The implemen-
tation of DTs for purposes of supply chain management and logistics also holds great
potential by providing real-time monitoring of project conditions and progress, enabling
the prediction of risks, and optimising coordination using data integration and simulations.
Notably, the application of DTs in modular construction improves project performance
by accurately predicting logistics risks and facilitating “just-in-time” module delivery. In
SHM, DTs create virtual replicas of structures, integrate real-time sensor data, and enable
comprehensive monitoring, early detection of abnormalities, and proactive maintenance.
The application of DTs improves monitoring systems, enabling precise evaluation of a
building’s conditions, prediction of risks, and optimisation of maintenance strategies. With
the use of DT technology, the construction industry can achieve substantial improvements
in construction quality, supply chain management, and SHM, ultimately enhancing safety,
reliability, and efficiency in construction projects.
This study also underlined a number of challenges hindering the widespread use of
digital twin technology in the building and construction industry. These take into account
(i) data integration and interoperability, (ii) data accuracy and completeness, (iii) scalability
and complexity, (iv) privacy and security, and (v) standards and governance.
Addressing the identified challenges can help with the further development of the
field. To this end, the current study recommends the prioritisation of standardised data
formats, protocols, and APIs as a crucial measure to facilitate seamless collaboration and
data exchange among different software systems and stakeholders. Additionally, future
research should focus on the exploration of semantic data modelling and ontologies in
order to facilitate data integration and interoperability, with a potential lead-up to the
enhancement of DT data standardisation. The current study also suggests that further
attempts should be undertaken to ensure data accuracy and completeness in DTs, even
though this requires the implementation of thorough validation processes, data quality
control mechanisms, and robust data governance practices. Scalability and complexity
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 21 of 26
were other important challenges associated with using DTs in construction. Addressing this
challenge involves harnessing high-performance computing capabilities, utilising efficient
data storage and processing mechanisms, and using advanced modelling techniques. This
study also suggests that privacy and security concerns can be tackled by necessitating the
establishment of comprehensive data protection protocols, encryption mechanisms, access
controls, authentication procedures, and user permissions. Finally, the development of
widely accepted standards and governance frameworks with industry-wide collaboration
will promote interoperability, consistency, and long-term success in the adoption and
utilisation of DTs in the construction industry.
References
1. Opoku, D.G.J.; Perera, S.; Osei-Kyei, R.; Rashidi, M. Digital twin application in the construction industry: A literature review.
J. Build. Eng. 2021, 40, 102726. [CrossRef]
2. Ozturk, G.B. Digital Twin Research in the AECO-FM Industry. J. Build. Eng. 2021, 40, 102730. [CrossRef]
3. Zhang, J.; Cheng, J.C.P.; Chen, W.; Chen, K. Digital Twins for Construction Sites: Concepts, LoD Definition, and Applications.
J. Manag. Eng. 2022, 38, 04021094. [CrossRef]
4. Hosamo, H.H.; Imran, A.; Cardenas-Cartagena, J.; Svennevig, P.R.; Svidt, K.; Nielsen, H.K. A Review of the Digital Twin
Technology in the AEC-FM Industry. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2022, 2022, 2185170. [CrossRef]
5. Omrany, H.; Soebarto, V.; Ghaffarianhoseini, A. Rethinking the concept of building energy rating system in Australia: A pathway
to life-cycle net-zero energy building design. Arch. Sci. Rev. 2021, 65, 42–56. [CrossRef]
6. Ghaffarianhoseini, A.; AlWaer, H.; Ghaffarianhoseini, A.; Clements-Croome, D.; Berardi, U.; Raahemifar, K.; Tookey, J. Intelligent
or smart cities and buildings: A critical exposition and a way forward. Intell. Build. Int. 2017, 10, 122–129. [CrossRef]
7. Ghaffarianhoseini, A.; Berardi, U.; AlWaer, H.; Chang, S.; Halawa, E.; Ghaffarianhoseini, A.; Clements-Croome, D. What is an
intelligent building? Analysis of recent interpretations from an international perspective. Arch. Sci. Rev. 2015, 59, 338–357.
