FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

That branch of chemistry, which deals with the application of chemical principles in the solution
of problems that arise in connection with the administration of justice. It is chemistry applied in the
elucidation of legal problems. It is chemistry used in courts of law. Chemistry belonging to the court of
law.

A Forensic Chemist is one who practices forensic chemistry.

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Are articles and materials which are found in connection with an investigation and which aid in
establishing the identity of the perpetrator of the circumstances under which the crime was committed or
which in general assist in the prosecution of the criminal. Encompasses any and all objects that can
establish that crime has been committed or can provide a link between a crime and its victims or a crime
and its perpetrator.

SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY:

1. It includes the chemical side of criminal investigation
2. It includes the analysis of any material the quality of which may give rise to legal proceeding.
3. It is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal proceedings.
4. It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably legal medicine, ballistics,
questioned documents, dactyloscopy, and photography.

ROLES OF THE FORENSIC CHEMIST IN THE SCIENTIFIC CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION:

The forensic chemist plays an important role in the scientific criminal investigation. He may be
called upon to aid an investigation in:

a. Determining whether or not a place / location is a clandestine laboratory

b. Examination of marked bills / suspects during entrapment (extortion case)
c. Taking Paraffin Test

ROLE OF THE CHEMIST IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

Four stages of work of a forensic chemist:
1. Collection and reception of specimen for lab. Examination
a. sufficiency of sample
b. standard for comparison
c. maintenance of individuality
d. labeling and scaling
2. The actual examination of specimen
3. Communication of the result of examine
4. Court Appearance

PRIMARY REASON W/C MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE DISASTER OF EVIDENCE

1. Improper packing of specimen
2. Failure of identification of specimen
3. Improper, precaution use in transmitting the specimen.

ORDINARY WITNESS
State facts and may not express his opinions or conclusions. He may testify to impressions of
common experiments such as the speed of a vehicle, whether a voice was that of a man, woman or child.
Beyond this he is closely limited.

EXPERT WITNESS
 One who posses a special skill, be it in art, trade or science or one who has special knowledge in
waters not generally known to men or ordinary education and experiments. A person skilled in some art,
trade or science to the extent that he possesses information not within the common knowledge of man.

EYE WITNESS
Person who saw the fatal act.

QUALIFICATION OF AN ORDINARY WITNESS:

1. He must have the organ and powder to perceive.
2. The perception gathered by his organ of sense can be imparted to others.
3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for Sec. 26, Rule 123, Rules of Court.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORDINARY & EXPERT WITNESS:

1. An ordinary witness can only state what is senses has perceived while an expert witness may
state what he has perceived and also give his opinions, deduction or conclusion to his
perception.
2. An ordinary witness may not be skilled on the line he his testifying while an expert witness be
skilled in the art, science or trade he is testifying.
3. An ordinary witness cannot testify on things or facts he has not perceived except those
provided for any law while an expert witness must testify on things which he has seen giving
his opinions, deductions or conclusion on the statements of facts.

FOUR STAGES OF WORK OF A FORENSIC CHEMISTRY:

1. Collection or reception of this specimen/evidence to be examined.
a. Sufficiency of samples
b. Standard specimen for comparison
c. Maintenance of individuality
d. Labeling and sealing
2. The actual examination of the specimen
3. Communication of results of the examinations
4. Court appearance

PARTIAL PERSON TO COLLECT THE EVIDENCE

Person capable of applying knowledge or theory to practice. Person by practice.

IDEAL PERSON TO COLLECT THE EVIDENCE

Perfect person. The forensic chemist.

STANDARD SPECIMEN
Are known specimens to compare with the questioned needed to aid in establishing a suspect’s
relationship to the crime under investigation.

SIX GOLDEN RULES IN THE PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

1. Go Slowly
2. Be thorough
3. Take note
4. consult others
5. Use imagination
6. Avoid complicated theories

PRIMARY REASON W/C MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE DISASTER OF

EVIDENCE/SPECIMEN
1. Improper packing of specimen
2. Failure of identification of specimen
 3. Improper, precaution use in transmitting the specimen.
4. Lack of precautions to prevent tampering of the specimen.
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD:
1. As circumstance or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator of the crime.
2. As evidence in case of disputed percentage
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of time the victim survived the attack.
4. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime was committed.

THE CONSTITUTION OF BLOOD

BLOOD

Has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is referred to as a highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes,
proteins, and inorganic substances. It is the red fluid of the blood vessels. Blood is opaque. On the treatment with either, water
or other reagents becomes transparent lake color. It is finally alkaline. Normally pH is 7.35 – 7.45.

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

1. (45%) formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells namely:
a. Red Blood Cells or RBC (ERYTHROCYTES) around 4 – 5 millions of red cell per cc. of blood.
b. White Blood Cells or WBC (LEUKOCYTES)
c. Blood Platelets (THROMBOCYTES)

2. (55%) PLASMA – The fluid or liquid portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is principally composed of:
a. Water ---- 90%
b. Solid ----- 10% ( largely protein in nature and consist of albumen, several globulin’s and fibrinogen.
In the forensic aspect of blood identification, that is blood grouping, our discussion will concentrate on the RBC and blood
serum. Serum is pale yellowish liquid just like the plasma.

PLASMA
The yellowish fluid of blood in which numerous blood corpuscles are suspended. A straw-yellow liquid formed when
blood to which oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is allowed to strand.

SERUM
A straw – yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for some time and the clot contracts.

PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD:

1. where has to be searched for
2. Collection, preservation, packing and transportation of specimen suspected to contain blood.

Blood offers little resistance to decomposition. It undergoes a rapid charge in its character with the passage of time as
process of clotting and drying commences almost immediately on exposure to air. Sodium fluoride maybe added to blood to
preserve it for a week at room temperature or indefinitely in a refrigerator. Between 40 – 50 degrees centigrade is the ideal
preserving temperature for blood and other perishable specimens. Collection of blood stains should be done as soon as
possible, mere washing of garments/clotting removes the blood.

FLUID BLOOD:
Collect from:
1. Victims of crimes of violence
2. Parent and child in case of disputed parentage.

DRIED BLOOD OR BLOOD STAINS:

Collect from:
1. Smooth surface like walls, finished floors, table tops
2. Hard surface like axe, hammer, knives, stones, crowbars
3. Glazed surface like glass, tiles, automobiles
4. Bulky objects like blackboard, linoleum sheets, doors, window frames
5. Clothing
6. Blood absorbed by the soil

3. Does the stain contains blood or another substance

THE EXAMINATION OF BLOOD
THE FOUR TEST FOR BLOOD:

1. PRELIMINARY TEST
Determine whether the stain contains blood or another substance. Determines whether visible
stains do or do not contain blood. It is used to demonstrate the presence of blood.

2. CONFIRMATORY TEST
Determines whether bloodstain really contains blood. Test that positively identifies blood.

3. PRECIPITIN TEST
Determines whether blood is a human or non-human origin, and if non-human, the specific animal
family from which it originated.

4. BLOOD GROUPING TEST

Determines the blood group of human

I. THE PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD ( PRELIMINARY COLOR TEST)

FOLLOWING ARE PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD:

1. Benzidine Test or Benzidine Color Test
2. Phenolphthalein Test ( also known as Kastle – Meyer Test)
3. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen Test, Day’s or Schonbein’s Test)
4. Leucomalachite Green Test
5. Luminol Test

BENZIDINE TEST
An extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain. For many years the most
commonly used preliminary test for blood. The Benzidine test never fails to detect blood even when very
old, decomposed stain with all sorts of contamination is examined. The positive result is only indicative
that the blood maybe present.

REAGENT: Benzidine solution (small amount of powdered benzidine dissolved in glacial acetic
acid) and 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide.

PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained material on a filter paper. Add a
drop of benzidine solution and then drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.

POSITIVE RESULTS: Intense blue color produced immediately

Limitation: Benzidine test is not a specific test for blood. Positive results may be obtained from
substances as sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay, gun. The reaction is weaker and
produce faint coloration.

PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST
An alternative test to benzidine test. It can detect blood in a dilution of 1:80,000,000 parts. A
positive results with this test is highly indicative of blood. The negative result is, therefore, valuable and
is conclusive as to the absence of blood.

REAGENTS: Phenolphthalein solution (1 – 2 grams phenolphthalein to 100 ml of a 25% KOH in

water added with one gram zinc powder heated until colorless) and 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide.
 PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained materia on a filter paper. Add a
drop of phenolphthalein solution and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.

POSITIVE RESULT: Rose color develops or deep pink color or permanganate color.

LIMITATION: Test is also given by copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.

GUAIACUM TEST
A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a solution of 1:50,000 dilution. It may
not react to very old stains.

REAGENTS: Fresh tincture of guaiac resin (Few lumps of this to 95% alcohol, then filter) and
3% of hydrogen peroxide or few drops of turpentine.

PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of the stained fabric on porcelain dish. Soak with fresh
tincture of guaiac. Add a few drops of hydrogen peroxide.

POSITIVE RESULTS: Beautiful blue color that appears immediately.

LIMITATION: The test also reacts with salvia, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron salts, cheese, gluten,
potatoes, perspiration and other oxidizing substances.

LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST:

Not as sensitive as the benzidine test

REAGENT: Leucomalachite Green solution ( 1 gram leucomalachite green dissolved in 48 ml.

glacial acetic acid and diluted to 250ml. water) and 3% hydrogen peroxide.

PROCEDURE: A small piece of the stained fabric on a filter paper. Add a drop of
leucomalachite green solution and after a few seconds add drop of 3% hydrogen peroxide.

POSITIVE RESULTS: Malachite green or bluish green

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE FOUR PRELIMINARY TESTS FOR BLOOD (BENZIDINE

TEST, PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST, GUAIACUM TEST AND LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN
TEST)

The peroxidase present in haemoglobin acts as carrier of oxygen from the hydrogen peroxide to
the active ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac, phenolphthalein and leucomalachite) and
produces the characteristic colored compounds by OXIDATION.

PEROXIDASE Enzyme that accelerates the oxidation of several classes of organic compounds by
peroxide.

HEMOGLOBIN The red colouring matter of the red blood cells of the blood.

LUMINOUS TEST
 An important presumptive identification test for blood. The reaction of luminol with blood result
in the production of light rather than colour. By spraying luminol reagent onto a suspect item, large areas
can be quickly screened for the presence of bloodstains. The sprayed object must be located in a darkened
area while being viewed for the emission of light. (LUMINESCENCE). Luminol test is extremely
sensitive test. It is capable of detecting bloodstains diluted up to 10,000X. Luminol is known to destroy
many important blood factors necessary for the forensic characterization of blood, so its use should be
limited only to seeking out blood invisible to the naked eye.
II. THE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD
The actual proof that stain is blood consists of establishing the presense of the characteristic of
the red blood cells of the blood.

