PMFIAS CA Mains 2024 International Relations

International Relations Current Affairs Compilation for UPSC CSE
Mains 2024 by PMF IAS®
These are Mains Specific Compilations that cover Current Affairs from July 2023 to June 2024.
Table of Contents
Geopolitics and India's Interests .......................................................................................................... 1
{Middle East} Iran drone attacks on Israel ..................................................................................................... 1

{Middle East} Red Sea Crisis .......................................................................................................................... 2
{Africa} Chinese Foreign Affairs Minister visits Africa ..................................................................................... 5
{Iran-Pakistan} Evolution of Iran-Pakistan Relations ...................................................................................... 6
{Iran-Pakistan} Iran-Pakistan Strikes: India's stakes ....................................................................................... 7
{Iran-Pakistan} Pakistan’s attack on Iran ....................................................................................................... 8
{Africa} Defence Attache (DA) in Africa .......................................................................................................... 8
{Israel-Palestine} Israel-Palestine Conflict ...................................................................................................... 9
{Israel-Palestine} Three countries recognise Palestinian as a state ................................................................ 15
{Africa} Sahel Security Pact and scramble .................................................................................................... 16
{Africa} Sudan Crisis.................................................................................................................................... 18
{China} South China Sea .............................................................................................................................. 19
{China} Chinese assistance for Sri Lankan Projects ....................................................................................... 22
{China-Pakistan} China-Pakistan Economic Corridor ..................................................................................... 23
{China-Russia} Vladimir Putin meets Xi Jinping ............................................................................................ 26
{China-Taiwan} China – Taiwan Conflict ....................................................................................................... 26
{China-Tibet} China-Tibet Dispute................................................................................................................ 28
{Asia} Rise of "New" Japan ......................................................................................................................... 29
{Asia} Rising Tension in Korean Peninsula .................................................................................................... 31
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{Bangladesh-Russia} Rooppur Nuclear Plant Project .................................................................................... 33
{Australia} Australia releases National Defence Strategy 2024 ..................................................................... 34
PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
{US-China} Normalisation of U.S. – China Relations ..................................................................................... 34
{US-China} Recent US-China engagements .................................................................................................. 35
{US-China} Navigating the US-China Relationship ........................................................................................ 36
{US-China} The Resolve Tibet Act................................................................................................................. 37
{Maldives} Maldives-China Relations: History and Recent visit ..................................................................... 39
{USA} USA’s Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) * ............................................................................... 39
{Russia-North Korea} Russia-North Korea pact ............................................................................................ 40
{Russia-Ukraine} Russia-Ukraine Crisis ........................................................................................................ 42
{Russia-Ukraine} Safety of Nuclear facilities during war ............................................................................... 47
{Russia-Ukraine} Swiss Peace Summit ......................................................................................................... 48
{Geopolitics} Evolving Geopolitics of Global North and South ....................................................................... 48
Arctic and Antarctica ......................................................................................................................... 53
{Antarctica} Maitri II Station in Antarctica ................................................................................................... 53

{Arctic} India’s Arctic Expedition .................................................................................................................. 55
{Arctic} India’s Arctic Imperative ................................................................................................................. 55
Regional & Global Groupings............................................................................................................. 57
{Groupings} ASEAN ..................................................................................................................................... 57

{Groupings} India-ASEAN FTA ...................................................................................................................... 59
{Groupings} Shanghai Cooperation Organisation ......................................................................................... 60
{Groupings} BRICS ...................................................................................................................................... 62
{Groupings} Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) ................................................................. 65
{Groupings} Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP)..................... 66
{Groupings} G7 and India ............................................................................................................................ 69
{Groupings} Group of Twenty (G20)............................................................................................................. 71
{Groupings} India-Middle East-Europe Corridor (IMEC)................................................................................. 75
{Groupings} Indo-Pacific Economic Framework ............................................................................................ 76
{Groupings} Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity....................................................................... 78
{Groupings} NATO at 75 .............................................................................................................................. 78
{Groupings} NATO Summit 2023 .................................................................................................................. 79
{Groupings} Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) ................................................................................................ 81
{Groupings} Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) ............................................................. 84
{Groupings} Financial Action Task Force ...................................................................................................... 85
India and its Neighborhood Relations ................................................................................................ 87
{India-Bangladesh} Bangladesh Elections .................................................................................................... 87
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{India-Bangladesh} Indo Bangladesh Protocol (IBP) Route ........................................................................... 90
{India-Bangladesh} Indo-Bangla Railway Project ......................................................................................... 91
{India-Bangladesh} Teesta WaterTreaty ...................................................................................................... 92 PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
{India-Sri Lanka} Katchatheevu Island ......................................................................................................... 95
{India-Bhutan} Bhutan King’s Visit to India .................................................................................................. 97
{India-Maldives} Maldives and Lakshadweep .............................................................................................. 99
{India-Maldives} India – Maldives ............................................................................................................. 101
{India-Myanmar} India suspends FMR with Myanmar ............................................................................... 104
{India-Myanmar} Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project .............................................................. 105
{India-Nepal} External Affairs Minister’s Visit to Nepal .............................................................................. 107
{India-Pak} India-Pakistan bilateral trade .................................................................................................. 109
{India-Pak} Indus Water Treaty (IWT), 1960 ............................................................................................... 110
{India-Pak} Para diplomacy and Karatarpur Sahib ..................................................................................... 111
{India-China} Growing trade deficit with China .......................................................................................... 113
{India-China} China’s ‘Xiaokang’ border defence villages along LAC............................................................ 114
{India-China} India – China Dispute ........................................................................................................... 115
{Diaspora} Project PRAYAS ........................................................................................................................ 119
Foreign Policy.................................................................................................................................. 122
{Diplomacy} Vaccine Diplomacy ................................................................................................................ 122

{Diplomacy} Shifts in India's Middle East diplomacy ................................................................................... 123
{Foreign Policy} Gujral Doctrine................................................................................................................. 124
{Foreign Policy} Neighbourhood First Policy ............................................................................................... 125
India’s Bilateral Relations With Major Powers ................................................................................. 127
{India-EU} Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) .................................................................. 127

{India-Iran} 10-year Contract for Chabahar Port ........................................................................................ 129
{India-Canada} India-Canada and Khalistan Movement ............................................................................. 131
{India-Palestine} India’s Support for Palestine............................................................................................ 135
{India-Russia} India-Russia Relations ......................................................................................................... 136
{India-UAE} India-UAE Relations................................................................................................................ 138
{India-Iran} India's Trade with Israel and Iran ............................................................................................ 140
{Africa} India-Kenya Bilateral Relations ..................................................................................................... 141
Important International Institutions ................................................................................................ 143
{International Organisations} World Trade Organisation (WTO) ................................................................. 143

{International Organisations} UNHRC ........................................................................................................ 145
{International Organisations} IMF ............................................................................................................. 148
{International Organisations} 75 years of Universal Declaration of Human Rights ...................................... 149
{International Organisations} 76th International Day of UN Peacekeepers .................................................. 150
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{International Organisations} UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees .................................. 151
{International Organisations} United Nations ............................................................................................ 153
{International Organisations} 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting................................................... 159 PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
{International Organisations} Reforming Multilateral Institutions .............................................................. 161
Miscellaneous Topics ....................................................................................................................... 163
{Issues} Anti-Zionism | Anti-Semitism ........................................................................................................ 163

{Laws} Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) .............................................................................. 164
{Laws} Genocide Convention ..................................................................................................................... 165
{Laws} Issues in Regulation of White Phosphorous..................................................................................... 167
{Laws} Vienna Convention ........................................................................................................................ 170
{EU} EU Pact on Migration and Asylum...................................................................................................... 171
{IOR} Maritime Piracy in the Indian Ocean Region ..................................................................................... 172
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Geopolitics and India's Interests
{Middle East} Iran drone attacks on Israel
Iran-Israel relations
• Their relationship had not always been as fraught as it is today before 1979.
• It was only after 1979 that their diplomatic ties ended.
Pre-1979 Iran-Israel ties