[CrossRef]
8. Deng, M.; Menassa, C.C.; Kamat, V.R. From BIM to digital twins: A systematic review of the evolution of intelligent building
representations in the AEC-FM industry. J. Inf. Technol. Constr. 2021, 26, 58–83. [CrossRef]
9. Omrany, H.; Ghaffarianhoseini, A.; Ghaffarianhoseini, A.; Clements-Croome, D.J. The uptake of City Information Modelling
(CIM): A comprehensive review of current implementations, challenges and future outlook. Smart Sustain. Built Environ. 2022.
ahead-of-print. [CrossRef]
10. Omrany, H.; Ghaffarianhoseini, A.; Chang, R.; Ghaffarianhoseini, A.; Pour Rahimian, F. Applications of Building information
modelling in the early design stage of high-rise buildings. Autom. Constr. 2023, 152, 104934. [CrossRef]
11. Bakhshi, S.; Chenaghlou, M.R.; Pour Rahimian, F.; Edwards, D.J.; Dawood, N. Integrated BIM and DfMA parametric and
algorithmic design based collaboration for supporting client engagement within offsite construction. Autom. Constr. 2021,
133, 104015. [CrossRef]
12. Chang, R.; Song, X.; Omrany, H. What hinders the transition towards sustainable construction in china? Critical challenges and
future directions. J. Green Build. 2022, 17, 99–127. [CrossRef]
13. Omrany, H.; Soebarto, V.; Zuo, J.; Chang, R. A Comprehensive Framework for Standardising System Boundary Definition in Life
Cycle Energy Assessments. Buildings 2021, 11, 230. [CrossRef]
14. Goulding, J.S.; Rahimian, F.P. Offsite Production and Manufacturing for Innovative Construction: People, Process and Technology;
Routledge: London, UK, 2019.
15. Xie, H.; Xin, M.; Lu, C.; Xu, J. Knowledge map and forecast of digital twin in the construction industry: State-of-the-art review
using scientometric analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 383, 135231. [CrossRef]
16. Shafto, M.; Conroy, M.; Doyle, R.; Glaessgen, E.; Kemp, C.; LeMoigne, J.; Wang, L. NASA Technology Roadmap: Modeling,
Simulation. Information Technology & Processing Roadmap; National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Washington, DC, USA,
2012; pp. 1–38.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 22 of 26
17. Ghosh, A.K.; Ullah, A.S.; Kubo, A. Hidden Markov model-based digital twin construction for futuristic manufacturing systems.
Artif. Intell. Eng. Des. Anal. Manuf. 2019, 33, 317–331. [CrossRef]
18. Hribernik, K.A.; Rabe, L.; Thoben, K.-D.; Schumacher, J. The product avatar as a product-instance-centric information management
concept. Int. J. Prod. Lifecycle Manag. 2006, 1, 367. [CrossRef]
19. Almatared, M.; Liu, H.; Tang, S.; Sulaiman, M.; Lei, Z.; Li, H.X. Digital Twin in the Architecture. Engineering, and Construction
Industry: A Bibliometric Review. Constr. Res. Congr. 2022, 2022, 670–678. [CrossRef]
20. Airports International. Case Study: Digital Twinning in Construction 2022. Available online: https://www.airportsinternational.
com/article/case-study-digital-twinning-construction (accessed on 21 June 2023).
21. Bortolini, R.; Rodrigues, R.; Alavi, H.; Vecchia, L.F.D.; Forcada, N. Digital Twins’ Applications for Building Energy Efficiency: A
Review. Energies 2022, 15, 7002. [CrossRef]
22. Hou, L.; Wu, S.; Zhang, G.K.; Tan, Y.; Wang, X. Literature Review of Digital Twins Applications in Construction Workforce Safety.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 11, 339. [CrossRef]
23. Opoku, D.-G.J.; Perera, S.; Osei-Kyei, R.; Rashidi, M.; Bamdad, K.; Famakinwa, T. Barriers to the Adoption of Digital Twin in the
Construction Industry: A Literature Review. Informatics 2023, 10, 14. [CrossRef]
24. Opoku, D.-G.J.; Perera, S.; Osei-Kyei, R.; Rashidi, M.; Famakinwa, T.; Bamdad, K. Drivers for Digital Twin Adoption in the
Construction Industry: A Systematic Literature Review. Buildings 2022, 12, 113. [CrossRef]
25. Salem, T.; Dragomir, M. Options for and Challenges of Employing Digital Twins in Construction Management. Appl. Sci. 2022,
12, 2928. [CrossRef]
26. Omrany, H.; Chang, R.; Soebarto, V.; Zhang, Y.; Ghaffarianhoseini, A.; Zuo, J. A bibliometric review of net zero energy building
research 1995–2022. Energy Build. 2022, 262, 111996. [CrossRef]
27. Qi, Q.; Tao, F.; Hu, T.; Anwer, N.; Liu, A.; Wei, Y.; Wang, L.; Nee, A.Y.C. Enabling technologies and tools for digital twin. J. Manuf.