THE THREE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD (OR THE THREE TEST TO
DETERMINE IF STAIN IS REALLY BLOOD)
1. Microscopic Test
2. Microchemical Test
3. Spectroscope Test

MICROSCOPIC TEST
Useful fr the demonstration and mensuration of blood corpuscles for making the distinction
between mammalian, avian, piscine, and reptilian blood and for the investigation of menstrual, lochial
and nasal charges. In short it differentiates mammalian, avian, piscine and reptilian blood.

MAMMALIAN RED BLOOD CELLS

Circular, biconcave disc without nucleus birds, fish and reptiles red blood cells larger, oval and
nucleated Amphibians-animal living on land breeding in water. Red blood cells are larger than mammals,
oval and nucleated.

MICROCHEMICAL TEST OR MOCROCRYSTALLINE TEST:

a. Teichmann Hemin Reaction/Teichman Test/Haemin Crystal Test
b. Haemochromogen crystal Test or Takayama Test
c. Acetone-Haemin Test

HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL TEST OR TAKAYAMA TEST One of the two popular

microchemical test. A delicate test for the presence of hemoglobin.

PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of suspected material on a glass slide. Add 2 – 3 drops of
Takayama reagent. Cover with glass slip.

POSITIVE RESULTS: Large rhombic crystals of a salmon pink color arranged in clusters,
sheaves and other forms that appear within to 6 minutes when viewed under the low power objectives. To
hasten result heat maybe applied.

REAGENT: Takeyama reagent (3 cc. of 10% NaOH, 33 cc. pyridine, 3 cc. of saturated glucose
solution and diluted with 7 ml. of water.

SPECTROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
The almost delicate and reliable test for the determination of the presence of blood in both old
recent stains. this is performed by means of an optical instrument known as SPECTROSCOPE.

III. PRECIPITIN TEST

Is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is of human or animal origin
 REAGENT: Precipitin/antiserum

PROCEDURE: Scrape off blood stain if on hard material. Powder the scrapings and exact with
saline solution. if the stain is cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small portion and then place in a test
tube and add extract with saline solution. allow mixture to stand overnight. Centrifuge to clean the
solution. Dilute with saline solution. Layer an extract of the bloodstain on top of the human
antiserum/precipitin in a capillary tube.

POSITIVE RESULT: A white cloudy line or ring or band at the contact points of the fluid that
appears immediately or within one or two minutes.

LIMITATION OF PRECIPITIN TEST; The precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins but
also with other body proteins as those as saliva, semen, mucus and other body fluids.

IV. BLOOD GROUPING AND BLOOD TESTING

BLOOD GROUPING TEST OF FRESH BLOOD (Direct Technique Method) USING THE A-B-O
SYSTEM

THE FOUR BLOOD GROUPS:

1. Group “O”
2. Group “A”
3. Group “B”
4. Group “AB”

AGGLUTINOGEN OR ANTIGEN
These are characteristic chemical structrs or “principles” that the found on the surface of each red blood
cells which stimulates the production of agglutinins or antibodies. There are two different agglutinogens
or antigens classified as AGGLUTINOGEN A OR ANTIGEN A AND AGGLUTINOGEN B OR
ANTIGEN B.

ANTIBODY OR AGGLUTININ
These are properties or “principles” contained in the serum which cause agglutination or
clumping together of the red blood cells. They are antitoxic substances within the body which reacts when
confronted with a specific antigen to protect the system. There are two different agglutinins classified as
Anti-A and Anti-B. Agglutinins are demonstrable in about 50% of newly born infants.

We have the four groups because of the presence of absence of two antigens A and B in the RBC
and two agglutinins Anti-A and Anti-B in the serum.
BLOOD GROUP ANTIGEN/AGGLUTINOGEN ANTIBODIES/
PRESENT IN THE RBC AGGLUTINIES PRESENT IN
THE SERUM
A
A ANTI-B
B
B ANTI-A
A&B
AB NO A & NO B or NONE
NO A & NO B or NONE ANTI-A & ANTI-B

(+) Means agglutination or clumping of RBC

(−) Means absence of agglutination or no clumping of RBC
THE BLOOD TYPING (M-N SYSTEM) OF BLOOD
There are two agglutinogens in human red cells which defines three types of blood. Namely: Type
M, Type N, and Type MN, thus:

THE THREE BLOOD TYPES ARE:

1. Type M
2. Type N
3. Type MN

(+) Means agglutination

(−) Means absence of agglutination

INHERITANCE OF BLOOD GROUPS

Knowledge of the gas of genetics will make it easier to understand the principle involved in the
inheritance of blood groups. The inheritance of blood groups are predetermined by the presence and
absence of two facts or GENES called Gene A and Gene B. Before we understand the inheritance of
blood groups following are definition of items:

1. GENES Any of the complex chemical units in the chromosomes by which hereditary
characters are transmitted. Responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics. They
occurs in pair. There are two genes or factors called gene A and gene B. these are found in the
chromosomes. Since chromosomes go in pair, each of which carries or fails to carry one of
these genes. An individual’s called genotypes, where O represents the absence in the
chromosomes of either the A or B gene.

2. PHENOTYPES Term used to denote the expression of the inherited characteristic as found in
the individual. Actually the blood groups

3. GENOTYPES Are paired genes.

IMPORTANT APPLICATION OF BLOOD GROUP DATA

I. Questions of illegitimacy and relationships in may cause maybe solved by means of the blood
groups as determined by the agglutinogens A, B, M, and N.

1. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out of wedlock could or could
not be its parent.
2. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or could not have been
fathered by her legal spouse.
3. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given set of parents in the
case of accidental interchange of infants in a hospital.
4. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered after a long interval
could or could not belong to a given set of parents.

SEMEN AND SEMINAL FLUID

Is a viscid whitish fluid of the male reproductive track containing spermatozoa.

PARTS OF SEMEN
1. seminal fluid
2. formed Elements Cellular
a. spermatozoa
b. epithelial cells
 c. crystal and choline

LOCATION OF SEMEN AND SEMEN STAIN AS EVIDENCE

1. Under clotting
2. Clothing
3. Skin
4. Vagina
5. Rectal contains of the victim
6. Around the genitals

SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS EXAMINATION

There are four examination for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the form of stains namely:
1. Physical Examination
2. Chemical Examination
a. Florence Test
b. Barberio’s Test
c. Acid-phospahtase Test
3. Microscopic Examination
4. Biological Examination

COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, PACKING AND TRANSIT OF SPECIMEN:

1. Seizure of apparel must be done as soon as possible.
2. In packiging of wearing appearel there should be no friction between the apparel and the stain.
3. Specimen should not be rolled for transit.
4. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in a test tube and corked.
5. Specimen should be thoroughly dried before packing.
6. Fluid semen should be placed in a test tube. It maybe preserved by a few drops of 10%
solution of formalin during hot weather.

DETERMINATION OF SPERMATOZOA IN FRESH SEMEN:

1. Transfers a drop of specimen to a glass slide.
2. Add a drop of water or saline solution and cover with cover slip
3. Examine under the microscope
4. Observe for the presence of spermatozoa

ELEMENTS WHICH MAY OBSTRUCT DETECTION OF SPERMATOZOA:

1. Nature of fabric
2. Age of stain
3. Condition to which the stain was exposed reaching the laboratory
4. Handling of the specimen

GUN POWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES

In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, three most important problems may arise, the
problems of:
1. Determination of whether or not a person fired a gun with bare hands within pertinent period of time
2. Determination of the probable gunshot range, that is the distance the firearm was held from the body
of the victim at the time of discharge.
3. Determination of the approximate time of firing of the gun on the approximate date of last discharge.

TWO KINDS OF GUN POWDER

1. Black powder (which is consist of or made of 15% of C, 10% of S and 75% of KNO 3 or NaNO3.
When block powder explode

KNO3 + c + S K2S + N2 CO2

2. Smokeless powder ( which consist of cellulose nitrate or glyceryl nitrate combined with cellulose
nitrate and some stabilizers. When exploded the following reaction occurs:

C12H14O4(NO3)6 9CO + 3N2 + 7H2O + 3CO2

Cellulose nitrate

4C3H5(NO3)3 12CO2 + 10H2O + 6N2 + O2

Glyceryl Nitrate

POSSIBLE LOCATIONS OF NITRATES WHEN BLACKPOWDER AND SMOKELESS

POWDER EXPLODE
1. Residue of the barrel of the gun.
2. In or around the wound
3. On the clothing of the fired upon at close range
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun

DIPHENYLAMINE-PARAFFIN TEST (test to be determine the presence of nitrates, a test to

determine whether a person fired a gun or not.
1. Paraffin test (Test performed to extract the nitrates embedded in the skin.
2. Diphenylamine Test or DPA Test ( test that determines the presence and location of nitrate
chemical needed diphenylamine reagent . procedure to be taken up in the laboratory V.S. blue
specks if nitrates are present.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE INTERPRETATION OF DPA TEST RESULT:

1. Time of reaction
2. Number of blue specks
3. Location of specks
4. Character of specks

POSSIBILITIES THAT A PERSON MAYBE FOUND NEGATIVE FOR NITRATES EVEN IF

HE ACTUALLY FIRED A GUN
1. Use if automatic pistol
2. Direction of wind
3. Wind velocity
4. Excessive perspiration
5. Use of gloves
6. Knowledge of chemicals that will remove the nitrates

POSSIBILITIES THAT A PERSON MAYBE FOUND POSITIVE FOR NITRATES EVEN IF HE

DID NOT ACTUALLY FIRED A GUN
1. It is possible that the gunpowder particles may have been blown on the hand directly from the
barrel of the gun being fired by another person.
2. An attempt to shield the body by arising the hand in some instances result in the implanting of
powder particles on the hands of a person close to one firing a gun..

HOW TO DETERMINE THE PROBABLE GUNSHOT RANGE

The clothing is examined microscopically for possible powder residues, singeing, burning,
smudging and powder tattooing.

DETERMINATION OF THE PROBABLE TIME THE GUN HAS BEEN FIRED

 In the examination / determination of the approximate time of last discharge we need the specimen
firearm in the examination. The barrel is swabbed with cotton and the residues examined under the
microscope.

1. Rust
 Formation of rust inside the barrel after a gun has been fired is a good indication of the
determination of the approximate time the gun has been fired.
 If a gun has not fired at all, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of the gun.
 If a gun has been fired, iron salts are formed and are found inside the barrel. This iron
salts are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust.

2. NITRATE
Presence of nitrate (NO2) is determined by addition of diphenylamine (DPA) reagent. If the color
becomes blue nitrates are present, and we may say thjat the firearm could have been fired recently.