• Iran was not part of the first Arab-Israeli war (1948).
• Iran was the second Muslim-majority country after Turkey to recognise formation of Israel in 1948.
• Periphery doctrine: Israel attempted to forge an alliance with non-Arab (yet mostly Muslim) countries
in the Middle East, mainly Turkey and pre-revolution Iran.
• Western orientation: Common orientation toward the West led to their convergence.
• Oil trade: Iran, ruled by the Pahlavi dynasty, was selling oil to Israel amid an Arab economic boycott.
The 1979 revolution

• Islamic theocracy was installed in Iran after the Shah was overthrown in the 1979 Islamic Revolution.
• Shift in stand towards Israel: Now, it was seen as the occupier of Palestinian land.
• Western interference: Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khomeini termed Israel “Little Satan” and
the United States the “Great Satan”, interfering in the region.
Post-1979
• Shadow wars: Though no direct military confrontation, proxy attacks and limited strategic attacks
continue between them.
• Attacks on Iranian nuclear facilities: Multiple targeting incidents by Israel and the US, including the
Stuxnet attack.
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• Stuxnet is a malicious computer virus that attacked a uranium enrichment facility at Iran’s Natanz
nuclear site. It was the “first publicly known cyberattack on industrial machinery”. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Iranian proxies: Iran is seen as responsible for funding and supporting several anti-Israel and anti-US
militant groups, such as Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in the Gaza Strip.
Idea of “pan-Arabism”
• Egypt’s leader, Gamal Abdel Nasser, had long championed the idea of “pan-Arabism” in the region.
• Idea: Cultural commonalities of Arab states should be translated into larger solidarity and unity.
• This put Iran, a non-Arab country, at odds with it.
• With the death of Nasser in 1970, Iran’s relations with countries such as Egypt improved.
{Middle East} Red Sea Crisis
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• As the Red Sea crisis enters its fourth month, global supply chains are increasingly grappling with
inflated freights, delayed vessel schedules, and product shortages.
• It has brought to the fore the vulnerabilities of global supply chains, highlighting the need to revisit
alternate routes for global trade.
Importance of Red Sea Route

• The Red Sea can be accessed via two “choke points”: Suez Canal from the north and Bab-el-Mandeb
Strait in the south. Both are narrow passages of water that large container ships must pass through.
• About 12% of global trade and 30% of global container traffic traverses the Suez Canal – and by
extension the Red Sea – transporting more than $US1 trillion worth of goods each year.
• In 2023, about 10% of the world’s seaborne oil trade and 8% of global LNG trade passed through the
canal.
• It is also an important route for oil and natural gas sent to North America from the Persian Gulf.
• It is also strategically important to Russia, which uses the canal to export oil to India and China.
• The canal is also financially important to Egypt. Revenues from tolls that ships have to pay to transit
through the canal rose to a record $US7 billion in 2021-22.
Impact of Red Sea Crisis on International freight movement
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• The Suez Canal, responsible for handling 12-15% of global trade in 2023, saw an 82% drop in
container tonnage in the first half of February this year. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Major container and oil carriers have been forced to re-route shipments via the Cape of Good Hope
with tonnage around the Cape of Good Hope experiencing an increase by 60%.
• The disruption coincides with Panama Canal facing reduced transits due to drought, highlighting
vulnerabilities in global trade routes.
• The re-routing has led to rising ocean freight, inflated insurance costs, and longer voyage times leading
to delays and shortage of products.
• It has also driven up transportation costs. The higher shipping costs will be passed onto consumers
in the form of increased commodity prices.
• Instability in the Red Sea causes increased fuel costs, an additional $1 million in fuel for every round
trip between the Far East and North Europe, and war risk surcharge.
• Oil prices rose more than a dollar a barrel after the Houthi attacks.
Impact on India
• The Red Sea route is shorter and faster, making it the preferred option for most shipping companies.
• India’s trade with European and North African countries flows entirely through the Red Sea route
which is almost 24% of its exports and 14% of its imports.
• In 2022-23, India’s bilateral trade with Europe and North Africa stood at $189 billion and $15 billion
respectively. The rising fears among traders have already seen a drop in Indian shipments.
• As per the Federation of Indian Export Organisations (FIEO), rising threats have prompted Indian
exporters to hold back around 25% of their cargo ships transitioning through the Red Sea.
Can IMEC address the Red Sea Crisis?

What is IMEC?
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• India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) is a proposed economic corridor to enhance

connectivity and economic integration among Asia, the Middle East, and Europe.
• It will span from India to Europe through India, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, and Greece.
• It will include railway lines, shipping lanes, and road networks.
• Indian ports that will be connected to IMEC: Mundra (Gujarat), Kandla or Deendayal Port (Gujarat),
and Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (Navi Mumbai).
• It is a counter to China’s Belt and Road Initiative which aims to connect China to Europe and Africa.
• The corridor is estimated to cut the journey time from India to Europe by 40% and slash transit costs
by 30%.
Significance of IMEC
• India: It will secure access to European trade routes, allowing India to be better equipped to formulate
stronger strategies at both national policy and individual business levels.
❖ Additionally, it would diversify India’s accessible trade routes, further safeguarding it against
concentration risk.
❖ Enhanced security and diversification will attract more interest from investors and further develop
its economy.
• Europe: Proposed corridor will provide access to the Indian market and further facilitate its growth.
• GCC and other nations along the corridor will experience a boost in transport-related revenues,
including income from port fees and railway transportation services.
What has been ailing the IMEC?

• Apart from the MoUs, there have not been any investments or operations regarding the corridor.
• Israel-Palestine conflict halting the normalisation of Arab-Israel relations further hampering the multi-
nation initiative.
• Vulnerability of the Strait of Hormuz. The entire trade of the IMEC architecture flows through the
Strait and with Iran’s proximity and control over the strait, the risk of disruptions remains high.
• IMEC also excludes some countries that, geographically, seem like prime candidates for inclusion,
such as Iraq, Oman and Turkiye.
How can the IMEC be made viable?

• Encouraging the involvement of locally based infrastructure developers, transportation and
logistics operators should be explored to preserve long-term value for the participating countries.
• Strong political alignment and commitment is critical to successful delivery.
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• Developing a clear quantitative business case for the development of the corridor.
{Africa} Chinese Foreign Affairs Minister visits Africa

Evolution of Sino-Africa Relations
• China supported several African liberation movements during the Cold War era.
• In the 70s, African countries supported China's permanent seat bid in UN Security Council.
• Go Out Policy: China encouraged its companies to invest in Africa.
• In 2013, China and 52 African countries signed the Belt & Road Initiative (BRI) agreements.
• Raw Material Export: Africa’s largest trading partner & destination of one-fourth of its raw material.
• Strategic investor: The Chinese Navy stationed its first international base in Djibouti.
Chinese interests in Africa
• Natural Resources: Africa supplies 90% of the world’s cobalt and platinum and 75% of coltan, which
is essential for electronics, with China having large refineries in Africa.
• African alliance and geopolitics: Africa is the largest block in UNGA and a potential supporter of
contentious issues of China.
• One China Policy: Africa has supported the "One China Policy" in Taiwan and Hong Kong issues.
• Renminbi (Yuan) acceptance: With "Yuan-based panda bonds” and "debt restructuring", China is
trying to push the Yuan as an alternative to the dollar.
• African market: Africa’s young population and cheap labour force support Chinese exports.
African interests
• Financial Support: It receives investment, trade and development aid from China.
• Agriculture sector: Chinese support for hybrid crops helped Africa further its agricultural sector.
• Infrastructure: Chinese-built infrastructure and industrial parks generated employment opportunities,
furthering the idea of “Made in Africa”.
• No conditionality: No conditionality on Chinese developmental aid (unlike the West) serves African
authoritarian interests.
{Iran-Pakistan} Evolution of Iran-Pakistan Relations
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• Iran and Pakistan have attacked militant bases in each other's territory. The Iran-Pakistan border,
known as the Goldsmith Line, stretches from a tripoint with Afghanistan to the northern Arabian Sea.
Evolution of Iran-Pakistan relations

• Iran was the first country to recognise Pakistan with diplomatic relations on 14 August 1947.
Cold War Era