Syst. 2021, 58, 3–21. [CrossRef]
28. Kalantari, S.; Pourjabar, S.; Xu, T.B.; Kan, J. Developing and user-testing a “Digital Twins” prototyping tool for architectural
design. Autom. Constr. 2022, 135, 104140. [CrossRef]
29. Rafsanjani, H.N.; Nabizadeh, A.H. Towards digital architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry through virtual
design and construction (VDC) and digital twin. Energy Built Environ. 2023, 4, 169–178. [CrossRef]
30. Callcut, M.; Agliozzo, J.-P.C.; Varga, L.; McMillan, L. Digital Twins in Civil Infrastructure Systems. Sustainability 2021, 13, 11549.
[CrossRef]
31. Broo, D.G.; Schooling, J. Digital twins in infrastructure: Definitions, current practices, challenges and strategies. Int. J. Constr.
Manag. 2021, 23, 1254–1263. [CrossRef]
32. Lu, R.; Brilakis, I. Digital twinning of existing reinforced concrete bridges from labelled point clusters. Autom. Constr. 2019,
105, 102837. [CrossRef]
33. Lu, V.Q.; Parlikad, A.K.; Woodall, P.; Ranasinghe, G.D.; Heaton, J. Developing a dynamic digital twin at a building level: Using
Cambridge campus as case study. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Smart Infrastructure and Construction 2019
(ICSIC) Driving Data-Informed Decision-Making, Churchill College, Cambridge, UK, 8–10 July 2019; ICE Publishing: New York,
NY, USA, 2019.
34. Lu, Q.; Parlikad, A.K.; Woodall, P.; Ranasinghe, G.D.; Xie, X.; Liang, Z.; Konstantinou, E.; Heaton, J.; Schooling, J. Developing a
digital twin at building and city levels: Case study of West Cambridge campus. J. Manag. Eng. 2020, 36, 05020004. [CrossRef]
35. Liu, Y.; Sun, Y.; Yang, A.; Gao, J. Digital Twin-Based Ecogreen Building Design. Complexity 2021, 2021, 1391184. [CrossRef]
36. Hosamo, H.H.; Nielsen, H.K.; Kraniotis, D.; Svennevig, P.R.; Svidt, K. Digital Twin framework for automated fault source
detection and prediction for comfort performance evaluation of existing non-residential Norwegian buildings. Energy Build. 2023,
281, 112732. [CrossRef]
37. Arsiwala, A.; Elghaish, F.; Zoher, M. Digital twin with Machine learning for predictive monitoring of CO2 equivalent from
existing buildings. Energy Build. 2023, 284, 112851. [CrossRef]
38. Hosamo, H.H.; Nielsen, H.K.; Kraniotis, D.; Svennevig, P.R.; Svidt, K. Improving building occupant comfort through a digital
twin approach: A Bayesian network model and predictive maintenance method. Energy Build. 2023, 288, 112992. [CrossRef]
39. Jiang, Y.; Li, M.; Li, M.; Liu, X.; Zhong, R.Y.; Pan, W.; Huang, G.Q. Digital twin-enabled real-time synchronization for planning,
scheduling, and execution in precast on-site assembly. Autom. Constr. 2022, 141, 104397. [CrossRef]
40. Jiang, Y.; Liu, X.; Wang, Z.; Li, M.; Zhong, R.Y.; Huang, G.Q. Blockchain-enabled digital twin collaboration platform for fit-out
operations in modular integrated construction. Autom. Constr. 2023, 148, 104747. [CrossRef]
41. Petri, I.; Rezgui, Y.; Ghoroghi, A.; Alzahrani, A. Digital twins for performance management in the built environment. J. Ind. Inf.