3. NITRATES
Presence of nitrates (NO3) is determined by the addition of diphenylamine reagent. If the color
turned yellow green, nitrates are present, and we may say that the firearms could have been fired but not
recently.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PRESENCE AND AMOUNT OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUE

1. Length of the barrel of the gun
2. Type and cal. Of ammunition
3. Wind velocity
4. Direction of firing
5. Distance of firing
6. Nature of firing
7. Humidity

EXPLOSIVES

Explosive
Is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion. A
material either a pure single substance or mixture of substances which is capable of producing an
explosion by its own energy.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVE WITH RESPECT TO FUNCTIONING

CHARACTERISTICS

1. PROPELLANT OR LOW EXPLOSIVES

Are combustible materials containing within themselves all oxygen needed for their combustion
that burn but do not explode and function by producing gas that produces explosion.

Examples: Black powder, smokeless powder, firecrackers, and pyrotechnics

2. PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE OR INITIATORS

Explode or donate when they are heated or subjected to shock. They do not burn. Sometimes they
do not even contain the elements necessary for combustion. The materials themselves explode and the
explosion results whether the are confined or not.

Examples: Mercury fulminate, lead azide

 3. HIGH EXPLOSIVES

Explode under the influence of the shock of the explosion of primary explosive. They do not
function by burning, in fact not all of them can be ignited by a flame and in small amount
generally burn tranquilly and can be extinguished easily. If heated to a high temperature by
external heat or by their own combustion, they sometimes explode.

5. Examples: Ammonium nitrate, TNT, dynamite, nitroglycerine, picric acid, plastic

explosives.

Hair
Is a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere on the human body
except on the palm of the hands and the sole of the feet. Hair is not completely round but maybe oval
flattened. Its width is not always the same along its length. It start out pointed and narrow and then
strays more or less the same.

TWO KINDS OF HAIR (AMONG MAMMALS INCLUDING HUMAN BEING)

1. Real hair ( generally along and stiff
2. Fuzz hair ( generally short, fine at times curly and wooly

PARTS OF HAIR
1. Roots ( portion embedded in the skin
2. Shaft ( portion above the surface of the skin. The most DISTINCTIVE part of the hair.
3. Tip ( sometimes termed point. The distal end of an uncut hair.

PARTS OF SHAFT
1. Cuticle ( outermost covering of the hair. It is consist of one layer of non-nucleated polygonal
cells, which overlaps like the scales on a fish.
2. Cortex ( the intermediate and the THICKEST layer of the and is composed of elongated,
spindle-shaped fibrils which cohere. They contain pigment granules in varying proportion
depending on the type of hair.
3. Medulla or Core ( the most characteristics portion of the hair. It si the central canal of the hair
that maybe empty or may contain various sots of cells more or less pigmented and begins
more and less near the root.

Certain hair has no medulla. Therefore hair can be classified into two categories namely:
1. hair without medulla
2. hair with medulla

HUMAN HAIR
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF HUMAN HAIR
1. Color
a. With naked eye
b. Under the microscope

Melanin ( brownish-black pigment in hair, skin, etc. it is the chemical responsible for the color of the hair.
Black and brown hair differs only to the amount of melanin.

2. Length by actual measurement

3. Character of hair ( whether stiff, wiry or soft
4. Width (breadth)
5. Character of hair tip if present
6. Manner by which hair had been cut
 7. Condition of root or base or bulb of hair

TWO KINDS OF ROOTS

1. Living Root – often found on hair in full growth
2. Dry Roots – dead roots

8. Character of cuticle ( the size, the general shape and the irregularity of the scale
9. Character of cortex ( structural features are studied under the microscope.
Cortex is embedded with the pigment granules the impart hair with color. It is the color, shape and
distribution of these granules the provide the chemist with important points of comparison between the
hairs of the different individuals.
10. presence of dye in hair

Dye hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under the microscope dyed hair has a dull
appearance and the color tone is constant, whereas natural hair is not and the individual pigment granules
stand more sharply.

11. Determination of whether naturally or artificially curled

12. Character of medulla

THE MEDULLA
The medulla and cortex are the most characteristic portion of the hair. Have more distinguishing
qualities, thus they yield the most reliable criteria in the diagnosis of hair.

Cuticle Medulla

Medulla or core or the central canal of th hair can be continuous or interrupted. It is continuous in
large number of animals, very often interrupted in human, monkey, horses. Medulla’s diameter can be
absolutely constant. At times alternately narrow and broader. The diameter of the medulla if very little
importance but the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the diameter of the whole hair
his of great importance. Cortex

MEDULLARY INDEX or M.I (is the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the diameter
of the whole hair. Its determination is performed under a microscope with micrometer eyepiece.
HAIR WITH NARROW MEDULLA (less the 0.5) (belongs to human
HAIR WITH MEDIUM MEDULLA (approximate 0.5) (belongs to hair of cow, horse, others.
HAIR WITH THICK MEDULLA (greater than 0.5) (almost all animals belong to this

COMPARISON BETWEEN HUMAN AND ANIMAL HAIR

HUMAN
1. M.I. is less than 0.5
2. Medulla may not be present
3. Scale pattern is fine and each one overlaps the other more than 4/5
4. Pigment granules are fine

ANIMAL
1. M.I more than 0.5
2. Medulla always present
3. Scale is coarse and overlaps less than ½
4. Pigment granules are coarse

OTHER ASPECTS OF HAIR EXAMINATION

DETERMINATION OF:
1. Characteristic by race
2. Characteristic by sex
3. The region of the body from which the human hair has been removed
4. The approximate age of individuals

NEGROID RACE HAIR:

1. contains heavy pigment distributed unevenly
2. a thin cross section of the hair is oval in shape
3. hair is usually kinky with marked variation in the diameter along the shaft

MONGOLOID RACE:
1. hair contains dense pigment distributed more or evenly the Negroid race hair
2. cross section of the hair will around to oval in shape
3. hair is coarse and straight with very little variation in diameter along the shaft of the hair
4. usually contains a heavy black medulla or core.

CAUCASIAN RACE:
1. Hair contains very fine to coarse pigment, and more evenly distributed than is found in Negro
or Mongolian.
2. Cross section will be oval to around in shape
3. Usually straight or wavy and not kinky

CHARACTERISTICS BY SEX

1. Male hair is generally larger in diameter, shorter in length, more wiry in texture than t hat of a
female
2. Male hair averages approximately 1 / 350 of an inch in diameter, female hair averages
approximately 1 / 450 of an inch in diameter.

THE REGION OF THE BODY FROM WHICH THE HUMAN HAIR HAS BEEN REMOVED:
1. Scalp hair ( they are more mature than any other kind of human hair
2. Beard Hair ( coarse, curved, very stiff, and often triangular in cross section
 3. Hairs from eyebrow, eyelid, nose and ear-short, stubby, and have wide medulla. Eyebrow and
eyelashes are usually very short and has a sharp and has a sharp tip.
4. Trunk hair ( very in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are somewhat similar to
head hairs. They have fine, long tip ends.
5. Limb hair ( similar to trunk hairs but usually are not so long or so coarse and usually contain
less pigment.
6. Axillary Hair ( is fairly long unevenly distributed pigment. They vary considerably in diameter
along the shaft and have frequently a bleached appearance. It has an irregular shape and
structure. Looks like public hair but the ends are shaper and the hair is not so curly.
7. Public hair-similar to axillary hair but are coarser, and do not appear bleached. More wiry,
have more constriction and twist and usually have continuous broad medulla. Has many
broken ends the clotting rubs.

THE APPROXIMATE AGE OF AN INDIVIDUAL THOUGH HAIR EXAMINATION

Infant hairs are fine, short in length, have fine pigment and are rudimentary in chapter. Children’s
hair through adolescence is generally finer and more immature than and hair but cannot be definitely
differentiated with certainly.

If it is noted that the pigment is missing or starting to disappear in the hair, it can be stated that the
hair is from adult. It is common for a relatively young person to have prematurely gray or white hair(head
hair) but not body hairs.

The root of hair from an aged person may show a distinctive degeneration

TEXTILE FIBERS

Textile fibers-fibers that can be converted into yarns.

Yarn-made of fibers which have been twisted together, linked thread.

CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBERS

TWO DIVISIONS OF FIBER:

1. Natural fiber
2. Synthetic or artificial fiber

THREE SUBDIVISIONS OF NATURAL FIBERS:

1. Vegetable fibers ( made of CELLULOSE. Examples are seed. Stem barks or bast fibers, leaf
fibers, cotton, woody fibers, fruit or nut fibers.
2. Animal fibers ( made of PROTEIN. Examples are wool, silk, hair.
3. Mineral fiber ( example is asbestos

TWO KINDS OF SYNTHETIC FIBERS

1. organic fiber
a. Cellulosic ( example rayon
b. Non-cellulosic ( examples nylon, casein fiber, resin fiber
2. Inorganic fiber
a. mineral fiber ( examples glass fiber wool, glass rock, and slag wools
b. metallic fiber ( examples finewire filament, steel wool, tinsel threads.

TEST FOR FIBERS:

1. Burning test or ignition test
2. Fluorescence test
 3. Microscopic test
4. Chemical test
a. staining test
b. dissolution test

DISCUSSION OF TEST

BURNING OR IGNITION TEST ( A simple preliminary macroscopic examination. A test that

determines whether fiber is mineral, animal or vegetable. A single fiber is applied with flame at one end
and the following are noted:
a. manner of burning
b. odor of fumes
c. appearance of burnt end
d. color of ash
e. action of fumes on moistened red and blue litmus paper
f. effect of fumes on a piece of filter paper moistened with lead acetate

FLUORESCENCE TEST – frequently used to determine the general group to which a fiber belongs. It
is not reliable for positive identification of fiber.

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – the fiber is placed on a slide teased and covered. In general it is
the most reliable and best means of identifying fibers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON TEXTILE FIBERS

1. Cotton – unicellular filament, flat, ribbon-like, twisted spirally to right or left on its axis; central canal
is uniform in diameter. Cell wall thick, covered by a thick, structureless, waxy cuticle. Fibers taper
gradually to a blunt or rounded point at one end.
2. Mercerized Cotton – straight, cylindrical with occasional twist; unevenly lustrous, smooth except for
occasional transverse fold or wrinkles; cuticle mostly lacking.
3. Linen – multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted and flattened, tapering to a sharp
point. Cell walls thick, the lumen appearing as a narrow dark line in the center of the fiber to appear
jointed resembling bamboo.
4. Cultivated silk-smooth, cylinder, lustrous threads, usually single but often double, the twin filament
held together by an envelope of gum. More or less transparent, without definite structure.
5. Wild silk-similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in outline. Marked by very fine
longitudinal striations with infrequent diagonal cross markings.
6. Artificial silk-cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod.
7. Wool-easily distinguished by presence of flattened, overlapping epidermal scales not found on silk or
any of the vegetable fibers.