• Western inclination: Both countries joined the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) in 1955.
• Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)/Middle East Treaty Organization (METO)/ Baghdad Pact:
NATO-like military alliance of the Cold War formed by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United
Kingdom. The US was not part of it.
• War Cooperations: Iran provided material and weapons support to Pakistan during the 1965 and 1971
wars. Pakistan supported Iran in the Iran- Iraq war (1980s).
• Common Baloch animosity: Cooperated against Baloch separatists in Balochistan operations.
• Islamic Republic of Iran: Established after the Iranian Revolution of 1979 overthrew the Pahlavi dynasty;
Pakistan was the first to recognise it.
Divergence and Divide

• Shia – Sunni divide: Ayatollah Khomeini’s ultra-conservative Shiite regime in Iran and Sunni
majority Pakistan's Islamisation under dictator Gen Zia-ul-Haq led to the divergence.
• US-Pakistan closeness: The Iranian revolution distanced the US and Iran, while the US drew Pakistan
closer, generating distrust.
• Arab Nations: The export of republican ideas of the Iranian revolution irked family-governed Arab
nations, while Pakistan continued close relations with Arab nations.
• Afghanistan: Iran supported the Northern Alliance against the Taliban, especially after attacks on
Persian-speaking Shia Hazaras and Iranian diplomats in Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998.
Ups and downs of Reconciliation efforts

• Benazir Bhutto Government: Visit in 1995, Import of Iranian Gas, Called Pakistan Brother in Islam.
• Musharraf Period: Military coup (1999) and soured relations.
• 2008-2013: Signing of Iran-Pakistan pipeline project under the Zardari government indicated
improvement, but Pakistan's Sunni Arab allies feared the Iran-led “Shi’ite triangle”.
• Post-2013, the Pakistani Sharif government came closer to Arab allies to undo the Iranian tilt.
• Strategic convergence: China has become most important strategic partner of both Iran & Pakistan.
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• Occasional border issues and minority rights continue to raise concerns between both nations.
{Iran-Pakistan} Iran-Pakistan Strikes: India's stakes PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Pakistan-Iran air strikes have highlighted the interconnected insecurities of the subcontinent.
Stakes of India
Foreign Policy Implications
• Dynamic elements: Terrorism, close ties with Israel, and deeper engagement with Saudi Arabia and
the United Arab Emirates are dynamic elements in Indian foreign policy.
• Geopolitical impacts of Baluchistan’s strategic location cannot be ignored.
• China's presence in Gwadar complicates the situation for both India and the US.
• Developmental projects in Iran and Afghanistan, including the Chabahar port, can be affected.
Security Implications
• Organised crime: The ungoverned and under-governed spaces in the Baloch lands provide fertile
ground for organised crime, posing a challenge to internal security.
• Role of Taliban: In search of new friends in the region, the adventures of the Taliban may escalate.
• Maritime security of India is being challenged by the attacks on its shipping in the Arabian Sea.
• Jammu and Kashmir: Pakistan may escalate militancy in J&K to divert domestic attention.
Economic interests
• An unstable Middle East with crucial shipping routes & resources impacts India's economic interests.
• Energy needs of India rely heavily on the oil-rich Gulf region, which is the centre of the conflict.
{Iran-Pakistan} Pakistan’s attack on Iran
• Pakistan targeted Iran-based hideouts of the Baloch Liberation Front (BLF) and the Balochistan
Liberation Army (BLA) — both deemed as “terrorist organisations” by Pakistan.
Baloch Liberation Front (BLF)

• It was founded by Jumma Khan Marri in Damascus, Syria, in 1964.
• Carried out Baloch insurgency in Iran in 1968-73, then in Pakistan in 1973-78.
• It moved to Afghanistan in the 1980s, with a resurgence in 2004 led by Allah Nazar Baloch.
Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA)

• Founded around 2000 & began a violent struggle for Baloch self-determination in Pakistan in 2004.
Currently led by Basheer Zeb.
Militant activities by BLF & BLA
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• Attacks on Pakistan: On civilians, journalists, government officials and military in Pakistan, Balochistan
and beyond.
• Attacks on Chinese personals: Both these Baloch militant groups target Chinese gas and PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
infrastructure projects in Pakistan.

• Alleged India connection: Pakistan has alleged that India provides arms, training, and financial aid to
these groups.
• Rejection by India: India and the militant groups reject such baseless claims.
{Africa} Defence Attache (DA) in Africa
• The move to post defence attachés for the first time to the Philippines and Armenia follows the Indian
side’s sales of weapons systems to both countries.
• India will also post defence attachés for the first time to Poland.
• After a gap of several decades, India will also post a defence attaché in Ethiopia.
• A new military attaché is also being posted to Djibouti.
• Earlier in 2022, the Philippines signed a deal worth almost $375 million with India to acquire three
batteries of the BrahMos cruise missile.
• Also, in 2022, Armenia became the first foreign customer for India’s indigenously developed Pinaka
rocket launcher.
Pinaka rocket launcher

• It is a Multi-Barrel Rocket Launcher (MBRL) designed by the Armament Research and Development
Establishment (ARDE), a laboratory of the DRDO.
• It was first used in the Kargil War.
• Range: 60 to 75 kilometers.
Defence Attache (DA)

• Armed force member representing his/her country's defence establishment in the embassy.
• Enjoys diplomatic status and immunity.
• Indicative of military and foreign engagements: For example, India had seven officers posted to its
mission in Moscow, indicative of its military-technical exchange and bilateral engagement.
Recent rationalisation of Defence Attache

• Recently, DA posts were rationalised to enhance defence exports & engagement.
• Officers in Russia were cut from 10 to seven, in France from three to two & UK from three to one.
• First-time DAs in Spain, Djibouti, the Philippines, Tanzania, and Poland are posted from these
rationalised officers.
Need for reforming the role of DAs
• Piecemeal approach: DA is not integrated into diplomacy; it is limited to just defence procurements.
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• Demand for more DAs: India has only 64 DAs, grossly inadequate for the expanding arc of its
interests and engagements. China has over 110, the UK has around 145, and the US has even more.
• Functional enhancements: Military attachés should be assigned equally critical functions, such as
influencing and interacting with host country, gathering intelligence, and projecting perspectives.
• Separate military stream: The military posts career officers, preventing in-depth knowledge and
continuing regional expertise. This needs a dedicated separate stream, like US foreign area officers.
{Israel-Palestine} Israel-Palestine Conflict

• Palestinian militant group Hamas launched an attack on Israel on October 7,2023. Some experts believe
the recent attacks are Hamas’s response to normalising relations between Israel and other West Asian
countries.
• Hezbollah declared its solidarity with the “Palestinian resistance.”
• The leader of Hamas’s military wing said the attack was in response to the:
❖ Continued illegal occupation of Palestinian lands by Israel.
❖ Continued blockade of Gaza
❖ Israeli raids inside West Bank cities over the past year
Hezbollah (Party of God)

• Hezbollah is a Shiite Muslim political party and militant group based in Lebanon.
• Hezbollah originated during the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990).
• It wields significant power in Lebanon. It currently holds 13 of the country’s 128-member Parliament.
Along with allies, it is part of the ruling government.
• Iran provides funds and training to the budding militia of Hezbollah.
• In the past, it has carried out global terrorist attacks.
• Parts of Hezbollah — in some cases, the entire organization — have been designated as a terrorist
group by the United States and many other countries.
What are Hezbollah’s aims?

