Types of Sampling

Sampling is defined as the process of selecting certain members or a subset of the population to
make statistical inferences from them and to estimate characteristics of the whole population. It is time-
convenient and a cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any research design.

Advantages of Sampling
 Reduced cost & time
 Reduced resource deployment
 Accuracy of data
 Intensive & exhaustive data
 Apply properties to a larger population

Disadvantages of Sampling
 Sampling error (sample unrepresentative of its population)
 Sampling bias

Two types of sampling techniques that are widely deployed.

A. Probability or random sampling
B. Non- probability or non- random sampling

A. Probability Sampling
Probability sampling means that every item in the population has an equal chance of being included
in sample. This allows every member to have the equal opportunities to be a part of various samples.
Probability or random sampling has the greatest freedom from bias but may represent the most costly sample
in terms of time and energy for a given level of sampling error (Brown, 1947).

There are five primary types of probability sampling methods:

 Simple Random
 Systematic
 Stratified
 Cluster
 Multi-stage

A.1 Simple Random Sampling

The most widely known type of a random sample is the simple random sample (SRS). This is
characterized by the fact that the probability of selection is the same for every case in the population. Simple
random sampling is a method of selecting n units from a population of size (N) such that every possible
sample of size (n) has equal chance of being drawn. The simple random sample means that every case of the
population has an equal probability of inclusion in sample.

Selection of members/elements by:

 Lottery Method
 Table of Random Numbers

Disadvantages associated with simple random sampling include (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005):
 A complete frame ( a list of all units in the whole population) is needed;
 In some studies, such as surveys by personal interviews, the costs of obtaining the sample can be
high if the units are geographically widely scattered;
 It is not used if researchers wish to ensure that certain subgroups are present in the sample in the
same proportion as they are in the population. To do this, researchers must engage in what is known
as stratified sampling.

A.2 Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is a variant of simple random sampling that involves some listing of elements -
every nth element of list is then drawn for inclusion in the sample. A researcher has to begin by having list
names of members in the population, in random approach.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 100 people in a population of
1,000. Each element of the population will be numbered from 1-1,000 and every 10th individual will be
chosen to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 1,000/100 = 10). Say you have a list of
1,000 people and you want a sample of 100.

Creating such a sample includes three steps:

1. Divide number of cases in the population by the desired sample size. In this example,
dividing 10,000 by 1,000 gives a value of 10.
2. Select a random number between one and the value attained in Step 1. In this example,
we choose a number between 1 and 10 - say we pick 7.
3. Starting with case number chosen in Step 2, take every tenth record (7, 17, 27, etc.).

A.3 Stratified Random Sampling

In this form of sampling, the population is first divided into two or more mutually exclusive
segments based on some categories of variables of interest in the research. It is designed to organize the
population into homogenous subsets before sampling, then drawing a random sample within each subset.
With stratified random sampling the population of N units is divided into subpopulations of units
respectively. These subpopulations, called strata, are non-overlapping and together they comprise the whole
of the population. When these have been determined, a sample is drawn from each, with a separate draw for
each of the different strata. The sample sizes within the strata are denoted by respectively. If a SRS is taken
within each stratum, then the whole sampling procedure is described as stratified random sampling.
Suppose you were interested in investigating the link between the family of origin and income and
your particular interest is in comparing incomes of Hispanic and Non-Hispanic respondents. For statistical
reasons, you decide that you need at least 1,000 non-Hispanics and 1,000 Hispanics. Hispanics comprise
around 6 or 7% of the population. If you take a simple random sample of all races that would be large
enough to get you 1,000 Hispanics, the sample size would be near 15,000, which would be far more
expensive than a method that yields a sample of 2,000. One strategy that would be more cost-effective
would be to split the population into Hispanics and non-Hispanics, then take a simple random sample within
each portion (Hispanic and non-Hispanic).

A.4 Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is where the whole population is divided into clusters or groups. Subsequently, a
random sample is taken from these clusters, all of which are used in the final sample (Wilson, 2010).
Clusters are identified and included in a sample on the basis of defining demographic parameters such as
age, location, sex etc. which makes it extremely easy for a survey creator to derive effective inference from
the feedback.
Cluster sampling is advantageous for those researchers whose subjects are fragmented over large
geographical areas as it saves time and money (Davis, 2005). The stages to cluster sampling can be
summarized as follows:
 Choose cluster grouping for sampling frame, such as type of company or geographical region
 Number each of the clusters
 Select sample using random sampling

Important things about cluster sampling:

1. Most large scale surveys are done using cluster sampling;
2. Clustering may be combined with stratification, typically by clustering within strata;
3. In general, for a given sample size n cluster samples are less accurate than the other
types of sampling in the sense that the parameters you estimate will have greater
variability than an SRS, stratified random or systematic sample.

A.5 Multi-stage Sampling

It is a combination of a combination of several sampling techniques. Multi-stage sampling is a
process of moving from a broad to a narrow sample, using a step by step process (Ackoff, 1953).
For example, a Filipino publisher of an automobile magazine were to conduct a survey, it could
simply take a random sample of automobile owners within the entire Filipino population. Obviously, this is
both expensive and time consuming. A cheaper alternative would be to use multi-stage sampling. In essence,
this would involve dividing the Philippines into a number of geographical regions. Subsequently, some of
these regions are chosen at random, and then subdivisions are made, perhaps based on local authority areas.
Next, some of these are again chosen at random and then divided into smaller areas, such as towns or cities.
The main purpose of multi-stage sampling is to select samples which are concentrated in a few geographical
regions. Once again, this saves time and money.
B. Non-probability Sampling
In some research scenarios, it is not possible to ensure that the sample will be selected based on
random selection. Non-probability sampling is based on a researcher’s judgement and there is possibility of
bias in sample selection and distort findings of the study. Nonetheless, this sampling technique is used
because of its practicality. It can save time and cost, and at the same time, it is a feasible method given the
spread and features of a population.