Integr. 2023, 33, 100445. [CrossRef]
42. Jiang, Y.; Li, M.; Guo, D.; Wu, W.; Zhong, R.Y.; Huang, G.Q. Digital twin-enabled smart modular integrated construction system
for on-site assembly. Comput. Ind. 2021, 136, 103594. [CrossRef]
43. Lin, J.-R.; Wu, D.-P. An approach to twinning and mining collaborative network of construction projects. Autom. Constr. 2021,
125, 103643. [CrossRef]
44. Lee, D.; Lee, S.H.; Masoud, N.; Krishnan, M.S.; Li, V.C. Integrated digital twin and blockchain framework to support accountable
information sharing in construction projects. Autom. Constr. 2021, 127, 103688. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 23 of 26
45. Zhao, R.; Chen, Z.; Xue, F. A blockchain 3.0 paradigm for digital twins in construction project management. Autom. Constr. 2023,
145, 104645. [CrossRef]
46. Pan, Y.; Zhang, L. A BIM-data mining integrated digital twin framework for advanced project management. Autom. Constr. 2021,
124, 103564. [CrossRef]
47. Arisekola, K.; Madson, K. Digital twins for asset management: Social network analysis-based review. Autom. Constr. 2023,
150, 104833. [CrossRef]
48. Love, P.E.; Matthews, J. The ‘how’of benefits management for digital technology: From engineering to asset management. Autom.
Constr. 2019, 107, 102930. [CrossRef]
49. Pregnolato, M.; Gunner, S.; Voyagaki, E.; De Risi, R.; Carhart, N.; Gavriel, G.; Tully, P.; Tryfonas, T.; Macdonald, J.; Taylor, C.
Towards Civil Engineering 4.0: Concept, workflow and application of Digital Twins for existing infrastructure. Autom. Constr.
2022, 141, 104421. [CrossRef]
50. Hüthwohl, P.; Lu, R.; Brilakis, I. Multi-classifier for reinforced concrete bridge defects. Autom. Constr. 2019, 105, 102824. [CrossRef]
51. Lu, Q.; Xie, X.; Parlikad, A.K.; Schooling, J.M. Digital twin-enabled anomaly detection for built asset monitoring in operation and
maintenance. Autom. Constr. 2020, 118, 103277. [CrossRef]
52. Xie, X.; Lu, Q.; Parlikad, A.K.; Schooling, J.M. Digital Twin Enabled Asset Anomaly Detection for Building Facility Management.
IFAC-PapersOnLine 2020, 53, 380–385. [CrossRef]
53. Mohammadi, M.; Rashidi, M.; Yu, Y.; Samali, B. Integration of TLS-derived Bridge Information Modeling (BrIM) with a Decision
Support System (DSS) for digital twinning and asset management of bridge infrastructures. Comput. Ind. 2023, 147, 103881.
[CrossRef]
54. Consilvio, A.; Hernández, J.S.; Chen, W.; Brilakis, I.; Bartoccini, L.; Di Gennaro, F.; van Welie, M. Towards a digital twin-based
intelligent decision support for road maintenance. Transp. Res. Procedia 2023, 69, 791–798. [CrossRef]
55. Zhao, J.; Feng, H.; Chen, Q.; de Soto, B.G. Developing a conceptual framework for the application of digital twin technologies to
revamp building operation and maintenance processes. J. Build. Eng. 2022, 49, 104028. [CrossRef]
56. Kamari, M.; Ham, Y. AI-based risk assessment for construction site disaster preparedness through deep learning-based digital
twinning. Autom. Constr. 2022, 134, 104091. [CrossRef]
57. Teizer, J.; Johansen, K.W.; Schultz, C. The Concept of Digital Twin for Construction Safety. Constr. Res. Congr. 2022, 2022, 1156–1165.
[CrossRef]
58. Liu, Z.; Bai, W.; Du, X.; Zhang, A.; Xing, Z.; Jiang, A. Digital Twin-based Safety Evaluation of Prestressed Steel Structure. Adv. Civ.
Eng. 2020, 2020, 104421. [CrossRef]
59. Wu, S.; Hou, L.; Zhang, G.K.; Chen, H. Real-time mixed reality-based visual warning for construction workforce safety. Autom.
Constr. 2022, 139, 104252. [CrossRef]
60. Zhao, Y.; Cao, C.; Liu, Z. A Framework for Prefabricated Component Hoisting Management Systems Based on Digital Twin
Technology. Buildings 2022, 12, 276. [CrossRef]
61. Jiang, W.; Ding, L.; Zhou, C. Digital twin: Stability analysis for tower crane hoisting safety with a scale model. Autom. Constr.