• It functions as a proxy for Iran and opposes Israel and Western influence in West Asia.
• Israel and Hezbollah first fought a war in 2006.
Iran-Israel proxy conflict

• Iran and Israel are engaged in a proxy war.
• Supporters of Israel believe Iran threatens Israel and wants to eliminate it.
• Iran has provided financial support, weapons, and training to groups like Lebanese Hezbollah and
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Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ).
• These groups have attacked Israel, and many countries label them terrorist organizations.
• Supporters of Iran argue Israel's presence in the Arab region justifies Iran's actions. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
Genesis of the Conflict Between Isreal and Palestine

• During the late 19th century, Zionism emerged, aiming to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
• Zionism tried to bring the Jewish people back to their historic homeland.
• It gained momentum with the publication of Theodor Herzl's pamphlet "The Jewish State.”
• Herzl's pamphlet proposed a Jewish homeland as a solution to the "Jewish question."
• As a result, many Jews immigrated to the Ottoman Empire and later Palestine.
After World War I
• After the Ottoman Empire was defeated in World War I, Britain took control of Palestine.
• Palestine was inhabited by a Jewish minority and an Arab majority.
• The Ottoman Empire controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa
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between the 14th and early 20th centuries.
• Many Jewish people moved to Palestine in the 1920s and 1940s to find a safe place to live because
they were facing a lot of problems in Europe. For Jews, Palestine was their ancestral home.
• The international community gave Britain the task of establishing a "national home" for Jewish people
in Palestine.
• Palestinian Arabs claimed the land and opposed the move. From then, tensions between Jews and
Palestinian Arabs grew.
Hamas (Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiya)

• It is a Palestinian political group with military capabilities founded in 1987.
• Hamas won the Palestinian parliamentary elections in 2006. It has run the Gaza Strip since 2007.
• It is a de facto governing authority of the Gaza Strip.
• It refuses to recognise the state of Israel and violently opposes the Oslo peace accords.
• It is designated as a terrorist organisation by Israel, the US, the EU, Canada, Egypt, and Japan.
• The elections did not happen in Palestine since 2006.
Jerusalem
• It is a city in Western Asia, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and
the Dead Sea. Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital. It is considered holy to the
three major Abrahamic religions:
❖ Judaism
❖ Christianity
❖ Islam
Judaism
• Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Judaism.
• It has been the ancestral and spiritual homeland of the Jewish people since the 10th century BC.
• During classical antiquity, Jerusalem was considered the centre of the world, where God resided.
Christianity
• In the Christian faith, Jerusalem is where Jesus was brought as a child to be presented at the Temple.
• According to the Gospels, Jesus preached and healed in Jerusalem, especially in the Temple courts.
Islam
• In Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city after Mecca and Medina.
• Muslims believe Muhammad was transported to Jerusalem during his Night Journey.
Arab World vs. Isreal
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First Arab-Israeli War
• In 1947, the United Nations voted to divide Palestine into:
❖ Separate Jewish and Arab states
❖ With Jerusalem under international administration.
• That plan was accepted by Jewish leaders but rejected by the Arab side and never implemented.
• The British rulers left in 1948, and Jewish leaders declared the creation of Israel.
• The creation of Israel sparked the first Arab-Israeli War in 1948.
• The war ended in 1949 with Israel’s victory. After the war:
❖ Israel controlled most of the territory.
❖ Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians fled or were driven from their homes.
• Territory was divided into three parts:
❖ State of Israel
❖ West Bank (of Jordan River): occupied by Jordan.
❖ Gaza Strip: occupied by Egypt.
❖ Jerusalem was divided between Israeli forces in the West and Jordanian forces in the East.
• Over the following years, tensions rose, particularly between Israel, Egypt, Jordan, and Syria.
Second Arab-Israeli War

• On 26 July 1956, Egypt nationalised the Suez Canal and closed the canal to Israeli shipping.
• In October 1956, Israel invaded Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip with British and French military support.
• In November, the UN called for Britain, France, and Israel to withdraw their troops from Egypt.
• In January 1957, Israel withdrew from Egyptian land, except from the Gaza Strip and the Gulf of Aqaba,
arguing that the Gaza Strip never belonged to Egypt.
Six-Day War (Third Arab-Israeli War)
• In June 1967, Israel attacked Egyptian and Syrian air forces and started the Six-Day War.
• After the war, Israel gained territorial control over:
❖ The Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt
❖ The West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan
❖ The Golan Heights from Syria.
Camp David Accords

• In 1979, representatives from Egypt and Israel signed the Camp David Accords.
• It ended the 30-year conflict between Egypt & Israel.
• It led to Israel’s complete withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula.
• The two countries agreed to allow self-rule for Palestinians living in occupied territories.
First Intifada
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• In 1987, Palestinians living in the West Bank and Gaza Strip revolted against the Israeli government
and started the first intifada. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• The first lasted from 1987 to 1993, and the second from 2000-2005.
Oslo Accords
• Oslo Accords are a series of agreements between Israel and the Palestinians signed in the 1990s.
Oslo I Accords (1993)
• It set up a framework for the Palestinians to govern themselves in the West Bank and Gaza.
• It enabled mutual recognition between the newly established Palestinian Authority and Israel.
Oslo II Accords (Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement) (1995)
• The Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement sought to implement the first Oslo peace deal.
• It expanded the first agreement, adding provisions that mandated the complete withdrawal of Israel
from six cities and 450 towns in the West Bank.
• Interim pact was only supposed to last five years, but tacitly extended for more than two decades.
• The question of Jerusalem was left undecided under the Oslo Accords.
Aftermath of Oslo Accord

• After a wave of violence in 2015, the Palestinian President announced that Palestinians would no
longer be bound by the Oslo Accords.
• In January 2020, the Trump administration released its long-awaited “Peace to Prosperity” plan.
Palestinians rejected it.
Abraham accord
• Abraham accord (Israel-Arab normalisation) is an agreement for normalising relations between Israel
and four Arab countries: Bahrain (August 2020), United Arab Emirates (September 2020), Sudan and
Morocco.
UNESCO, US and Israel

• UNESCO criticised Israel’s occupation of East Jerusalem and granted full membership to Palestine
in 2011.
• Accusing UNESCO of anti-Israel bias, the US and Israel formally quit UNESCO in 2019.
• US rejoined the UNESCO in 2023.
Current Status
• Most Palestinian refugees and their descendants live in Gaza and the West Bank.
• Israel has withdrawn from Gaza, but it continues to occupy the West Bank.
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• Israel considers the “complete and united Jerusalem” its capital, while Palestinians claim East
Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.
• The US is one of only a handful of countries to recognise Jerusalem as Israel's capital. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
Yom Kippur war (October war / Ramadan war / Fourth Arab Israeli war)
• The Hamas surprise attack is being compared to the Yom Kippur War.
• The Yom Kippur War was fought between Israel on one side and Egypt and Syria on the other, from
October 6 to 25, 1973.
• Egypt and Syria launched a coordinated attack on Israel. While Israel was aware of troop
mobilisation, it had not expected an attack in the Holy Islamic month of Ramadan.
• Caught by surprise, Israel took time to mobilise its own soldiers, many of whom were on leave for
Yom Kippur.
• Thus, initially, both Syria and Egypt made some gains. However, Israel soon launched its own
counterstrike and beat back both attackers.
• However, the significant number of casualties it incurred highlighted Israel's vulnerability in combat.
Yom Kippur
• Yom Kippur is a Jewish holiday called the "Day of Atonement."
• On this day, the Jewish people seek forgiveness for their sins, both towards God and other people.
• They do this through prayer, fasting, and reflection.
India's Enduring Support for the Palestinian Cause

• India’s support for the Palestinian cause is integral to the nation’s foreign policy.
• In 1974, India became the first non-Arab state to recognise the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO) as the sole and legitimate representative of the Palestinian people.
• In 1988, India became one of the first countries to recognise the Palestinian State.
• In 1996, India opened its Representative Office in Gaza, which was later shifted to Ramallah in 2003.
• India voted in favour of Palestine becoming a full member of UNESCO.
• In 2012, India co-sponsored and voted in favour of the UNGA Resolution that enabled Palestine to
become a ‘non-member Observer state’ at the UN without voting rights.
• In 2015, India supported the Bandung Declaration on Palestine at the Asian African Commemorative
Conference.
• In 2015, the 60th Asian African Commemorative Conference adopted the Bandung Declaration on
Palestine. It sought the liberation of Palestine from illegal Israeli Occupation.
{Israel-Palestine} Three countries recognise Palestinian as a state
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• Ireland, Norway and Spain recognised a Palestinian state.
Key elements to the decision

• Spain, Norway and Ireland announced the recognition of a Palestinian state.
• The three countries recognised a Palestinian state with its borders to be demarcated as they were prior
to 1967, with Jerusalem as the capital of both Israel and Palestine, subject to a final settlement.
• Full embassy status to Ireland's representative office in West Bank & Palestinian mission in Ireland.
• However, Ireland made it clear that recognising a Palestinian state does not diminish Ireland's belief
in Israel's right to exist in peace and security.
• The move is mostly symbolic, but it makes Israel appear more isolated on the international stage.
• It may also have an impact on public opinion within Israel.
Who else recognises Palestine as a state
• About 144 of the 193 UN members recognise Palestine as a state, including most of the global south,
Russia, China, and India.
• However, only a few EU members do so, mostly former Communist countries, Sweden and Cyprus.
• Other states have said they are considering following suit, including Britain, Australia, Malta and
Slovenia.
Reactions on the move