CHEMICAL TEST
A. Staining Test – the fiber is stained with picric acid, Million’s reagent, stannic chloride or iodine
solution.
Picric acid + silk ---------- dyed
Picric acid + wool -------- dyed
Picric acid ) cellulosic fiber ---------------- unchanged
Silk + million’s reagent --------------------- brown
 Wool + million’s reagent ------------------- brown
Cellulosic fiber + million’s reagent -------- no reaction
Stannic chloride + cellulose ---------------- black
B. Dissolution Test – if the fiber is white or light colored it is treated with the following chemicals. If
dyed, the fiber is first decolorized by boiling in either 1% hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or dilute
potassium hydroxide. The fiber is then treated with the following and reaction observed.

1. 10% NaOH
2. 5% oxalic acid
3. Half saturated oxalic acid
4. Concentrated sulfuric acid
5. Concentrated and dilute ammonium hydroxide
6. Concentrated nitric acid

DOCUMENT
An original or official written or printed paper furnishing information or used as proof of
something else.

PACKING, PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF EVIDENCE/DOCUMENTS

1. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as possible.
2. If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made along old lines. Place it in a
Manila paper envelope or brown envelope or it can be placed in a transparent plastic envelope.
3. On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of plane white paper in folder.
4. Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen or anything that could possibly mark them.

THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

EXAMINATION AND COMPARISON OF PAPER

The essential materials in a document examination of any kind are the paper and ink or pencil or
writings. The examination of paper maybe necessary if we want to know the age of the document, the
presence of alterations, erasures and other forms of forgery.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION / ANALYSIS OF PAPER

1. Whether two pieces of paper originated from the same source.
2. Determine of probable age of paper.
3. Determination of the composition of paper.

COMPOSITION OF PAPER
Paper is made of three components namely:
1. Fiber Composition
2. Sizing Material – to improve quality of paper
3. Loading Material – to add weight to the paper

EGYPTIAN PAPYRUS - one of the earliest substance used for writing. It is form the name papyrus,
that the word paper was derived.

FIBER COMPOSITION: practically all papers maybe classified form the standpoint of their basic fiber
composition into sets of fiber mixtures namely:
a. mechanical pulp-ground wood sulfite mixture.
 b. Soda-sulfite mixture
c. Rag sulfite
SIZING MATERIAL – added to paper to improve its texture. Examples of sizing materials are rosin,
casein, gelatin, starch.

LOADING MATERIAL – added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the pores between the fibers
of the paper. Examples are calcium sulfate and barium sulfate.

THE EXAMINATION OF PAPER

The four test for paper:
1. Preliminary Examination
2. Physical test causing no perceptible change
3. Physical test causing a perceptible change
4. Chemical Test
I. PRELIMINARY TEST FOR PAPER
The test deals with the appearance of the document and the following are observed:

a. folds and creases

b. odor
c. impressions caused by transmitted light
d. presence of discoloration and daylight and under ultraviolet light.
WATERMARKS – it is a distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at the time of its manufacture by
a roll usually a dandy roll.

WIREMARKS – marks produced on paper by the flexible wire soldered to the surface of the dandy roll
that carries the watermark.

PHYSICAL TEST CAUSING NO PERCEPTIBLE CHANGE

A test applied on paper without perceptibly changing or altering the original appearance of the
document.
a. Measurement of length and width
b. Measurement of thickness
c. Measurement of weight/unit area
d. Color of the paper
e. Texture
f. Gloss
g. Opacity
h. Microscopic Examination

OPACITY – the quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or which prevents dark objects
from being seen through the paper.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION CAUSING A PERCEPTIBLE CHANGE

This is done only if sufficient samples are available and if proper authorization from the court is
acquired this can be done.
a. bursting strength test or “POP” test
b. folding endurance test
c. accelerated aging test
 d. absorption test

CHEMICAL TEST - This test determines the fiber composition, the loading material and sizing material
used in the paper.

FIBER COMPOSITION – examination is purely microscopic and it determines the material used and
nature of processing.

LOADING MATERIALS – is determined by burning and ashing a portion of the paper and then the ash
examined.

SIZING MATERIAL – gelatin is extracted by boiling the paper in water and the solution treated with
tannic acid; rosin is extracted by heating the paper with 95% alcohol. The alcohol evaporated and the
residue treated with acetic anhydride and strong sulfuric acid; starch is determined by addition of dilute
iodine solution; case in is determined by addition Millon’s reagent.

INK
Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of inks are:
1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different inking from ink on other parts of the same
documents or other document.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with the identical ink, or inks of
different qualities or in different conditions.
3. Whether an ink is as old as purports to be
4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book entries show the
natural variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to one continuous writing at one
time under identical conditions.

TYPES OF INK
1. Gallotannic ink or iron-nutgall ink – the type of ink where age maybe determined. Today the
most frequently used ink for making entries in record books and for business purposes.
Gallotannic ink is made of a solution off iron salt and nutgall. This ink can penetrate into the
interstices of the fiber and not merely on the surface, thus making its removal more difficult to
accomplish.
2. Logwood ink – made of saturated solution of logwood to which very small amount of potassium
dichromate is added. Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent formation of precipitate. Phenol is
added as preservative. This ink is inexpensive and does not corrode steel pen. Will not wash off
the paper even fresh, flows freely.
3. Nigrosine Ink or Aniline Ink – made of coal tar product called nigrosine dissolved in water. It
easily smudge, affected by moisture, maybe washed off from the paper with little difficulty. It is
best determined by spectrographic method.
4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India Ink – the oldest ink material known. Made of carbon in the
form of lampblack. Does not penetrate deeply into the fibers of the paper so that it may easily be
washed off. Not affected by the usual ink testing reagents.
5. Colored writing ink – today, almost all colored inks are composed of synthetic aniline dyestuffs
dissolved in water. In certain colored inks ammonium vanadate is added to render the writing
more permanent.
6. Ball Point Pen ink – made of light fast dyes soluble in glycol type solvents as carbitol, glycol or
oleic acid. Paper Chromatography is the best way of determine this type of ink.

TEST FOR INK

1. Physical Test
2. Chemical Test or Spot Test
3. Paper Chromatography Test
DISCUSSION OF TEST
1. Physical Test – applied to determine the color and presence of alterations, erasures, destruction of
sizes with the use of stereoscope, handlens or microscope.

2. Chemical Test – a simple test wherein different chemicals or reagents are applied on the ink
strokes and the chemical reactions or characteristic color reactions or other changes in the ink is
observed. Reagents used: 5% HCI, 10% oxalic acid, tartaric acid, 2% NaOH, 10% NaOC1, C1 2,
H2O, KCNS, water.

3. Paper Chromatography – a reliable procedure that can be adopted to identify and compare
ballpoint pen ink.

DETERMINATION OF APPROXIMATE AGE OF DOCUMENT

1. Age of Ink – no definite procedure which can be given for this determination except when the color is
black, because on the observation that within a few hours, the color of ink writings becomes darker
because the dye contain therein is influenced by the light of the room, oxygen of the air, acidity or
alkalinity of the paper.

There are several methods of determining the degree of oxidation of the ink writing and apparently
these methods depend upon:

1. Physical phenomena such a matching the color of the ink writing with the standard colors of with
itself over a period of time.

2. Chemical reaction that may reveal some information concerning the length of time the ink has
been on the paper.

2. Age of paper
a. through watermarks
b. in certain case from the composition of paper

OTHER ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS – unnecessary writings that are not capable of being read usually made on
checks, birth certificate, passport and transcript of record.

SOME ILLIGIBLE WRITINGS

1. Erasure – means removal of writing from the paper. Can be made chemically or mechanically.
2. Obliteration – the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other marking material.
3. Sympathetic Ink or Invisible ink – substances used for invisible writing.
4. Indented Writing – term applied to the partially visible depression appearing on a sheet of paper
underneath the one that the visible writing appears.
5. Writings on Carbon Paper – used sheets of carbon paper can be made readable.
6. Contact Writing – black paper may contain traces of ink because of previous contact with some
writings.

GLASS
A super cooled liquid that possess high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non-crystalline inorganic
substance.

COMPOSITION OF GLASS
Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO 2 (silica), B2O3 (boric oxide), phosphorus pentoxide
(P2O5). For commercial use silica is the most important oxide. It is the base of commercial glasses. It is
made of silica sand and other metallic oxides. Oxide is for fluxing, durability and reduction of viscosity.
Glass like window and plate that are made in mass production is fairly uniform in composition. These
may contain incidental impurities and the presence of these substances in invaluable for the identification
and comparison of glass by spectrographic analysis. Glass has also presence of trace elements which
maybe sufficient to establish or negate the fact of a common source of two samples of glass.

ANALYSIS / TEST FOR GLASS

1. Spectrographic analysis/test
2. X-ray diffraction analysis/test
3. Physical properties examination
4. Ultraviolet light examination
5. Polish marks examination

DISCUSSION OF TEST

SPECTROGRAPHIC TEST – an instrumental method of analysis that determines the presence of trace
element. Shows the constituent elements of a glass. It will not give sufficient information to establish the
origin of the samples examined. A rapid examination and an adequate method for glass analysis since it
requires only a small amount of sample.

X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS – not as effective as the spectrographic analysis. Determines the
type of pattern of glass. The type of pattern depends upon the composition of glass.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES EXAMINATION – the most sensitive method of determining differences

of composition in glass samples and it depends upon the study of the physical properties of glass.
Properties like specific gravity or density, refractive index.

ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT EXAMINATION – determines the differences in the appearance of their

fluorescence thus indication of physical and chemical differences.

POLISH MARKS – optical glass and other fine glassware are usually polished. In the polishing of glass
fine marks are often left on the surface that can sometimes serve as a basis of comparison.

GLASS AS EVIDENCE OF CRIME

In the field of Forensic Chemistry emphasis is placed on:

1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run.

2. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
3. Broken bottles, drinking glass or spectacles found at the scene of assault or other crimes of violence.

ANALYSIS OF GLASS FROM VEHICLES

Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes. If an automobile or any vehicle for
that matter is discovered in which fragments of the lens can be found, a comparison maybe made with the
fragments found at the scene of accident employing the methods of analysis for glass.

HOW GLASS BREAKS (HOW GLASS FORMS CRACKS WHEN A BLOW OR PRESSURE IS
APPLIED ON ONE OF ITS SURFACE)
 When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for example. The glass first bends
a little owing to its elasticity. When the limit of elasticity if reached the glass breaks along radial lines
starting from the point where the destroying force is applied originating form the opposite surface of the
glass, because this is the portion or surface which is more subjected to stretching by bending. The front
surface is only pushed. While the radial fractures are taking place the newly created glass triangle
between the radial rays also bend away from the direction of the destroying force. By this bending the
glass is stretched along the front surface and when the limit of elasticity is reached the glass breaks in
concentric cracks. These originate on the front of the glass because of stretching.