2022, 138, 104257. [CrossRef]
62. Liu, Z.; Meng, X.; Xing, Z.; Jiang, A. Digital Twin-Based Safety Risk Coupling of Prefabricated Building Hoisting. Sensors 2021,
21, 3583. [CrossRef]
63. Liu, Z.-S.; Meng, X.-T.; Xing, Z.-Z.; Cao, C.-F.; Jiao, Y.-Y.; Li, A.-X. Digital Twin-Based Intelligent Safety Risks Prediction of
Prefabricated Construction Hoisting. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5179. [CrossRef]
64. Ye, Z.; Ye, Y.; Zhang, C.; Zhang, Z.; Li, W.; Wang, X.; Wang, L.; Wang, L. A digital twin approach for tunnel construction safety
early warning and management. Comput. Ind. 2023, 144, 103783. [CrossRef]
65. Clausen, A.; Arendt, K.; Johansen, A.; Sangogboye, F.C.; Kjærgaard, M.B.; Veje, C.T.; Jørgensen, B.N. A digital twin framework for
improving energy efficiency and occupant comfort in public and commercial buildings. Energy Inform. 2021, 4, 40. [CrossRef]
66. Seo, H.; Yun, W.-S. Digital Twin-Based Assessment Framework for Energy Savings in University Classroom Lighting. Buildings
2022, 12, 544. [CrossRef]
67. Tan, Y.; Chen, P.; Shou, W.; Sadick, A.-M. Digital Twin-driven approach to improving energy efficiency of indoor lighting based
on computer vision and dynamic BIM. Energy Build. 2022, 270, 112271. [CrossRef]
68. Tang, Y.; Gao, F.; Wang, C.; Huang, M.M.; Wu, M.; Li, H.; Li, Z. Vertical Greenery System (VGS) Renovation for Sustainable
Arcade-Housing: Building Energy Efficiency Analysis Based on Digital Twin. Sustainability 2023, 15, 2310. [CrossRef]
69. Kaewunruen, S.; Xu, N. Digital Twin for Sustainability Evaluation of Railway Station Buildings. Front. Built Environ. 2018, 4, 77.
[CrossRef]
70. Alibrandi, U. Risk-Informed Digital Twin of Buildings and Infrastructures for Sustainable and Resilient Urban Communities.
ASCE-ASME J. Risk Uncertain. Eng. Syst. Part A Civ. Eng. 2022, 8, 04022032. [CrossRef]
71. Francisco, A.; Asce, S.M.; Mohammadi, N.; Asce, A.M.; Taylor, J.E.; Asce, M. Smart City Digital Twin–Enabled Energy Manage-
ment: Toward Real-Time Urban Building Energy Benchmarking. J. Manag. Eng. 2020, 36, 04019045. [CrossRef]
72. Khajavi, S.H.; Motlagh, N.H.; Jaribion, A.; Werner, L.C.; Holmstrom, J. Digital Twin: Vision, Benefits, Boundaries, and Creation
for Buildings. IEEE Access 2019, 7, 147406–147419. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 24 of 26
73. Tagliabue, L.C.; Cecconi, F.R.; Maltese, S.; Rinaldi, S.; Ciribini, A.L.C.; Flammini, A. Leveraging Digital Twin for Sustainability
Assessment of an Educational Building. Sustainability 2021, 13, 480. [CrossRef]
74. Agostinelli, S.; Cumo, F.; Guidi, G.; Tomazzoli, C. Cyber-Physical Systems Improving Building Energy Management: Digital Twin
and Artificial Intelligence. Energies 2021, 14, 2338. [CrossRef]
75. Kaewunruen, S.; Rungskunroch, P.; Welsh, J. A Digital-Twin Evaluation of Net Zero Energy Building for Existing Buildings.
Sustainability 2018, 11, 159. [CrossRef]
76. Zhao, L.; Zhang, H.; Wang, Q.; Wang, H. Digital-Twin-Based Evaluation of Nearly Zero-Energy Building for Existing Buildings
Based on Scan-to-BIM. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2021, 2021, 6638897. [CrossRef]
77. Kosse, S.; Vogt, O.; Wolf, M.; König, M.; Gerhard, D. Digital Twin Framework for Enabling Serial Construction. Front. Built
Environ. 2022, 8, 864722. [CrossRef]
78. Tran, H.; Nguyen, T.N.; Christopher, P.; Bui, D.-K.; Khoshelham, K.; Ngo, T.D. A digital twin approach for geometric quality
assessment of as-built prefabricated façades. J. Build. Eng. 2021, 41, 102377. [CrossRef]
79. Wolf, M.; Vogt, O.; Huxoll, J.; Gerhard, D.; Kosse, S.; König, M. Lifecycle oriented digital twin approach for prefabricated concrete
modules. In ECPPM 2021–eWork and eBusiness in Architecture, Engineering and Construction; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA,
2021; pp. 305–312.