• Israel reacted, withdrew its ambassadors from the three countries, and summoned their representatives.
• The Palestinian Authority, which exercises limited self-rule in the West Bank, and Hamas welcomed the
recognition by Spain, Norway and Ireland.
• Recently, the US vetoed an attempt at UN recognition of a Palestinian state by denying Palestinians full
membership in a vote in the Security Council.
• France said Palestinian statehood is not a "taboo" for Paris but that now is not the right time.
• Germany stressed its long-term goal is for a two-state solution but only through dialogue.
To know more, visit > Israel-Palestine Conflict.
{Africa} Sahel Security Pact and scramble
• The military leaders of Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger signed a mutual defence pact.
• Liptako-Gourma Charter (Sahel security pact) is a mutual defence pact signed by the military leaders
of Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger. It binds the signatories to assist one another (including militarily) in
the event of an attack on any one of them.
• It established the Alliance of Sahel States (AES).
Alliance of Sahel States (AES)

• This alliance will combine military and economic efforts between Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger.
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• Its priority is to fight against terrorism in the three countries.
Sahel Region
• The word Sahel, or Sahil in Arabic, means coast or shore. The Sahel stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to
the Red Sea. The Sahara Desert surrounds it in the north, and the Savannah to the south.
• The Sahel region comprises 12 countries and houses 400 million people.
• Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, Chad, and Mauritania form the G5 Sahel, the core of the Sahel region.
• A Sahel Security Pact was also signed between the countries recently.
Foreign interests: Reasons
• Richness in natural resources such as oil, uranium, natural gas, and lithium.
• The strategic location of the region in Africa.
• Economic interests of the countries involved in the scramble.
• Defence and security cooperation in the form of arms sales.
The Sahel Scramble

• The main actors in the scramble are the European Union, France, Russia, China, & US.
France
• Most of the countries in the Sahel region were colonised by France.
• Now, France is often described as a 'waning power' in Africa.
• Vacuum, created by decolonisation, was taken over by Jihadis and insurgent groups.
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• Operation Serval and later Operation Barkhane were launched to combat insurgents in the region.
• France declared a withdrawal of troops after anti-French demonstrations in Mali in 2021.
• Yet, France was reluctant to pull its military out of Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Moreover, France has the first right to buy any natural resources discovered in all its former colonies.
Russia
• The Cold War and colonial era brought Russia and Sahelian countries closer.
• Overemphasis by Western countries on human rights has pushed Sahelian countries closer to Russia.
• The invasion of Ukraine by Russia in 2022 necessitated allies in Africa.
• Wagner Group, the controversial private military company controlled by Russia, cooperates with some
countries in the Sahel.
• Niger has cancelled its defence agreement with the EU and switched to Russia.
China
• China portrays itself as an alternative to the Sahelian countries' traditional ally (France).
• It has depicted itself as a “partner” in the Sahel with “non-interference” and “respecting sovereignty”.
• Chinese state-owned enterprises operate in Niger, Chad, Mali and Burkina Faso.
• China is keen to test its arms products in the conflicts in the Sahel.
The United States

• The US has a strong military interest in the region due to its strategic location, specifically Niger.
• The US can carry surveillance and reconnaissance operations to cover the Sahel, west and central Africa.
• In 2019, the US opened its largest African drone base in Agadez, Niger.
• The U.S. is fulfilling the void created by the exit of France to prevent Russia and China from establishing
a further military presence.
European Union (EU)

• The EU relies on Sahelian countries, especially Niger, to stop mass illegal immigration into the bloc.
• Niger is a significant transit country in the region.
• Niger had security and defence partnerships with the EU until recently.
Effects of Climate Change in the Sahel Regions

• Global warming significantly impacts the Sahel, and the region has suffered the worst drought.
• There has been a staggering 90 per cent decline in the surface of Lake Chad.
• It also has led to poverty in the region.
{Africa} Sudan Crisis
• Diplomats met in Paris in order to raise humanitarian aid for crisis-hit Sudan.
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• Sudan is on the verge of famine in the aftermath of the crisis.
Sudan crisis
• Military coup 2019: Military generals ousted dictator Omar al-Bashir amid a popular uprising against
rising corruption, increasing costs of living, and repression of social groups.
• Power sharing: After the 2019 coup, civilian groups and the military decided to share power.
• Military coup 2021: General Burhan & Dagalo of the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) led it.
Former dictator Omar al-Bashir founded RSF as an Arab counterinsurgency militia in the Darfur region.
• Earlier in 1992-1996, Sudan also played host to Osama Bin Laden, who had heavily invested in the
country’s infrastructure. The US then declared Sudan as a “state sponsor of terrorism” in 1993, and
the United Nations imposed sanctions.
Current situation
• Post 2021, the military coalition assured that elections would take place and blamed the civilian
groups for causing instability due to infighting.
• In 2023, General Burhan and Dagalo’s rift over the RSF’s role in Sudan came to the fore.
• Indian workers, particularly from Hakki Pikki tribal community, were in Sudan during a crisis in 2023.
• Jeddah talks: Saudi Arabia and the United States led talks to initiate a truce between Sudan’s army and
the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF), but it failed.
Operation Kaveri (2023 ): Operation by Indian govt. to evacuate Indian citizens from crisis-hit Sudan.
{China} South China Sea
Nine-dash line
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• It is lined with nine dashes claiming a part of the South China Sea.
• China introduced it for the first time in 1947.
• It was a part of China's map submitted to the UN in 2009.
• According to China, it is based on its historic maps.
Economic, Strategic Importance of South China Sea

• 10% of the world’s fisheries.
• 30% of the global shipping trade.
• The population is 2.2 billion in the region.
• 11 billion barrels of oil.
• 190 trillion cubic feet of natural gas.
Overlapping Claims in the South China Sea

• Other countries in the South China Sea claim the area which is included in the nine-dash line.
• Paracels and the Spratlys Islands:
❖ Many countries claim these islands.
❖ Vietnam claims both islands. It says it has actively ruled over both the Paracels and the Spratlys since
the 17th Century.
❖ The Philippines' claim over the Spratly Islands is based on its geographical proximity.
❖ Malaysia claims a small number of islands in the Spratlys.
• Scarborough Shoal Island:
❖ Both the Philippines and China lay claim to the Scarborough Shoal.
❖ It is more than 100 miles from the Philippines and 500 miles from China.
• Exclusion Economic Zones (EEZ):
❖ Malaysia and Brunei claim that territories included in the Nine-dash line fall within their EEZ.
South China Sea Arbitration
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• The Philippines approached the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) under the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
• UNCLOS was ratified by the Philippines in 1984 and China in 1996.
• In 2016, the PCA ruled in favour of the Philippines on most of its submissions.
• It said China does not have a legal basis to claim historic rights over a large part of the South China
Sea. China did not participate in the proceeding and rejected its ruling.
India's stakes in South China sea
PMF IAS CA (International Relations) 21
• Freedom of navigation: The South China Sea is not China’s sea but a global common. India supports
freedom of navigation and the rule of law across global commons.
• Sea Lane of Communication: It has been an important sea lane of communication since the very
beginning, and passage has been unimpeded over the centuries.
• History of Indian presence: Indians have sailed these waters for well over 1,500 years, and there is
ample historical & archaeological proof of a continuous Indian presence from Malaysia to China.
• Trade route: Nearly $200 billion of our trade passes through the South China Sea.
• Essential for regional peace: India shares the stakes in the peace and security of this region, which are
essential for our economic well-being.
• Support to Philipines: India has reiterated support for Philippines in upholding its national sovereignty.
Policy Imperatives
• Economy-driven policy: Initially guided by Look East policy, aimed to enhance economic integration
with Southeast Asia and the imperative to secure energy resources to fuel its growing economy.
• For example, the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation’s overseas arm (ONGC Videsh) is participating in oil
and gas exploration projects in Vietnam’s exclusive economic zones (EEZs).
• Freedom of navigation, exploration and exploitation: India supports it within the bounds of
international law, specifically the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
• Act East Policy: It emphasises economic integration, strategic partnerships, and expanded security
cooperation with countries in the Indo-Pacific, including Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, and the
Philippines.
• Capacity enhancement: Forward positioning, mission-based deployments, reinforced maritime domain
awareness, and deep-water maritime facilities have improved India's capacities.
• China-India relations: China’s assertive posture and territorial claims in the South China Sea and along
India’s land border also influence India's policy.
• ASEAN factor: ASEAN centrality in India’s Indo-Pacific strategy also makes it imperative for India to
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bolster the ASEAN position.
• Responsible stakeholder: India's vocal stance against unilateral actions indicates its responsible role in
regional stability and security. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
{China} Chinese assistance for Sri Lankan Projects
• China has pledged to provide "assistance to develop" Colombo International Airport and
Hambantota port. China is the island's biggest bilateral creditor. It would "assist" Sri Lanka's
restructuring of external debt, a key condition in a $2.9 billion IMF bailout.
• However, China was reluctant to take a haircut on its loans but could extend the tenure and adjust
interest rates.
• Earlier in 2022, the IMF and the Sri Lankan authorities agreed on a 48-month arrangement under the
Extended Fund Facility (EFF) of about US$2.9 billion.
Background: Sri Lankan Crisis