ANALYSIS OF BROKEN WINDOWS

BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY BULLET HOLES

1. On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be found to have been blown away giving
the hole the appearance of a volcano crater. Such appearance indicates that the bullet was fired from
the opposite direction of the hole from which the flakes are missing.

If the shot was fired perpendicular to the window pane the flake marks are evenly distributed around the
hole.

2. If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more flaking than the right.
3. Excessive flaking on the right side of a window pane would indicate a shot fired at an angle from the
left.

BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY FIST OR STONE or HURLING PROJECTILE

The direction of the blow in case a fist or stone smashed the window is quite difficult but the
principles of radial cracks and concentric cracks or fractures will apply.

THE PRINCIPLE OF 3Rs RULE FOR RADIAL CRACK

3Rs Rule – “Stress lines on a radial crack will be at right angle to the rear side of the glass.”
The front side is referred to as the side that was struck.

THE PRINCIPLE OF RFC RULE FOR CONCENTRIC CRACK

RFC Rule – “Stress lines on a concentric crack will be at right angle to the front side” that is the side from
which the blow came, rather than the rear side.

PROCEDURE: Piece together as many as you can gather of the glass fragments as possible. Select a
triangular piece bounded by two radial cracks and one concentric crack. The triangular piece must be
adjacent to the point of impact, it this is not a available select a piece as close as possible to the point of
impact.

WHERE THERE ARE TWO BULLET HOLES IN A WINDOW PANE

(ONE FROM EACH SIDE)
The problem of which one was fired first becomes important to determine who is the aggressor. It
will be found that the fractures caused by the first bullet will be complete, especially the radial cracks,
whereas the fractures from the second will be interrupted and end-stopped at points where they intersect
those from the first.

FRACTURES ON SAFETY GLASS

Laminated glass, which is now being used in automobiles, does not shatter when struck sharply.
Frequently the cracking of safety glass is not complete; the radial cracks do not extend to the side of
impact and the spiral cracks do not extend to the other side.
MOULAGE AND OTHER CASTING TECHNICS
Casting material – is any material w/c can be changed from plastic or liquid state to the solid condition is
capable of use as casting material.

The following are the criteria on which the value of casting material is assessed.

1. Must be readily fluid or plastic when applied.

2. Must harder rapidly to a rigid mass
3. must not be deformable nor shrink
4. must be easy to apply
5. must have no tendency to adhere to the impression
6. should have of fine composition and surface
7. should not inquire the impression
8. should be easily obtainable
9. should be cheap.

CLARAS -- recommend the following formulas

1. Hastening – add one half teaspoonful of the table salt to the plaster.
2. retarding – add one part of a saturated solution of borax to ten part water to be used in
making the plaster.
3. Hardening – to give a cast a greater durability it can be place on a saturated solution of
sodium carbonate, and allowed to remain in the solution for some time. It is then
removed and dried.

TOOLS IMPRESSIONS MAY BE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO GENERAL CLASSES:

1. These produced by such instruments like an Axe-hammer, pliers and cutters which touch the
area only once in producing the impression.
a. Compression Marks – which produced by a single application of tool is the area of
contact, for example: the impression of a single blow of a hammer.
b. Friction Marks – which are series of scratches or striations produced by pushing a tool
across the surface such as those produced by cutters jimmy or axe.
2. Those produced by such instrument like saw or file which is applied in a repeated strokes over
the same area.

Cost of Human Body it is important that the temperature of the negative material should be below
110OF (43.3OC) a temperature higher than this will be uncomfortable if not injurious to the subject.

Casting Materials
Cost of the human body is made by the use of Negocoll and Hominit or Celert.
Degocoll – is a rubbery gelatinous material consisting essentially of colloidal magnesium scaps.
Hominit – is a resinous material used for making positives from Negocoll negatives. It is a flesh color
and is used for external surfaces.
Celerit – is brown and is used for backing and strengthening the hominid.

METALLURGY – the art of extracting and working on metals by the application of chemical and
physical knowledge.

METALLOGRAPHY – branch of metallurgy that involves the study of the microstructures of metals
and alloys.

APPLICATION OF METALLURGY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

1. Robbery
2. Theft
3. Hit and run
4. Bomb and explosion
5. Nail Examination
6. Counterfeit coins
7. Restoration of tampered serial numbers

COUNTERFEIT COINS
COUNTERFEIT COINS – coins made to imitate the real thing and used for gain.
TWO KINDS OF COUNTERFEIT COINS:
CAST COINS – coins made in molds or coins made by casting method. An impression of genuine coin is
taken by use of plaster of Paris, clay, or bronze. The plaster molds bearing the image of a good coin are
filled within a low temperature alloy made with lead or tin. Sand molds are used for high temperature
metals such as copper or silver alloys. Cast coin has poor imitation. It can be easily detected. The
surface is usually pitted and uneven. The edges of lettering and designs are rounded instead of sharp.

STRUCK COINS – made by striking or stamping method or these are coins made by means of dies.
Consists of making an impression of a coin on a metal blank by pressure. Stamping is done by way of
steel dies. Often well executed. Its detection is not easy since weight, specific gravity, composition may
all be good. Careful comparison of smaller details of the designs with those of the genuine should be
made.

Note: Examination of counterfeit coins is not wholly chemical.

RESTORATION OF TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBERS

Tampered serial numbers are restored by the application of etching fluid.

ETCHING FLUID – fluid used to restore tampered serial numbers. Choice of etching fluid depends on
the structure of the metal bearing the original number.

ETCHING FLUIDS
1. For cast iron and cast steel – 10% sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate
2. For wrought iron and forged iron-Solution 1 : hydrochloric acid + water + cupric chloride + alcohol
and Solution 2:15% nitric acid
3. For aluminum-glycerin + hydrofluoric acid + nitric acid
4. For lead – 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one part water
5. For stainless steel – dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid in alcohol for copper, brass, silver,
and other copper alloys-ferric chloride + hydrochloric acid + water
6. For Zinc – 10% sodium hydroxide
7. For Tin – 10% hydrochloric acid
8. For Silver – concentrated nitric acid
9. For Gold and Platinum – 3 parts hydrochloric acid and one part nitric acid

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE RESTORATION AND TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBER:

When a number or any mark is stamped on metal, the crystalline structure of the metal in the
neighborhood of the stamp is disturbed. This disturbance penetrates to an appreciable distance into the
substance of the metal, but not visible to the naked eye once the actual indentations caused by the punch
have been removed. When etching fluid are applied to this surface, the disturbed or strained particles of
the metal differ in the rate of solubility than those of the undisturbed particles and this difference in
solubility makes it possible in many cases, to restore the number to such an extent that they can be read
and photographed.
TRACE METAL DETECTION TECHNIQUES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT CAT. NO. TMDT100

INTRODUCTION:
A difficult problem in law enforcement is that of linking weapons (particularly undischarged
firearms), tools, and like object to specific individuals. The essential need for such identification in cases
involving homicide, suicide, assault, burglary, robbery, and civil disorders has resulted in the
development of a specific technique which shows whether an individual has been in contact with a
particular metallic object. The technique can be conducted by police officers using simple equipment and
the procedures described in this publication. Research has determined that metal object leave traces on
skin and clothing surfaces in characteristic patterns with intensities proportional to the interaction of
weight, friction, or duration of contact with metal objects. The Trace Metal Detection Technique (TMDT)
makes such metal trace patterns visible when skin or clothing is treated with a test solution and then is
illuminated by ultra violet light. Examination by ultraviolet light of the metal trace patterns which appear
as fluorescent colors on the hands or clothing of the suspect allows a police officer to determine whether a
suspect has been in contact with certain metal objects, the type of metal or metals in the objects, and also
to infer what type of weapon or metal object was probably involved. The patterns fluorescent colors can
be analyzed with reference to the circumstances requiring the use of TMDT and with other related
information to provide an initial source of evidence. Physical evidence obtained by the use of TMDT,
however, should be used as an adjunct to complete investigation.

SELECTION OF TEST AREAS

The areas to be examined are selected in relation to the circumstances, the suspect item (handgun,
rifle, tools, bludgeon, etc.), and to the normal handling, use, possession, or concealment of the suspect
item. For example, if the suspect item is a handgun, in addition to the hands those areas of clothing which
may have been contact with the weapon and the skin areas directly beneath should be examined. In the
latter case, metal traces and patterns are sometimes found to have penetrated clothing to the skin area
beneath.

APPLICATION OF THE TMDT TEST SOLUTION

The area to be examined is completely coated with the TMDT test solution. a spray container is
generally the most suitable for this purpose. Whenever possible, the surface should be in a vertical
position while being sprayed to prevent the formation of puddles. Although the TMDT test solution is
nontoxic to skin surfaces, it should not be taken internally. Care should be taken to avoid spraying the
solution into the subject’s eyes. If spray does get into the eyes, the subject should immediately flush his
eyes with water for at least ten minutes and obtain medical acid.