80. Xie, M.; Pan, W. Opportunities and challenges of digital twin applications in modular integrated construction. In Proceedings of
the 37th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2020), Kitakyushu, Japan, 26–30 October
2020; IAARC Publications: Chennai, India, 2020.
81. Liu, Z.; Wu, L.; Liu, Z.; Mo, Y. Quality control method of steel structure construction based on digital twin technology. Digit. Twin
2023, 3, 5. [CrossRef]
82. Wang, Y.; Aslani, F.; Dyskin, A.; Pasternak, E. Digital Twin Applications in 3D Concrete Printing. Sustainability 2023, 15, 2124.
[CrossRef]
83. Rausch, C.; Lu, R.; Talebi, S.; Haas, C. Deploying 3D scanning based geometric digital twins during fabrication and assembly in
offsite manufacturing. Int. J. Constr. Manag. 2021, 23, 565–578. [CrossRef]
84. Greif, T.; Stein, N.; Flath, C.M. Peeking into the void: Digital twins for construction site logistics. Comput. Ind. 2020, 121, 103264.
[CrossRef]
85. Ivanov, D.; Dolgui, A. A digital supply chain twin for managing the disruption risks and resilience in the era of Industry 4.0. Prod.
Plan. Control. 2021, 32, 775–788. [CrossRef]
86. Lee, D.; Lee, S. Digital Twin for Supply Chain Coordination in Modular Construction. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5909. [CrossRef]
87. Park, K.T.; Son, Y.H.; Noh, S.D. The architectural framework of a cyber physical logistics system for digital-twin-based supply
chain control. Int. J. Prod. Res. 2020, 59, 5721–5742. [CrossRef]
88. Chiachío, M.; Megía, M.; Chiachío, J.; Fernandez, J.; Jalón, M.L. Structural digital twin framework: Formulation and technology
integration. Autom. Constr. 2022, 140, 104333. [CrossRef]
89. Mirzaei, K.; Arashpour, M.; Asadi, E.; Masoumi, H.; Li, H. Automatic generation of structural geometric digital twins from point
clouds. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 22321. [CrossRef]
90. Rios, A.J.; Plevris, V.; Nogal, M. Bridge management through digital twin-based anomaly detection systems: A systematic review.
Front. Built Environ. 2023, 9, 61. [CrossRef]
91. Xu, J.; Shu, X.; Qiao, P.; Li, S.; Xu, J. Developing a digital twin model for monitoring building structural health by combining a
building information model and a real-scene 3D model. Measurement 2023, 217, 112955. [CrossRef]
92. Lu, R.; Rausch, C.; Bolpagni, M.; Brilakis, I.; Haas, C.T. Geometric Accuracy of Digital Twins for Structural Health Monitoring, in
Structural Integrity and Failure; IntechOpen: Rijeka, Croatia, 2020.
93. Futai, M.M.; Bittencourt, T.N.; Santos, R.R.; Araújo, C.R.R.; Ribeiro, D.M.; Rocha, A.R.; Ellis, R. Utilization of Digital Twins for
Bridge Inspection, Monitoring and Maintenance. In Proceedings of the 1st Conference of the European Association on Quality
Control of Bridges and Structures: EUROSTRUCT, Padua, Italy, 29 August–1 September 2021; Springer International Publishing:
Cham, Switzerland, 2022; pp. 166–173.
94. Rojas-Mercedes, N.; Erazo, K.; Di Sarno, L. Seismic fragility curves for a concrete bridge using structural health monitoring and
digital twins. Earthq. Struct. 2022, 22, 503–515.
95. Smarsly, K.; Dragos, K.; Kolzer, T. Sensor-integrated digital twins for wireless structural health monitoring of civil infrastructure.
Bautechnik 2022, 99, 471–476. [CrossRef]
96. Ye, C.; Butler, L.; Calka, B.; Iangurazov, M.; Lu, Q.; Gregory, A.; Girolami, M.; Middleton, C. A digital twin of bridges for structural
health monitoring. In Proceedings of the 12th International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Stanford, CA, USA,
10–12 September 2019; DEStech Publications, Inc.: Lancaster, PA, USA, 2019.