• Decline in average GDP growth rate: It almost halved after 2013 due to the fall of global commodity
prices, slowing down of exports, and rise in imports.
• High budget deficits and Forex erosion: Sustained deficits since the financial crisis of 2008 have led
to conditional borrowings from the IMF.
• Tourism decline: The Easter bomb blast (2019) and COVID-19 had shattering effects on Sri Lanka's
tourism economy.
• Organic farming: The complete ban on fertilisers and a 100% organic farming shift overnight led to
a decline in food production.
• China's debt trap: Heavy borrowing and unserviceable debts led to an economic trap in the Sri Lankan
economy.
• Due to unserviced debt, the southern sea port of Hambantota was handed to a Chinese state-owned
company in 2017 on a 99-year lease for $1.12 billion.
India's Concerns
• Chinese maritime imprints: The Indian Ocean is facing increased dominance of the Chinese project
through its "sting of pearls" policy.
• Decline in exports: Almost halved exports with a major impact on automobile sectors shrank the
Indian export market.
• Refugee crisis: With the historical connection between Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu, India stands as a
favoured destination for Sri Lankan refugees.
{China-Pakistan} China-Pakistan Economic Corridor
• China and Pakistan will sign agreements related to motorways and highways under the $60 billion China-
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Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) program.
• The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a 3,000-kilometer-long network of infrastructure
projects that aims to connect China's Xinjiang region with Pakistan's Gwadar Port in Balochistan.
• It is a bilateral project between China and Pakistan to enhance connectivity through highways, railways,
pipelines and various infrastructure developments.
• It is part of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and was launched in 2015.
Importance of CPEC
• Reduces Transport Costs: CPEC reduces time and costs for transporting goods and energy by avoiding
the risky Malacca Strait and the South China Sea.
• Reduce Dependency on Malacca Strait: 80% of China's oil goes through the Malacca Strait. CPEC
offers an alternative route, reducing China's dependence on this chokepoint.
• Access to Key Regions: CPEC allows China to access West Asia, Africa, and the Indian Ocean through
Gwadar Port, enhancing its strategic reach.
• Economic Development: It promotes prosperity in underdeveloped regions like Xinjiang in China and
Balochistan in Pakistan through infrastructure projects.
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Challenges for Pakistan
• Regional Imbalances: CPEC's focus on specific areas creating development imbalances in Pakistan.
• Debt Trap: Pakistan's increasing debt levels from Chinese loans for CPEC projects raise concerns about
the country's ability to repay these loans.
• Environmental Impact: Large infrastructure projects in CPEC may harm the environment, causing issues
like deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and pollution.
• Social Implications: Concerns arise about the displacement of local communities, the disruption of
traditional livelihoods, and the potential for increased migration and population pressures.
• Sovereignty Concerns: Some worry about China's growing influence in Pakistan and how it might affect
its sovereignty and independence.
Challenges for China
• Security Concerns: Ensuring the safety of Chinese workers and the region's stability is challenging.
• Political Opposition: Some political parties and groups have opposed CPEC due to a perceived lack of
transparency and concerns about its long-term implications for Pakistan's sovereignty.
India's Concerns About CPEC

• Sovereignty Issue: India opposes CPEC because it passes through Gilgit-Baltistan in Pakistan-occupied
Kashmir (PoK), a part of J&K. India sees this as an infringement on its sovereignty.
• Recognition of Pakistan's Claims: India's recognition of CPEC implies tacit recognition of Pakistan's
claims on Jammu and Kashmir.
• Security Concerns: Improved infrastructure via CPEC may increase the infiltration of terrorists.
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)

• It is often called the '21st Century Silk Road' or 'One Belt One Road (OBOR).'
• It aims to link China with Europe by land and rail and to Africa and Asia by sea.
• It is inspired by the ancient Silk Road, which connected China to the Mediterranean.
• It has grown to encompass Africa, Oceania, and Latin America, expanding China's economic and
political influence. Currently, it involves 147 countries.
• It is planned to be completed by 2049.
Components of BRI
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• Belt (Land-based 'Silk Road Economic Belt')

• A trans-continental passage linking China with:
❖ Central and South Asia
❖ Middle East and Europe.
❖ Road (Sea-based '21st Century Maritime Silk Road')
• A route connecting China to Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe.
{China-Russia} Vladimir Putin meets Xi Jinping
• Putin called Xi his “dear friend” and said their relationship is “not opportunistic” and “not directed against
anyone.” Both leaders celebrated 75 years of diplomatic ties.
China, Russia, and the Ukraine War

• Both signed a “no-limits” strategic partnership a few days before Russia’s Ukraine invasion.
• The US alleges that China is the “top supplier” of dual-use items to Russia for civilian & military use.
• Russian imports of machine tools, chips, and other dual-use items from China have increased
significantly. Earlier, Xi pledged that China would not sell arms to Russia and would control the flow
of dual-use goods to its military.
• China, while signing a strategic agreement with Russia, said that both sides agreed that a political
settlement to the Ukraine crisis was the “right direction”.
Sino-Russian relationship
• Cold start: When visiting Moscow after the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949,
Chairman Mao Zedong was made to wait for weeks for a meeting with Joseph Stalin.
• Cold War era: China and the USSR were rivals, competing for control of the global communist
movement with a brief border war in 1969.
• Death of Mao: The relationship began to improve after Mao died in 1976 but remained frosty until
the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
• Post-Cold War: China became Russia’s biggest trading partner and the largest Asian investor. China
views Russia as a powerhouse of raw materials and a valuable market for its consumer goods.
• West's hostile approach: The West’s hostile approach towards Russia after the annexation of Crimea
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in 2014 brought Moscow closer to Beijing.
Critical Concerns for India

• Defence supplies: About 60-70% of Indian defence supplies come from Russia, and New Delhi needs PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
regular and reliable supplies, especially during Sino-Indian border skirmishes.