DRYING THE TEST AREA

The test area is allowed to dry for a period of two or three minutes. The drying time of hands can
be shortened by swinging the arms. Sunlight, breeze, and hot air also shorten the drying process. The
areas on clothing and other materials should be allowed to dry thoroughly before examination.
EXAMINATION OF THE TEST AREA BY ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
The TMDT solution produces a light yellow fluorescent on those parts of the test are that have not
been in contact with metal object. This pale yellow flourescence provides a background for metal trace
patterns seen on parts of the test area that have been in contact with metal objects. The metal trace
patterns will give off fluorescent colors that are unique to types of metal and appear as silhouettes against
the light yellow fluorescent background of the test area. Examples of fluorescent colors produced by
various metals are: steel/iron (blackish purple),. Brass/copper (purple), galvanized iron (bright yellow),
aluminum (mottled dull yellow), and lead (buff, flesh tone, or tannish). The officer first should identify
the types of metal that have been in contact with the test area by the fluorescent color that appear under
the illumination of the ultraviolet light. Essential to the officer’s ability to make this identification is his
knowledge and experience of what fluorescent colors are produced by metals such as steel, brass, copper,
lead, aluminum, tin chromium, iron nickel, silver and certain alloys that can be contained in metal objects.
After determining the presence of metal traces in the test area and identifying the metals, the officer can
next determine the pattern of the metal traces revealed by the fluorescent colors. The location, size, and
shape of metal traces on the hand from patterns that are characteristic of the size and shape and the
normal way in which weapons, tools and other metal objects handled and used. The recognition of these
patterns in conjunction with the determination of what metals left traces on the skin are the basis for
identification of metal objects. In this way the officer can ascertain if the pattern is pertinent to a suspect
item to its having been in the possession of a suspect.
DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF METAL OBJECTS ON THE HANDS
The shape, size and weight of the metals object, the duration of contact, and the use of the metal
object all combine to produce the location and intensity of metal traces and their patterns on the hands.
SHAPE AND SIZE OF METAL OBJECT
On holding a metal object, metal traces depend on the object’s shape and the size (more or less) of
the hand that comes in contact with the metal surface. The intensity is also proportional to the actions and
forces involved in using a tool, striking blows with weapons, and the recoil from the discharge of
firearms. In addition, the intensity is increased when the suspect resists action to disarm him.
DETECTION OF METAL OBJECTS ON CLOTHING
As noted earlier, metals leave characteristic traces on clothing surfaces. Therefore, the suspect’s
clothing should be examined by TMDT. In particular, the areas to be examined are: gloves, hats, pocket,
lining of coats, shirts, areas used for concealment, and other areas of clothing where the suspect item may
have been carried, concealed, or otherwise been in contact. The spray is applied to the test areas placed in
a vertical p[position whenever possible. Clothing and other materials vary in their absorbency, therefore
some of these test areas may require a heavier application of spray or two or more spraying to produce the
maximum flourescence and appearance of metal traces and patterns. The maximum appearance is
obtained when a repeated spraying does not produce a brighter fluorescence that the previous spraying
and drying of the test area. Metal traces sometimes penetrate clothing to the skin areas beneath. For
example, metal traces may be found on the hands even though gloves have been worn while metal objects
have been handled. Skin areas directly beneath clothing areas where metal traces have been found should
be examined by TMDT. However, it should be noted the plastic, leather and rubber materials are
impervious to penetration of metal traces.
PROCEDURES FOR THE DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF HANDGUNS BY TMDT
Because of their unique shape and use, handguns leave characteristic pattern and distinct
signatures on the hands that are specific to types, makes, models, and calibres of these weapons.
The police officers, with knowledge and experience in identifying the characteristic patterns and
signatures on handguns by TMDT, can determine if a suspect has had a handgun in his possession and the
signature of the handgun by the following procedures.
SPRAYING THE HANDS
The suspect’s hands are extended from the sides of the body with the palms in a vertical position
and the fingers and thumb separated and extended. The officer should make certain that the entire surface
of the front and back of the hands are covered by the spray.
EXAMINATION OF HANDS
The officer can next examine the suspect’s dry hands under ultraviolet light. He should make a
written record of the following observations and analysis of the suspect’s hand:
 1. First, note and record the fluorescent colors of the metal traces that make up the pattern for the
purpose of identifying the metallic content of the gun.
2. Look for the appearance of metal traces (fluorescent colors differing from the light yellow
fluorescent color produced by TMDT test solution) on those parts of the hand that come in
contact with the gun: the index finger which rested on the trigger, the remaining fingers and
thumb which enclosed the gun, the palm, and the degree of protrusion of the gun into the area
between and beyond the junction of the thumb and index finger. (Extensive protrusion of
metal traces beyond this area are made by the overhang at the top of the back edge of the
handles of automatics, which is common to the design of this type of handgun.)
3. Look for any irregularities or distinguishing marks in the pattern which may have been made
by screws, protrusions, ornamentation’s, and other markings of the gun.
4. Look for interruptions in the pattern which may be due to nonmetal parts of the gun. Compare
these observations with the suspect handgun or, if it has not been recovered, with a Catalog of
Handgun “Signatures.” This comparison serves to identify the signatures of the handgun or
possession thereof by the suspect.
5. Take a photograph of the pattern produced on the suspect’s hand under illumination by
ultraviolet light.
6. If the suspect handgun has been recovered before the apprehension of the suspect or shortly
after his arrest (it has been found that detectable metal traces may be found up to 38 – 48 hours
after contact with metal objects), the pattern of the handgun should be produced on a subject
who has not recently handled a gun. The patterns on the subject’s hands should be examined
side-by-side under ultraviolet light to determine whether or not the handgun has been in the
possession of the suspect. Photographs should be taken as evidence.
7. If the suspect handgun has not been recovered, the pattern on the suspect’s hand should be
compared with the photographs of handgun patterns entered in a Catalog of Handgun
“Signatures”. A photograph of the pattern on the subject’s hand should also be taken and
compared with those in the catalog to aid in the possible identification of the type of gun the
suspect has had in his position.

CATALOG OF HANDGUN SIGNATURES

It has been noted earlier that handguns leave distinct pattern or “signatures” which are specific to
types, makes, models, and calibres of these weapons. It is important that police officers develop a
thorough knowledge and permanent record of these signatures. For this purpose a catalog of signatures
should be prepared of as many types, models, makes, and calibres of specimen handgun that can possibly
be obtained. The signatures of these handguns can be produced on the hands of subjects and examined
under ultraviolet light as described in Section 3 above. A photograph of each signature is then entered
ultraviolet light and the type, make and model of the specimen handgun.

DETECTION OF TOOLS AND METAL OBJECTS

Some tools and other metal objects leave patterns that are characteristics of their shape, normal
handling and use (for example: pliers, wrenches, shears, scissors, etc.) while other tools and metal objects
may leave patterns that are similar because they are alike in shape and diameter (for example: crowbars,
pipes, metal bars, etc.). Accurate analysis and determination of patterns on suspect’s hands depend upon
relating the above factors to circumstances, information, and evidence of the case upon the technician’s
experience and skill in using TMDT. Again, as an aid in obtaining such experience and skill, the
technician should prepare a catalog of patterns and metal traces produced by tools and other metal
objects.
CONTACT WITH NON-SIGNIFICANT METAL OBJECTS
The hands of individual may have metal traces from contact with metal objects such as handles,
doorknobs, keys, etc. The intensities of the traces will be proportional to the force and duration of
contact with these metal objects. In some cases, the metal traces will be faint because of momentary
 and light contact with the objects, but in other cases the traces from no significant metal traces and
distort the patterns of significant metal objects.
DISASSEMBLY OR ASSEMBLY OF A HANDGUN
If the suspect has handled a handgun for these purposes, metal traces will be left on the hands
which do not form the pattern ordinarily produced by the weapon. However, if the suspect held the
weapon in the usual way for a period of time, the technician may be able to detect the specific pattern
left by the handgun. (It should be noted that gun oils give off a mother-of-pearl appearance under
ultraviolet light.)

SIMILAR PATTERNS F METAL OBJECTS

Some metal objects may leave metal traces and patterns that are similar but not identical to the
metal traces and patterns of the significant object. The officer should be mindful of such potential
“false positives” and learn to discriminate accordingly.

EXPOSURE OF HAND TO SOAP AND WATER

Exposure to water after contact with metal objects does not affect an examination of the hands.
Repeated hand washing with abrasive soap or rubbing with dirt after contact with metals will reduce
the amount of traces deposited on the skin in a deliberate attempt to remove metal traces. However, it
has been found that metal trace patterns may be found on the hands up to 36-48 hours after when the
suspect has followed a normal routine of daily hand washings.

FLUORESCENCE BRIGHTNESS OF METAL TRACES AND PATTERNS

The maximum fluorescence brightness of metal m traces and patterns that can be obtained in a
TMDT examination depends not only upon the amount of metal that has been deposited on a skin or
clothing surface but also upon the following factors: (1) adequate application and coverage of the
TMDT test solution, (2) a strong source of ultraviolet illumination, (3) exclusion of all other
illumination from the test area, and (4) the proximity of the ultraviolet light to the test area.
USE OF TMDT IN THE FIELD AND OR GROUP SCREENING
The successful use of TMDT in the field for checking on a suspect or screening a group of
individuals for previous possession of weapons or other significant metal objects depends on whether the
circumstances and conditions are suitable for such examination. The acquiescence or subjugation of the
subject must be obtained to perform the examination. Sources of environmental light must be greatly
reduced or eliminated in order to produce adequate fluorescence by ultraviolet light. And, finally, field
personnel must have sufficient experience and skill to ascertained whether an individual has been contact
with a weapon or significant metal object and whether an individual should be held for further detailed
examination by TMDT. Studies should be carried out by police officers to determine the conditions and
circumstances that prevent or are conductive to valid use and result of TMDT in the field.

ADDITIONAL USE OF TMDT

Another possible use of TMDT is the determination that a metal object has rested on another, non-
metal object. For example, a research experiment involving the successful application of this use
determined that (1) a pair of scissors no longer present had rested on the paper lining in a drawer and (2)
coins no longer present had rested on a paper document in the bottom of a storage container. In the latter
case, the duration of contact of the undisturbed coins was sufficient to show which side of each coin had
rested on the document. Since friction is not involved, results depend of the weight and duration of the
contact of the metal object with the surface on which it rests. When consideration is given ot the use of
TMDT for this type of detection, the officer should conduct a test to determine if trace metal deposit can
be produced on the surface in question.
PRECAUTIONS
Shortwave ultraviolet light in injurious to the eyes. Do not look directly into the light or shine the
light into an individual eyes. Protective goggles are commercially available that prevent passage of
shortwave ultraviolet but transmit thew visible fluorescent light which is not injurious to the eyes.

FLUORESCENCE PHOTOGRAPHY
It is commonly believed that ultraviolet photography is also fluorescence photography. Actually
two types of photography are involved. The main purpose of ultraviolet photography is to record
information about the objects that have the property of either absorbing or reflecting ultraviolet light or
about objects in which two or more of its elements will absorb or reflect ultraviolet light to different
degrees. These effects can be recorded photographically to show differences between objects or between
areas of the same object. Whether or not the objects emit fluorescence does not enter into the purposes of
ultraviolet photography. If a source of ultraviolet light is used to excite fluorescence in an object,
photographing the fluorescent object is known as fluorescence photography. This type of photography is
used for recording fluorescent metal trace patterns produced by TMDT.

A. PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
1. Illumination. Efficient sources of ultraviolet light, placed as close to the subject as practical,
should be used to excite the maximum fluorescence brightness of the object. The incidence of
illumination of the object should be at an angle of about 45 degrees. Two sources (one on each
side of the object) will provide twice as much light and prove more practical in photographing
three dimensional objects.
2. Barrier Filter. This filter is placed in front of the camera lens to absorb the ultraviolet light
radiation transmitted by the exciter filter and to transmit only the fluorescent given off by the
object. An efficient barrier filter is the Kodak Wratten Filter No. 2A if the exciter filter transmits
ultraviolet light only.
3. Exposure Determination. Because of the very low brightness of fluorescence, the proper
exposures for photographing fluorescent metal trace pattern will have to tbe determined by tests.
The beginner should take a number of photographs of subjects at various exposures. At fixed lens
aperture, exposure time should be increased by a factor of two in successive steps over a wide
range of increasing shutter speeds. A record of all exposure conditions should be made including:
subject, ultraviolet source and its distance from the subject, filter, shutter speed, and lens opening.
With a record of such officer can develop the know-how and skill in estimating the exposures for
photographing subjects.