97. Fuller, A.; Fan, Z.; Day, C.; Barlow, C. Digital Twin: Enabling Technologies, Challenges and Open Research. IEEE Access 2020,
8, 108952–108971. [CrossRef]
98. Hu, W.; Zhang, T.; Deng, X.; Liu, Z.; Tan, J. Digital twin: A state-of-the-art review of its enabling technologies, applications and
challenges. J. Intell. Manuf. Spéc. Equip. 2021, 2, 1–34. [CrossRef]
99. Thelen, A.; Zhang, X.; Fink, O.; Lu, Y.; Ghosh, S.; Youn, B.; Todd, M.D.; Mahadevan, S.; Hu, C.; Hu, Z. A comprehensive review of
digital twin—Part 1: Modeling and twinning enabling technologies. Struct. Multidiscip. Optim. 2022, 65, 354. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 25 of 26
100. Botín-Sanabria, D.M.; Mihaita, A.-S.; Peimbert-García, R.E.; Ramírez-Moreno, M.A.; Ramírez-Mendoza, R.A.; Lozoya-Santos,
J.D.J. Digital Twin Technology Challenges and Applications: A Comprehensive Review. Remote. Sens. 2022, 14, 1335. [CrossRef]
101. Tao, F.; Zhang, M. Digital Twin Shop-Floor: A New Shop-Floor Paradigm Towards Smart Manufacturing. IEEE Access 2017,
5, 20418–20427. [CrossRef]
102. Saad, A.; Faddel, S.; Mohammed, O. IoT-based digital twin for energy cyber-physical systems: Design and implementation.
Energies 2020, 13, 4762. [CrossRef]
103. Al-Obaidi, K.M.; Hossain, M.; Alduais, N.A.M.; Al-Duais, H.S.; Omrany, H.; Ghaffarianhoseini, A. A Review of Using IoT for
Energy Efficient Buildings and Cities: A Built Environment Perspective. Energies 2022, 15, 5991. [CrossRef]
104. Jacoby, M.; Usländer, T. Digital Twin and Internet of Things—Current Standards Landscape. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6519. [CrossRef]
105. Bilal, M.; Oyedele, L.; Qadir, J.; Munir, K.; Ajayi, S.; Akinade, O.O.; Owolabi, H.A.; Alaka, H.A.; Pasha, M. Big Data in the
construction industry: A review of present status, opportunities, and future trends. Adv. Eng. Inform. 2016, 30, 500–521. [CrossRef]
106. Kaur, M.J.; Mishra, V.P.; Maheshwari, P. The convergence of digital twin, IoT, and machine learning: Transforming data into
action. Digit. Twin Technol. Smart Cities 2020, 3–17. [CrossRef]
107. Rathore, M.M.; Shah, S.A.; Shukla, D.; Bentafat, E.; Bakiras, S. The Role of AI, Machine Learning, and Big Data in Digital Twinning:
A Systematic Literature Review, Challenges, and Opportunities. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 32030–32052. [CrossRef]
108. Cao, K.; Liu, Y.; Meng, G.; Sun, Q. An Overview on Edge Computing Research. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 85714–85728. [CrossRef]
109. Varghese, B.; Wang, N.; Barbhuiya, S.; Kilpatrick, P.; Nikolopoulos, D.S. Challenges and opportunities in edge computing. In
Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Smart Cloud (SmartCloud), New York, NY, USA, 18–20 November
2016; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2016; pp. 20–26.
110. Shi, W.; Cao, J.; Zhang, Q.; Li, Y.; Xu, L. Edge Computing: Vision and Challenges. IEEE Internet Things J. 2016, 3, 637–646.
[CrossRef]
111. Yaqoob, I.; Salah, K.; Uddin, M.; Jayaraman, R.; Omar, M.; Imran, M. Blockchain for Digital Twins: Recent Advances and Future
Research Challenges. IEEE Netw. 2020, 34, 290–298. [CrossRef]
112. Hasan, H.R.; Salah, K.; Jayaraman, R.; Omar, M.; Yaqoob, I.; Pesic, S.; Taylor, T.; Boscovic, D. A blockchain-based approach for the
creation of digital twins. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 34113–34126. [CrossRef]
113. Cheng, J.; Chen, W.; Tao, F.; Lin, C.L. Industrial IoT in 5G environment towards smart manufacturing. J. Ind. Inf. Integr. 2018,
10, 10–19. [CrossRef]
114. Kim, J.H. 6G and Internet of Things: A survey. J. Manag. Anal. 2021, 8, 316–332. [CrossRef]
115. Wang, D.; Chen, D.; Song, B.; Guizani, N.; Yu, X.; Du, X. From IoT to 5G I-IoT: The Next Generation IoT-Based Intelligent
Algorithms and 5G Technologies. IEEE Commun. Mag. 2018, 56, 114–120. [CrossRef]
116. Mashaly, M. Connecting the Twins: A Review on Digital Twin Technology & its Networking Requirements. Procedia Comput. Sci.