• Russia becoming "Junior partner": Many Western analysts have cautioned India about a scenario in
which Russia becomes a “junior partner” of China.
• Uncertain support: Though Russia extended its support during the 1971 war, it did not very much
support during the 1962 war. And now Russia itelf is not the old Soviet Union.
{China-Taiwan} China – Taiwan Conflict

Republic of China (RoC): Taiwan
• Taiwan (old name: Formosa) is a tiny island off the east coast of China.
• Chinese republicans of the Kuomintang government retreated to Taiwan after the 1949 victory of the
communists.
Evolution of Conflict
• On October 10, 1911 ("Double 10”, National Day of Taiwan"), sections of the Manchu army rose in
rebellion, overthrowing the Qing dynasty and ending the monarchy.
• On December 29, 1911, the RoC was founded under the leadership of the Kuomintang (KMT) Party.
• Actions against the Chinese communists, who were part of an alliance with the KMT, triggered the civil
war that ended in victory for the communists and the retreat of the KMT to Taiwan.
• Since its founding in 1949, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) has maintained that Taiwan must be
reunified with the mainland, while the RoC has held out as an “independent” country.
• RoC was the only ‘China’ recognised at the UN until 1971.
• The US inaugurated ties with the PRC through the secret diplomacy of Henry Kissinger, national
security adviser to President Richard Nixon.
• The offer of the “One China, Two Systems” solution was declined by the Taiwanese in 1999.
• The 2016 election of President Tsai marked the onset of a sharp pro-independence phase in Taiwan,
and the current tensions with China coincided with her re-election in 2020.
• Military exercises and efforts by China to increase control over Taiwan are continued features.
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One China Principle and One China Policy
• One China Principle: Taiwan is an inalienable part of China, with its sole legitimate government in
Beijing. The PRC follows the One China Principle.
• One China Policy: PRC was and is the only China that does not recognise the Republic of China (ROC,
Taiwan) as a separate sovereign entity.
US’s Stand
• The US acknowledges this position but not necessarily its validity.
• The US instead follows the One China Policy. At the same time, the US refuses to give in to the PRC’s
demands to recognise Chinese sovereignty over Taiwan.
• This stand of the US is referred to as strategic ambiguity w.r.t to Taiwan.
• The US Congress approved the Taiwan Relations Act, which allowed informal relations between the US
and Taiwan and US arms sales to the island.
• The US has maintained close ties with Taiwan with the assurance of defensive arms to counter any
coercion from China.
India’s Stand
• India has followed the one-China policy since 1949, indicating it does not recognise any government
other than the PRC in Beijing.
• India only conducts trade and cultural ties with Taiwan. India seeks to avoid controversy on a sensitive
issue
• India maintained a “studied silence” on the unfolding situation, omitting any mention.
{China-Tibet} China-Tibet Dispute
• China claimed Tibet was historically ruled as part of China. Tibet claims historic independence.
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Historical ties between China and Tibet

• Tibet’s assimilation into China was established during the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368).
• It enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Yuan Dynasty.
• Following the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the 13th Dalai Lama expelled Chinese troops stationed
in Lhasa and declared independence in 1912, and Tibet essentially ruled itself until 1950.
Seventeen Point Agreement

• In 1950, China sent People’s Liberation Army troops to Tibet.
• In 1951, Tibet was occupied and annexed by the People's Republic of China.
• In May 1951, Tibet and China signed the Seventeen Point Agreement. The agreement effectively
subordinated Tibet to China.
• It handed over all international affairs to China and allowed China to “reform” the economy.
• China assured non-interference in domestic administration, Tibetan culture, and religion.
• China promised to maintain Tibet's traditional government and religion.
• However, China did not adhere to these principles and instead began to destroy monasteries and enforce
collectivisation. They also interfered in Tibetan life, from schooling to cultural beliefs.
• Because of the Chinese interference, resistance in Tibet grew, resulting in the 1959 revolt.
1959 Revolt
• In 1959, the Dalai Lama led an uprising against Chinese rule.
• China suppressed the revolt, and its hold over Tibet has been absolute since then.
• The Dalai Lama and most ministers fled to northern India and established government-in-exile.
• Dalai Lama rejected the Seventeen Point Agreement and proclaimed himself as Tibet’s sole legitimate
representative.
• In 1965, the Chinese government established the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR).
Current Status
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• Currently, Tibet is divided administratively into:
• Tibet Autonomous Region: controlled by China.
• Parts of the Qinghai and Sichuan provinces: Mostly self-governed.
• No significant Western power has officially recognised Tibet as an independent nation. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
{Asia} Rise of "New" Japan
• Japanese PM's address to the US Congress indicates the arrival of a new, assertive Japan to the world.
Japan Post World War II

• Policy of pacifism: It avoided building significant armed capability, limited its defence expenditure, and
refused to participate in military conflicts. The determination to expiate (amend) its militarism and
imperialism was reversed post-war.
• Military alliance with the US: Japan’s pacifism was compensated by its bilateral military alliance with
the United States.
• Focus on economy: As a US protectorate in Asia, Japan was free to focus its energies on rebuilding its
economy. By the end of 1970s, Japan became the world’s second-largest economy, behind only the US.
Second transition of Japan in the 2000s

• Idea of Indo-Pacific: Japan began to articulate new security architecture in Asia, including the idea of
the Indo-Pacific.
• Military resources: Japan is matching its strategic ideas with military resources and the political will to
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actively reshape the regional security order.
Reasons for radical change

External factors PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Rise of China and its military assertion, especially on the territorial disputes with Japan;
• The closeness of China & Russia and the coordination of their policies in North East Asia;
• Growing military capabilities of North Korea;
• Fears that the US could withdraw its security protection to Japan and other Asian allies.
Domestic factors
• Conservatives: Conservatives in Japan wanted to move Japan from its role as a "responsible citizen of
world affairs" to taking "responsibility for its own security & contributing to regional order."
How is Japan becoming a geopolitical power?

• Removing military expenditure cap: Japan has removed the historical cap on defence expenditure,
which is unofficially 1% of its GDP. In 2022, it touched 1.1%.
• Defence developments and acquisitions: In addition to developing its own counter-strike capability
through cruise missiles, the country signed a deal with the US to purchase Tomahawk cruise missiles.
• Easing export ban on lethal weapons: This has paved the way for Japan to leverage its immense
manufacturing and technological base to aid its allies in keeping up with China and Russia.
• For example, Japan approved a shipment of Japanese-made Patriot missiles to the US.
• Along with the United Kingdom and Italy, Japan is leading the Global Combat Air Programme to
develop the BAE Systems Tempest, a proposed sixth-generation stealth fighter.
• Japan and the US finalised the creation of a joint military-industrial council to facilitate the co-production
of weapons.
• US-Japan joint operations command: US bases in Japan and Okinawa island are operated from
command in Hawai’i (HQ of the US Indo-Pacific Command). Its transfer to Japan is being discussed.
Changes in diplomatic stance

• South Korea: Japan has made attempts to end disputes with South Korea, inherited from Imperial
Japan’s occupation of the Korean peninsula from 1910 to 1945.
• Support to Ukraine: In addition to all aid and support to Ukraine, Japan argues that the same could be
the future of Asia if the principle of respecting territorial sovereignty is not defended.
Implications of "New" Japan

• Security implications for the region: After decades of pacifism, a politically active and militarily more
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capable Japan will inevitably rearrange the regional security calculus.
Impact of "new" Japan on India

• From the Indian perspective, a politically resolute and militarily strong Japan that can build a stable
Asian equilibrium is a positive development.
• It contributes to India’s objective of building a multipolar Asia in a multipolar world.
{Asia} Rising Tension in Korean Peninsula
• Provocative moves by North Korea and the rebuttals by South Korea are on the rise.
Korean Peninsula
• 38th parallel (38° N) roughly demarcates North Korea and South Korea.
• Potsdam Conference (1945), near the end of World War II, chose it as the bifurcation border.
Recent aggravations
• North Korea has rescinded its national objective of Korean reunification.
• It has formally categorised South Korea as an adversarial state.
• The supreme leader of North Korea, Kim Jong Un, ordered the rewriting of the North Korean
constitution to reflect a shift in the regime’s thinking.
• The closure of offices related to reunification and the destruction of Pyongyang's reunification
landmark monument raises the alarm.
• North Korea tested multiple types of missile systems in January 2024.
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Historical Context
• Japan occupied Korea between 1910- 1945.
The bifurcation of the Korean Peninsula in the Yalta Conference (1945) was agreed upon by Allied
•
powers as the result of the defeat of imperial Japan in World War II.
• Ideological Cold War divide due to the influence of Soviet Union on North and U.S. over South Korea.
• Korean War (1950-53): As a result of the North’s attempt to take over the South, war broke out.
• Continued divide: Despite the cessation of active conflict and the end of the Cold War, the North
authoritarian regime supported by China and South Korean liberal democracy is still in conflict.
• North Korea’s nuclear ambitions are a bone of contention in the relations.
Denuclearisation of North Korea

