UNIT 3 VARIABLES AND CONSTRUCTS

3.1 Meaning of Variables

A variable, as the name implies, is something that varies. This is the simplest way of defining a variable.

Webster says that a variable is “a thing that is changeable” or “a quantity that may have a number of different values.” True,
a variable is something that has at least two values: however, it is also important that the values of the variable be observable.
Thus, if what is being studied is a variable, it has more than one value and each value can be observed. For example, the
outcome of throwing a dice is a variable. That variable has six possible values (each side of the dice having one to six dots on
it), each of which can be observed.

➢ Kerlinger (1986) defined variable ‘a property that taken as different values’.

➢ According to D’Amato (1970) variables may be defined as those attributes of objects, events, things and beings,
which can be measured.
➢ According to Postman and Egan (1949) a variable is a characteristic or attribute that can take on a number of values,
for example, number of items that an individual solves on a particular test, the speed with which we respond to a
signal, IQ, sex, level of anxiety, and different degree of illumination are the examples of variables that are commonly
employed in psychological research.

3.2 Types of Variables

1.) Stimulus, Organism and Response Variables
Psychologists are interested in studying the behaviour or causes of behaviour as variables. Many psychologists have adopted
a theoretical viewpoint or model called the S-O-R model to explain all behaviour. The symbols S, O, and R represent different
categories of variables.
➢ S is the symbol of stimuli, and the category may be referred to in general as stimulus variables. A stimulus variable
is some form of energy in the environment, such as light, to which the organism is sensitive.
➢ O is the symbol for organism variables , that is the changeable physiological and psychological characteristics of the
organisms being observed. Examples of such variables are anxiety level, age and heart rate etc.
➢ Finally, R is the symbol for response and, in general, response variables, which refer to some behaviour or action of
the organism like pressing a lever, and reaction to any stimulus, are the examples of responses variables.
2.) Independent and Dependent Variables
a.) Independent variable: An independent variable or stimulus variable (as Underwood calls it) is that factor
manipulated or selected by the experimenter in his attempt to ascertain its relationship to an observed
phenomenon. Dependent upon the mode of manipulation, some experts have tried to divide the independent
variable into ‘Type E’ independent variable and ‘Type S’ independent variable (D’Amato, 1970). Type E independent
variable is one of which is directly or experimentally manipulated by the experimental Type S independent variable
is one which is manipulated through the process of selection only.
b.) Dependent variable: A dependent variable is the factor that appears, disappears, or varies as the experimenter
introduces, removes or varies the independent variable. (Townsend,1953). The dependent variable is a measure of
the behaviour of the subject.

This response is generally measured using at least one of several different dimensions (Alberto & Troutman
2006). The dimensions are –
(a) Frequency – Number of times that a particular
behaviour occurs, (b) ( b) Duration - the amount of
time that a behaviour lasts.
(c) Latency –the amount of time between and when the behaviour is actually performed
(d) Force – the intensity or strength of a behaviour

3.) Extraneous and Confounded Variables

a.) Extraneous variables: Any and all other variables that may ‘mask’ the relationship between independent variable and
dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. Extraneous variables may directly affect the dependent
variable or may combine with the independent variable to produce an affect.
➢ Extraneous variables are relevant in nature, and in experimental studies, they belong to three major types
i.e., organismic variables, situational variables and sequential variables. The subject related variables
include age, sex, intelligence, personality etc. are organismic variables.
b.) Confounding variables: Confounding variables is one that varies with the independent variable. While doing a study
if we are not careful then two variables may get combined so that the effect of one cannot be separated from the
effect of other. This is known as confounding. Confounding makes the conclusions of the study doubtful. It is
,therefore, necessary that effort should be made to unconfound the variables.
4.) Active and Attribute Variables
a.) Active variables: Any variable that is manipulated is called active variables. Examples of active variables are reward,
punishment, methods of teaching, creating anxiety through instructions and so on.
b.) Attribute variable: Attribute variable is that variable which is not manipulated but measured by the experimenter.
Variables that are human characteristics like intelligence, Aptitudes, sex, socio economic status, education, field
dependence and need for achievement are the example of attributes variables.

5.) Quantitative and Categorical Variables

Quantitative variables is one that varies in amount whereas categorical variables varies in kind. Speed of response, intensity
of sound, level of Illumination, intelligence etc. are the example of quantitative variables and gender, race, religion are the
example of categorical variables. Categorical variables can be of three types: Constant, dichotomous and polytomous.
6.) Continuous Variables and Discrete Variables
➢ Quantitative variables are further divided into two categories, namely, continuous variables and discrete variables.

➢ A distinction between continuous and discrete variables is especially useful in planning of research and analysis of
data. A continuous variable is one which is capable of being measured in any arbitrary degree of fineness or
exactness. Age, height, intelligence, reaction time, etc., are some of the examples of a continuous variable.

➢ The discrete variables are those variables which are not capable of being measured in any arbitrary degree of
fineness or exactness because the variables contain a clear gap. For example, the number of members in a family, no.
of females in particular group, no of books in library and so on constitutes the examples of a discrete variable.

3.3 Constructs
The terms ‘concept’ and ‘construct’ have similar meanings.
➢ A concept may be defined as any describable regularity of real or imagined events or objects (Bourne, Ekstrand,
& Dominowski, 1971). ➢ A concept is a set of features connected by some rule (Hulse, Egeth, Deese 1980)
➢ Concepts are building block of thinking. They allow us to organise knowledge in systematic ways. Concept
represents objectives of activities, ideas or living organism.
➢ Concept also represents properties, abstraction and relations between the features.
➢ Constructs are created and used for a wide variety of reasons, but generally have two common characteristics. a.)
First, the construct is a part of a theoretical framework and is related in various ways to other constructs.
b.) Second, a construct usually operationally defined so as to allow its observation and measurement. An example of a
commonly employed psychological construct would be reinforcement.

3.4 Types of Constructs

As Mac-Corquodale & Meehl, (1948) Indicated that there are two types of constructs which are often employed by
psychologist and behavioural scientist: Intervening variables Hypothetical construct

i. Intervening Variables
An intervening variable is construct which is utilised as a summary term for a group of other construct; It has no
meaning apart from context in which it is utilised. An example of intervening variable is, hostilitywhich is inferred
from hostile and aggressive acts.

ii. Hypothetical Constructs

Hypothetical Constructs In contrast, a hypothetical construct is a theoretical term which is employed to describe
something “real.” That is, it is an intermediary which has tangible characteristics. Habit strength, defined by Hull as
the number of reinforced trials, is a hypothetical construct
As a further example, suppose an equation could be developed which would tell us
how much a person knows: K = AC X IQ Where:
K = knowledge AC = amount of conditioning IQ = intelligence