2021, 184, 299–305. [CrossRef]
117. Mahapatra, R.; Nijsure, Y.; Kaddoum, G.; Hassan, N.U.; Yuen, C. Energy Efficiency Tradeoff Mechanism Towards Wireless Green
Communication: A Survey. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor. 2015, 18, 686–705. [CrossRef]
118. Tuhaise, V.V.; Tah, J.H.M.; Abanda, F.H. Technologies for digital twin applications in construction. Autom. Constr. 2023, 152, 104931.
[CrossRef]
119. Daniotti, B.; Masera, G.; Bolognesi, C.; Spagnolo, S.L.; Pavan, A.; Iannaccone, G.; Signorini, M.; Ciuffreda, S.; Mirarchi, C.;
Lucky, M.; et al. The Development of a BIM-Based Interoperable Toolkit for Efficient Renovation in Buildings: From BIM to
Digital Twin. Buildings 2022, 12, 231. [CrossRef]
120. Garetti, M.; Fumagalli, L.; Negri, E. Role of Ontologies for CPS Implementation in Manufacturing. Manag. Prod. Eng. Rev. 2015,
6, 26–32. [CrossRef]
121. Negri, E.; Fumagalli, L.; Garetti, M.; Tanca, L. Requirements and languages for the semantic representation of manufacturing
systems. Comput. Ind. 2016, 81, 55–66. [CrossRef]
122. Gruber, T.R. A translation approach to portable ontology specifications. Knowl. Acquis. 1993, 5, 199–220. [CrossRef]
123. Liu, M.; Fang, S.; Dong, H.; Xu, C. Review of digital twin about concepts, technologies, and industrial applications. J. Manuf. Syst.
2020, 58, 346–361. [CrossRef]
124. Boje, C.; Guerriero, A.; Kubicki, S.; Rezgui, Y. Towards a semantic Construction Digital Twin: Directions for future research.
Autom. Constr. 2020, 114, 103179. [CrossRef]
125. Jia, W.; Wang, W.; Zhang, Z. From simple digital twin to complex digital twin Part I: A novel modeling method for multi-scale
and multi-scenario digital twin. Adv. Eng. Inform. 2022, 53, 101706. [CrossRef]
126. Qi, Q.; Zhao, D.; Liao, T.W.; Tao, F. Modeling of cyber-physical systems and digital twin based on edge computing, fog computing
and cloud computing towards smart manufacturing. In Proceedings of the International Manufacturing Science and Engineering
Conference, College Station, TX, USA, 18–22 June 2018; American Society of Mechanical Engineers: New York, NY, USA, 2018;
p. V001T05A018.
127. Pushpa, J.; Kalyani, S. Using fog computing/edge computing to leverage Digital Twin. Adv. Comput. 2020, 117, 51–77. [CrossRef]
128. Shahat, E.; Hyun, C.T.; Yeom, C. City Digital Twin Potentials: A Review and Research Agenda. Sustainability 2021, 13, 3386.
[CrossRef]
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10908 26 of 26
129. Alshammari, K.; Beach, T.; Rezgui, Y. Cybersecurity for digital twins in the built environment: Current research and future
directions. J. Inf. Technol. Constr. 2021, 26, 159–173. [CrossRef]
130. Harper, K.E.; Malakuti, S.; Ganz, C. Digital Twin Architecture and Standards. J. Innov. 2019, 1–12.
131. Bitton, R.; Gluck, T.; Stan, O.; Inokuchi, M.; Ohta, Y.; Yamada, Y.; Yagyu, T.; Elovici, Y.; Shabtai, A. Deriving a cost-effective
digital twin of an ICS to facilitate security evaluation. In Proceedings of the Computer Security: 23rd European Symposium on
Research in Computer Security, ESORICS 2018, Barcelona, Spain, 3–7 September 2018; Springer International Publishing: Cham,
Switzerland, 2018. Part I 23. pp. 533–554.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.