An extremely sensitive exposure meter can be used for determining exposures. However,
its cell should be covered with a barrier filter to absorb ultraviolet light reflected from the subject
which, if higher in brightness that the fluorescence of the subject, will give erroneous exposure
settings on the camera. If the use of an exposure meter is feasible, the tests described above may
not be needed to determine exposures.

B. BLACK AND WHITE FILMS

The black and white films used in fluorescence photography should have panchromatic sensitivity
and high speed. Eastman Kodak co., E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., GAF, and Polaroid
Corporation all manufacture film of this type.

C. COLOR FILMS
The advantages of using color films to record fluorescent metal trace patterns are obvious. The
patterns are produced in fluorescent colors which are examined and analyzed as such.
Photographing the patterns with color film records their actual appearance, whereas black and
 white films record the patterns, interruptions in the patterns, and incomplete coverage by the
TMDT solution as varying shades of gray as easily as they can distinguish different colors.

7. The advantages of using color films, however, are offset by their lower ASA/ISO numbers,
although some can be pushed to higher speed by special development to allow shorter exposure times.
Again, as in the case of black and white films, the beginner should conduct tests to determine
exposure using these films.

PETROGRAPHY – branch of geology that deals with the systematic classification and identification of
rocks, rock forming minerals and soil. Also includes study of dust, dirt, safe insulation, ceramics and
other such materials, both natural and artificial.

TYPES OF SOIL
1. Alluvial Soil – formed from soil particles that were washed, blown, or moved by gravity to the
lowlands. Earth, sand, gravel, etc. deposited by moving water.
2. Colluvial Soil – formed from decomposition of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, the
decomposed particles moved by gravity.
3. Sedentary Soil – inactive, not migratory soil.

COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF EVIDENCE

1. Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes, slippers, clothes, tires, tools and
furniture.
2. If found on the above the soil should remain in place and the whole submitted to the laboratory.
3. Should be wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed in a box.
4. Known soil samples should be taken at different places around the point of reference.

CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL
1. Primary Minerals
2. Clay Mineral
3. Organic Constituents
PRIMARY MINERALS – includes under composed rock fragments ranging from stone down thru
pebbles, sand and silt. Important minerals include quartz (silica), calcite (limestone, CaCO 3), feldspar
(silicate of A1, Na, Ba, Ca, K) dolomite, mica.

CLAY MINERAL – a product of decomposition of primary minerals found in nearly all soils and is the
major constituents of most heavy soil. It imparts to soil cohesiveness and plasticity and becomes hard
and adherent on heating.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS – one of the most variable of all soil constituents and is of peculiar
importance in the identification of soil.

ANALYSIS OF SOIL – there are several methods of petrography analysis that are being use in the
laboratories to establish the identify of two or more samples of soil. There is no procedure that is
specially recommended. It all depends on the availability of the apparatus. The DENSITY GRADIENT
APPARATUS is a simple apparatus utilizing simple procedure in determining the identity or non-identity
of soil samples based on the density distribution. The procedure is rapid, requiring a few hours of
completion. It is sensitive to small changes in composition.

OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR SOIL

X-ray diffraction, spectrographic analysis and thermal analysis are methods extensively used in
commercial and private laboratories as general procedure.

APPLICATION OF SOIL ANALYSIS TO SCIENTIFIC CRIME DETECTION

 The value of soil as evidence depends wholly upon the fact that soils differ in various
characteristics over the surface of the earth. This difference makes it possible to establish the identity or
non-identity of two soil samples.

DUST AND DIRT

DUST AND DIRT – has been described as “matter in the wrong place”. The study of such piece of
evidence may often provide the investigator with clues as to the occupation or previous whereabouts of a
person under investigation.

DUST – matter which is dry and in finely divided form

MUD – dust mixed with water

CRIME (heavy dirt ) – when dust is mixed with the sweat and grease of the human body this is formed.

COMPOSITION OF DUST
Whatever is the origin of dust and wherever it is found it always contain substances of plant and
animal origin and substances of mineral origin.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE DUST

For purpose of criminal investigation, dust may well be classified from their source.

a. Dust Deposited from the Air −− Extremely fine dust particles present in the air everywhere.
More in thickly populated and industrial region. Settle very slowly and ultimately deposited on
any exposed surface. Its value in crime detection is significant.

b. Road and Footpath Dust −− produced by the wear and tear of the road surface be vehicular
and pedestrian traffic together with particles of soil carried by the wind or rain from adjoining
regions.

c. Industrial Dust −− Industries ;like cement, button, powdered gypsum and plaster of Paris
factories, flour milling, paint pigment, involves industrial processes like grinding, milling or
beating for the purpose of producing finely powdered ultimate products which in the process
impart a pronounced local character to the dust on the neighboring roads and buildings.

d. Occupation Dust −− Some of the fi8nely powdered material maybe found on the clotting and
foot wears of employees engaged in such industries. Aside from this for example, coal miner
will have coal dust on his clothes, bricklayer will yield brick duct, sand and lime on his
clothes.

From the forensic chemical point of view, the identification of occupational dust is of great importance.
In criminal investigation, the identification of the person through the articles of clotting left in the scene
of crime or in a vehicle may place him in an identifiable class and thus to distinguish from the great
majority of other persons. Such observation does not serve to distinguish the wearer of the cloth from all
other persons.

COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF DUST AND DIRT SPECIMEN

1. Dust and dirt present in clotting or objects that can be readily transported should be left in
site. The whole article is packed in a clean box with proper protection and hipped to the
laboratory.

2. If the object is immovable or too big to submit as a specimen like sofa, piano, dresses, the
specimen maybe removed by mechanical means if present in large quantity.
 3. Dust on clotting maybe removed by the used of vacuum cleaner with paper bags used in the
dust sack to collect the dirt.

ANALYSIS OF DUST AND DIRT

If the sample is very small, micro-chemical test or spectrographic analysis maybe employed. If the
amount of specimen is sufficient the following is employed.

1. Examine the sample under the ultraviolet light

2. Treat a small quantity with a drop of water on a spot plate.
a. observe of aqueous drop with hand lens
b. Note the proportion of the solid matters that remains in suspension and proportion that
settles rapidly.
c. Reaction with litmus paper (aqueous drop)
3. Treat a small quantity with a drop of 0.1 NHCl.
a. Note evolution of gas
b. Note formation of precipitate
c. Note changes in color
d. Note materials dissolved by acid
4. Treat a small quantity with ethanol
a. Note color of alcohol drop
b. Note difference between color of an aqueous solution in procedure 2 and that in
alcohol solution.
Note other changes

DEFINITION OF ARSON:
1. UNDER THE OLD COMMON LAW
Arson is the willful and malicious burning of the house or house of another man. Present
laws on arson have extended the scope of the crime and covered all kinds of buildings and
structures even including personal property. Now the crime of arson includes the burning of one’s
own property.

2. UNDER THE REVISED PENAL CODE

Arson is the destruction of property by fire and the extent of liability depends on:

1. Kind and character of the building

2. Its location
3. Extent of damage or value
4. Its state of being inhabitant or not

3. ACCORDING TO WEBSTER:
Arson is the malicious burning of a building or property (as dwelling house)

4. ARSON IS FIRE SET INTERNATIONALLY.

WHAT CONSTITUTE ARSON?

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

1. Willfulness −− means intentional and implies that the act was done purposely and
intentionally.
 2. Intent −− is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will. An
essential element of crime, movie, motive is not.
3. Motive −− is the moving cause which includes the commission of a crime. Something that
leads or influence a person to do something.
4. Malice −− denotes hatred or will or a desire for revenge. Is the intent to do injury to another.
1. A fire can only be considered as arson if all accidental and natural cause of fire can be
eliminated.

The more burning of a building does not constitute the body of the crime.

2. To prove the body of the crime it is necessary to show:

a. First, that the building in questioned burned.

b. 2nd, it was burned as result of the intentional criminal act of the accused.

5. Burning −− to constitute burning, there must be burning or charring, i.e. the fiber of the wood
must be destroyed, its identify change. It is not necessary that the building be seriously
damaged.
A mere smoking, scorching or discoloration of the wood is not sufficient.

BASIC LINES OF INQUIRY IN THE INVESTIGATION OF ARSON

The four (4) basic lines of inquiry in the investigation of arson:

1. origin of fire
2. motive
3. identification of prime suspect
4. identification of the fire setter

ORIGIN OF FIRE
The first step in recognizing arson is the exclusion of all accidental and natural causes of fire.

CAUSES OF FIRE

Fire may belong to anyone of the following

1. Natural causes without human intervention
a. Lightning
b. Explosion
c. Spontaneous combustion
d. Miscellaneous Cause
2. Accidental cause with or without human intervention
a. Faulty Wiring
b. Careless handling of inflammables
c. Children playing with match
d. Careless smokers
e. Careless handling of electric stoves, candles, cigarettes, butts, mosquito coils.
3. Arson or Touch of fires ( a set fire) −− when all natural and accidental causes have been
eliminated, then the fire is classified as suspicious.

TELL TALE SIGNS −− signs that maybe obvious that the fireman will suspect arson

Some tell tale signs:

1. Burned building −− a type of building may indicate a set fire under some circumstances.
 2. Separate fire −− when two or more separate fires breaks out within a building the fire is
certainly suspicious.
3. Color of smoke −− when fire burn with little or no smoke but they are exception. The
observation of the smoke must be made at the fire since once the fire has assumed a major
proportion, the value of smoke is lost because the smoke will not indicate the materials used
by the arsonist.
a. White smoke appears before the water comes in contact with the fire indicates humid
materials burning. Examples: burning hay, vegetable materials, phosphorus (with
garlic odor)
b. Biting smoke; irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrymation and coughing
indicates presence of chlorine.
c. Grayish smoke or black smoke – indicates lack of air but if accompanied by large
flame it indicates petroleum and petroleum products and rubber, tar, coal, turpentine.
d. Reddish brown smoke − indicates nitrocellulose, S, sulfuric acid. Nitric acid or
hydrochloric acid.

4. Color of flame − the color of the flame is a good indication oif the intensity of fire and
sometimes of the nature of the combustible substance present.
Ex. Burning alcohol-blue flame
Burning petroleum products – red flame
5. Size of fire −− rapid extension of the fire is indicative of the use of accelerants.
6. Direction of travel −− fire normally sweeps upward, the travel of fire is predictable from a
knowledge of the construction of the building.
7. Intensity −− the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame oftentimes
indicates that some accelerants has been added to the material normally present in the
building.
8. Location of flame −− investigator should not whether there is more than one apparent point of
origin and should try to estimate the approximate location of turpentine, alcohol, kerosene, and
gasoline.
9. Odors −− many accelerants emit characteristic odors especially liquid like turpentine, alcohol,
kerosene, and gasoline.