There are four primary types of non-probability sampling methods:

 Quota
 Snowball
 Convenience
 Purposive or Judgmental

B.1 Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is a non-random sampling technique in which participants are chosen on the basis of
predetermined characteristics so that the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics as the
wider population (Davis, 2005).
The main reason directing quota sampling is the researcher’s ease of access to the sample
population. Similar to stratified sampling, a researcher needs to identify the subgroups and their proportions
as they are represented in the population. Then, the researcher will select subjects based on his/ her
convenience and judgement to fill each subgroup. A researcher must be confident in using this method and
firmly state the criteria for selection of sample especially during results summarisation.
Quota sampling is designed to overcome the most obvious flaw of availability sampling. Rather than
taking just anyone, you set quotas to ensure that the sample you get represents certain characteristics in
proportion to their prevalence in the population. Note that for this method, you have to know something
about the characteristics of the population ahead of time. Say you want to make sure you have a sample
proportional to the population in terms of gender - you have to know what percentage of the population is
male and female, then collect sample until yours matches.

B.2 Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is a method in which a researcher identifies one member of some population of
interest, speaks to him/her, then asks that person to identify others in the population that the researcher might
speak to. This person is then asked to refer the researcher to yet another person, and so on. Snowball
sampling is very good for cases where members of a special population are difficult to locate.
For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In
such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few of that particular category to interview
and results will be derived on that basis. This sampling method is implemented in situations where the topic
is highly sensitive and not openly discussed such as conducting surveys to gather information about HIV
Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions but researchers can contact people they might
know or volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.

B.3 Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling is selecting participants because they are often readily and easily available.
Typically, convenience sampling tends to be a favored sampling technique among students as it is
inexpensive and an easy option compared to other sampling techniques (Ackoff, 1953). Convenience
sampling often helps to overcome many of the limitations associated with research. For example, using
friends or family as part of sample is easier than targeting unknown individuals.
Using this sampling method, a researcher is free to use anything that they could find in the research
outline. The sample is selected based on preferences and ease of sampling respondents. This sampling is
easier to conduct and less expensive. However, it has poor reliability due to its high incidence of bias.

B.3 Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

Purposive or judgmental sampling is a strategy in which particular settings persons or events are
selected deliberately in order to provide important information that cannot be obtained from other choices
(Maxwell, 1996). It is where the researcher includes cases or participants in the sample because they believe
that they warrant inclusion.
This sampling method is selected on the basis that members conform to certain stipulated criteria.
You may need to use your own judgement to select cases to answer certain research questions. This
sampling method is normally deployed if the sample population is small and when the main objective is to
choose cases that are informative to the research topic selected. Purposive sampling is very useful in the
early stages of an exploratory study. One of the disadvantages of this technique is that the sample may have
characteristics different from population characteristics.
For instance, when researchers want to understand the thought process of people who are interested
in studying for their master’s degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in studying for
Masters in …?” and those who respond with a “No” will be excluded from the sample.

Strengths and Weaknesses Associated with Each Sampling Technique.

Technique Strengths Weaknesses

Simple Random Easily understood, results projectable Difficult to construct sampling frame,
expensive, lower precision, no assurance of
representativeness
Systematic Can increase representativeness, easier to Can decrease representativeness
implement than simple random sampling,
sampling frame not always necessary
Stratified Includes all important sub-population, Difficult to select relevant stratification
precision variables, not feasible to stratify on many
variables, expensive
Cluster Easy to implement, cost-effective Imprecise, difficult to compute an interpret
results
Convenience Least expensive, least time-consuming, Selection bias, sample not representative, not
most convenient recommended by descriptive or casual research
Judgmental Low-cost, convenient, not time-consuming, Does not allow generalization, subjective
ideal for exploratory research design
Quota Sample can be controlled for certain Selection bias, no assurance
characteristics
Snowball Can estimate rare characteristics Time-consuming

References

Ackoff, R. L. 1953. The Design of Social Research, Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Retrieved from:
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.24.358&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Brown, G. H. 1947. A comparison of sampling methods. Journal of Marketing, 6, 331-337.

Davis, D. 2005. Business Research for Decision Making, Australia, Thomson South-Western. Retrieved
from: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3205035

Ghauri, P. & Gronhaug, K. 2005. Research Methods in Business Studies, Harlow, FT/Prentice Hall.
Retrieved from:https://imckrems.weebly.com/uploads/1/9/8/2/1982532/4_book_research_methods_
in_business_s tudies_a.pdf

Wilson , J. 2010. Essentials of business research: a guide to doing your research project, SAGE
Publication. Retrieved from:
https://xllnsltaw01.storage.googleapis.com/QjAwSThQTktUTQ==01.pdf

Malhotra, N. K. & Birks, D. F. 2006. Marketing Research: An Applied Approach, Harlow, FT/Prentice Hall.
Retrieved from:https://www.academia.edu/33330345/An_Applied_Approach_Marketing_Research
_An_Applied_Approach_Updated_Second_European_Edition

Maxwell, J. A. 1996. Qualitative Research Design: An Intractive Approach London, Applied Social
Research Methods Series. Retrieved from: http://jgh.hunter.cuny.edu/Maxwell-J-1996-Qualitative-
Research-Design-An-Interactive-Approach.pdf

Prepared by: Cristie S. Sumbilla

PhD Biology student