POINT OF ORIGIN OF THE FIRE

In case of arson, point of origin of the fire is the area that the physical evidence of criminal design
is likely to be discovered. This maybe established by an examination of the witness and by inspecting the
debris at the fire scene or by both. The witness to be interrogated is the discover of the fire and seconds
the person who turned in the alarm and lastly any other witness that can be found. Inspection of the crime
scene must immediately be made to determine the point of origin and possibly to establish the arsonist’s
technique.

FIRE SETTING MECHANISM

An arsonist may use the simplest method in a match and some papers or he may use an elaborate means
to start the fire. He may use mechanical method or chemical method to start the fire.

TWO METHODS TO START THE FIRE

1. Mechanical Method
a. Matches
b. Candles, cigarette
c. Mechanical devices a clock mechanism, animals tied to ignition device like portable
lamp or stove.
d. Electrical system
e. Heating appliances as heaters, sparkers
f. Explosives
 2. Chemical Method
a. Hot water or ice bag used a receptacle for phosphorus and water ignition device
b. Metallic sodium ignited by drops of water
c. Potassium chlorate, sugar and sulfuric acid
d. Chemical devices as termite bombs, phosphorus

INCENDIARY MATERIALS −− materials used to start a fire. They are combustible fuels.

EXAMPLES OF INCENDIARY MATERIAL:

a. Arson Chemical −− incendiary materials often used by arsonist as accelerants. Examples
are alcohol, benzene, petroleum ether, gasoline, kerosene, naphtha, turpentine.
b. Gases as acetylene, butane, CO, ethylene, hydrogen, natural gas, propane
c. Solids as chlorates, perchlorate, chromates, bichromates, nitrates permanganates

MOTIVE

FIVE MOTIVES THAT PREDOMINATE IN ARSON CASES:

1. economic gain
2. concealment of crime
3. punitive measure
4. intimidation and economic disabling
5. pyromania

FIRE ARE SET BY TWO TYPES OF SETTERS NAMELY:

1. Person with motive
a. Those with desire to defraud the insurer
b. Employees or such other persons who have grievance
Fire of revenge ( revenge is sometimes the cause of a fire where a person wishes to
destroy the goods of another person against whom he has a bad feeling.
c. Those who desire to conceal evidence of their crimes
d. Those who set fire for purpose of intimidation
2. Person without motive
a. Mental case
b. Pathological fire-setters
c. Pyros
d. Psychos

PYROMANIA −− an uncontrollable impulse toward incendiarism. A tern used to describe a condition

of mind leading to an act of arson.
PYROMANIAC −− a type of person who has passion for fire that can be satisfied only by watching
flames. People who get pleasure in watching fireman put out fire.

DEVELOPMENT / IDENTIFICATION OF PRIME SUSPECT

The third basic line of inquiry pointed towards the identification of the criminal and his
accomplicesif any. To accomplish this identification it is first necessary to develop what are known as
prime suspects among those having motives and opportunity to set the fire or pinpoint a prime suspect in
pyro fire studying the fire pattern.

Suspected fire setters with rational motivation are usually developed by a check of their activities,
questioning and background study. Friends, eyewitness and others who may posses information about the
fire are interviewed. The owner of the building, the occupants of the premises affected by the fire and
anyone who may profit by the fire are interrogated. The following may serve the investigation:

1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence

 2. Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of building or other person
having major interest in the fire.
3. Interviews and interrogations of the person who discovered the fire, the one turned the first
alarm, fireman, eyewitness
4. Surveillance

IDENTIFICATION OF FIRE SETTER

The final basic line of inquiry to be pursued by a arson investigator concerns which one of the
prime suspects is the fire setter and who were his accomplices if any. This identification result from the
full development of leads, clues and traces.

The testimony of persons, particularly eyewitness and the development of expert testimony maybe
of value.

GUIDES IN THE INVESTIGATION OF THE FIRE SCENE

The fire scene holds the key to the origin of any fire. A careful, methodical and toughly search of
the scene of a suspicious fire is a basic part of the initial investigation. The following points must be
given due attention:

1. the scene must be protected so that the evidence is not destroyed or removed either by careless
persons or the guilty party.
2. Mechanics of search
3. Collection and preservation of physical evidence
4. Laboratory aids

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF ARSON EVIDENCE

1. two to three quarts of ash and shoot debris must be collected at the point of origin of a fire.
2. Specimen should be packed immediately in an airtight container.
a. Can use new clean paint cans with friction lids
b. Wide-mouths glass can be used provided they contain airtight lids
c. Leave an airspace in the container above the debris
3. Plastic polyethylene bags are not suitable for packaging.
4. Fluids found in open bottles or cans must be collected ans sealed
5. Thorough search of the scene should be undertaken for igniters
6. Collect clotting of the suspect / perpetrator and place in a separate airtight container
Freeze samples containing soil or vegetation.
TOXICOLOGY
 Toxicology Guide Lecture

1. Substance isolated from skin of a poisonous frog (Bufotoxin)

2. The first person for which the analytical test called the Marsh Test which was developed by a
British chemist James Marsh (Arsenic)
3. A poisonous substance found in the rugby described as odorless and inflammable liquid that burns
with smoky flame. (Toluene)
4. A German Swiss physician who first stressed the chemical nature of poison and its action by
experimentation. He introduced the dose concept. (Paracelsus)
5. The poison found in cassava (Hydrogen cyanide)
6. In what mode of administration that poison can be rapidly absorbed? (injection)
7. A agent that forms as a protective film, soothes and protects the part where it is applied.
(demulcent)
8. A branch of science that treats of the form and quantify of medicine to be administered within a
certain period. (posology)\
9. What type of toxicological analysis is routinely carried out for the deaths? (CO and alcohol)
10. Those in which the victim voluntarily took the poison for the purpose of taking his own life
(suicidal poisoning)
11. Highly irritant that causes local destruction of tissue and are characterized by nausea, vomiting,
and great local distress. (corrosive poison)
12. There is prompt and marked disturbance or function or death within a short period of time. It is
due to either taking a strong poison in excessive single dose or several dose of short interval (acute
poisoning)
13. Substance that produces vomiting (emetics)
14. The term toxicology is derived from the word – (Toxicon)
15. Father of Forensic Toxicology (Mathieu J.B. Orfila)
16. Natural or synthetic substance used to produce physiological effects in man is known as. (Drug)
17. Substance capable of producing harmful effect on living organisms is (Poison)
18. “The dose makes the poison” said by: (Paracelsus)
19. Substance that brings relief from pain and produces sleep is known as: (Narcotics)
20. Substance substantially similar in chemical structure to a controlled substance is known as:
(Designer Drugs)
21. Delirium is seen in all of the following poisonings, such as Dhatura, cocaine, lead, except: (Nux
Vomica)
22. Deep Blue Color is seen in death due to poisoning with: (Carbon Dioxide)
23. A dead body is having cadaveric lividity of bluish green color. The most likely cause of death is
poisoning due to: (Hydrogen Sulfide)
24. Bluish green hypostasis is seen in poisoning due to: ( hydrogen sulfide / H2S)
25. A dead body with suspected poisoning is having hypostasis of red brown in color. It is suggestive
of poisoning due to: (Nitrates)
26. Both hepatic and renal toxicity can be caused by: (CCl4, Arsenic, Copper Sulfate)
Hepatic toxicity- inflammation of liver
Renal toxicity or nephrotoxicity – destruction of kidney functions
27. Mercury will affect which part of the kidney: (PCT (Proximal Convoluted Tubule))
28. Drugs useful in the treatment of poisoning are: (Naloxone, Diazepam, Bicarbonate)
29. Poisoning having local action only: (sulfuric Acid / H2SO4)
30. Perforation of stomach is common due to ingestion of: (sulfuric Acid / H2SO4)
Perforation is the rapture in the body part.
31. Green colored urine is seen after the ingestion of : (Phenol)
32. A patient with suspected poisoning has brown oral mucosa and tongue, constricted pupil and
greenish brown urine, poisoning is with: (Carbolic acid H2CO3)
33. Paris green is: (Stomach poison)
34. In a person with acute arsenic poisoning all of these would show accumulation of arsenic except:
(Brain)
35. Fatty yellow liver is seen in poisoning with: (Arsenic)
36. Chronic arsenic poisoning the samples are useful for laboratory examination like nail clippings,
bone biopsy except: (Blood sample)
37. Symptoms of a chronic mercury poisoning; (Tremor, insomnia and memory loss)
38. Acrodynia / pink disease occurs in poisoning with: (Mercury)
Acrodynia – a condition of pain and pink discoloration of feet and hands.
39. Least toxic compound of lead: (Lead sulphide)
40. Common source of lead in blood (lead paint dust)
41. Average fatal period of lead poisoning is: (1-2 days)
42. Average fatal period of copper poisoning is: (12-36 hours)
43. On a post mortem. A dark brown garlic odor in stomach indicates poison due to: (Phosphorus)
44. Snakes that are poisonous: (Krait, Cobra, Hydrophinae)
45. Methamphetamine hydrochloride – a highly powerful stimulant that affects central nervous system
also known as the poor mans cocaine, “shabu”.
46. Shabu – also called ubas, siopao, ice.
47. Opium poppy – is a source of morphine, an addictive narcotic substance called papaver
somniferum
48. Heroin, morphine and other opiates originates from opium poppy
49. Poison which produce stupor and less feeling are narcotics
50. Irritant – are substance that causes inflammation or discomfort to the body.
51. Depressants are type of drug that slows the brain activity which causes muscle relax and calm and
soothes a person
52. Stimulants are drugs that speeds up the brain activity, thus results to hallucination
53. Hallucinogens are diverse group of drugs that alters perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. Like for
instance cannabis sativa L (marijuana), ketamine, LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) commonly
called psychedelic.
54. Tranquillizers a drug taken to purposely reduce tension or anxiety it slows the brain activity ex.
Valium, Klonopin
55. Tranquillizers are antipsychotic agents or neuroleptics
56. Codeine are sleep inducing and analgesic a morphine derivative as cough reliever
57. Caffeine a compound found on tea and coffee acts as stimulants of central nervous system
58. Tincture of opium are air dried poppy
59. Paregoric – is a combination of opium and camphor remedy for diarrhea and abdominal pain
60. Uppers, speeds are slang term for stimulants
61. Cocaine an addictive stimulant made from leaves of a coca plant, slang terms for cocaine blow,
bump, coke, dust, flake.
62. Angel dust – a hallucinogenic drug phencyclidine hydrochloride
63. Abstinence syndrome - acute withdrawal of drugs causing physical illness is known as “Cold
Turkey”
64. Red devils and double trouble are for barbiturates
65. Symptoms of alcohol intoxication without smell of alcoholic breath is a sign that the person is
under influence of barbiturates.
66. Bennies and dexies are for amphetamines
67. Confirmatory test for marijuana is also called Duquenois-Levine test
68. Symone’s test is a confirmatory test for Shabu
69. Scientific name of tobacco plant is Nicotiana Tabacum