• 1994-2002: The U.S. signed an “Agreed Framework” with North Korea to halt its nuclear programme in
return for nuclear energy.
• Exit from the nuclear non-proliferation treaty in 2003 by North Korea.
• Six-party talks involving the two Koreas, China, Japan, Russia, and the U.S. resulted in North Korea
pledging to forego its nuclear ambitions.
• Nuclear Test 2006: North Korea conducted a nuclear test in 2006 with questionable yield.
• Talk Breakdown: In 2009, talks broke down, leading to a consistent increase in tests by North Korea.
• Failed attempt at talks: Various attempts at "denuclearisation talks" between the US and North Korea in
2018-19 have failed.
North Korea: A perceived global threat

• Significant military developments: It has developed, tested and deployed delivery vehicles, launchers
and satellites, arguably with intercontinental range.
• Provocative actions: Military drills, shelling on South Korean islands and threats of nuclear attack are
threats to global peace.
• US support to South Korea: With the US military alliance and missile defence system, a confrontation
cannot be ruled out.
• Cyber-attacks across the globe have been traced to North Korea multiple times.
{Bangladesh-Russia} Rooppur Nuclear Plant Project
• Bangladesh received its first uranium delivery for its Russia-backed nuclear power plant, a $12.65-billion
project aimed at bolstering its energy grid, 90% funded by Moscow.
Rooppur Nuclear Plant

• The Rooppur nuclear plant in Bangladesh, with twin 1,200-megawatt units, began construction in
2017 and is set to be the country's largest power station once fully operational by 2025.
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US Sanctions and Payment Challenges
• During the United States and its ally's Sanctions on Russia, Bangladesh remains committed to the
Rooppur nuclear plant project and strengthening ties with Moscow. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Loan Repayment Hurdles: U.S. sanctions on Russian entities caused construction delays due to
Bangladesh's inability to repay loans in U.S. currency.
• Chinese Yuan Solution: In April, Bangladesh opted to use Chinese Yuan for payments exceeding $300
million to circumvent the sanctions, though these payments remain pending.
India's Role in the Rooppur Nuclear Plant Project

• India holds a nuclear cooperation agreement with both Russia and Bangladesh.
• The Rooppur project is a significant undertaking under the Indo-Russian deal to collaborate on atomic
energy projects in third countries.
• The Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) is the project's lead authority from India.
• It’s a milestone considering India's non-membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), which
limits its direct involvement in atomic power reactor construction abroad.
• It significantly boosts India's "Make in India" initiative, as it involves the production of some nuclear
equipment domestically for the Rooppur plant.
{Australia} Australia releases National Defence Strategy 2024
• Australia released its new National Defence Strategy (NDS) 2024. The 2024 Integrated Investment
Programme, which sets out Australia's specific defence priorities, was also released.
• Australia will also continue to engage with partners outside the Indo-Pacific, including European nations.
• It notes that the risk of a crisis or conflict in the Taiwan Strait is increasing, as is the risk at other
flashpoints, including the South and East China Seas.
• It observes that some of China’s initiatives in the Indo-Pacific also lack transparency regarding their
purpose and scope.
Mentions of India in NDS 2024

• India-Australia have a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership aiming for Indo-Pacific stability.
• NDS 2024 also includes concern about India's border dispute as a flashpoint for regional conflict.
• It observes the potential of tension and nuclear proliferation due to terrorism in the region.
• It acknowledges India's role in the Indian Ocean region's security and stability.
{US-China} Normalisation of U.S. – China Relations
• China and the US exchanged greetings on the anniversary of establishing diplomatic ties between their
countries in 1979.
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• The process was completed under Chinese President Deng Xiaoping and US President Jimmy Carter.
Background of Normalisation of Sino-US Relations

• The capitalist US and the socialist USSR were engaged in the Cold War, both superpowers claiming
ideological and economic superiority.
• While Russia backed the People’s Republic of China (PRC), the US pledged its support to Taiwan.
• This was in line with the US strategy of ‘containment’ (or the Truman Doctrine), aimed at limiting the
spread of Communism.
• This led to divergence in the PRC and US relations.
• After a split between the allies USSR and China, beginning in the early 1960s, the US believed that China
could be an ally against the USSR.
• China, too, was open to looking for new partners.
• Closer relations with China were also seen as damage control for the Vietnam War 1975.
Normalisation of Ties
• The US made an all-out effort to open communication with China (PRC).
• The US also contacted Romania and Poland – both communist countries and even Pakistan for the same.
• China raised American interference in Taiwan, and the US was invited to discuss it in Beijing.
• This culminated in Kissinger secretly visiting China while officially visiting Pakistan in 1971.
• Nixon’s official visit in 1972 became the first US President’s visit to China.
• The trip would also establish Liaison Offices in Beijing and Washington, which functioned as informal
diplomatic posts.
• The 1972 Shanghai Communique was signed to acknowledge the desire for closer ties.
• Shanghai Communique also referred to Taiwan, saying, “The USA acknowledges the Chinese position
that there is but one China and Taiwan is part of China.”
• In 1974, Nixon resigned following the Watergate scandal (which broke out in 1972), and Chinese
leadership changed.
• Thus, Normalisation could be completed in 1979.
• Following the normalisation of ties, the US Embassy in Taipei, Taiwan, was shifted to Beijing.
• Chinese President Deng also visited the US, becoming the first Chinese President.
{US-China} Recent US-China engagements
• Engagements and competitions between the US and China remain in the news.
Recent Engagements of US-China

• Responsible competition strategy: Recently, the US President described its China strategy as
preventing vigorous competition with China from becoming a dangerous conflict.
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• High-level communication: It has grown from Bali (2022) on the margins of the G20 summit to the
recent Chinese visit of the US Treasury Secretary.

• San Francisco visit 2023: Chinese President Xi announced the intent to stabilise the bilateral
relationship, open up military contacts and initiate talks on regulating artificial intelligence & counter-
narcotics.
Divergence in Sino-US relations

Japan
• State visit of Japanese Prime Minister: US is hosting the Japanese Prime Minister on a state visit.
• Role in Indo-Pacific strategy: Japan has promised to develop new capabilities to deter China, North
Korea, and Russia.
• AUKUS initiative: The US wants Tokyo to become a part of the AUKUS initiative.
AUKUS initiative
• Advanced technology partnership between Australia, the UK and the US. It was unveiled in 2021.
• The first pillar of the AUKUS arrangement involves transferring conventionally armed, nuclear-
powered submarines from Washington and London to Canberra.
• Japan, with its strong anti-nuclear orientation, is not currently part of it.
• Chip Four alliance: The US initiated this alliance of Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, and the United States,
the world’s major producers of semiconductors.
South China Sea dispute

• The US is expected to offer strong support to the Philippines in the South China Sea dispute at the
upcoming trilateral summit with Japan and the Philippines.
Asian security network

• The aim is to build a web of Asian security networks that pool the region’s military resources, enhance
deterrence and ensure peace.
• The US, for example, is asking Japan to expand its security assistance to countries in the Indo-Pacific,
including the Philippines.
• It has nudged South Korea to expand advanced technology cooperation with India.
Russia
• Russia and China have agreed to discuss ways to deepen security cooperation across Europe and Asia to
counter the United States's attempts.
To know more, visit > US-China Relations.
{US-China} Navigating the US-China Relationship
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• The U.S. President and his Chinese counterpart held a summit on the sidelines of the Asia-Pacific
Economic Cooperation (APEC) conference.
Outcomes of the summit PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
Military to Military communication

• The countries (nuclear weapons states) agreed to
• Restore military-to-military communications — critical to prevent potential miscalculations.
• Resume regular exchange of information under the Military Maritime Consultative Agreement that
started in 1998.
• These channels were closed after Nancy Pelosi’s (then Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives)
controversial visit to Taiwan in August 2022.
Trade deal
• The Chinese agreed to buy substantial agricultural, energy, industrial and other products from the U.S.
to reduce the US’s trade deficit with China.
• The US has agreed not to tie trade discussions with security concerns (E.g. China's attempted
territorial expansion in the South China Sea).
• China agreed to label fentanyl as a controlled substance, a deadly synthetic opioid responsible for
tens of thousands of American drug deaths annually.
• The countries committed to finding solutions to disputes over intellectual property rights and Chinese
state support for domestic industries.
Trade dispute between the US and China

What led to the escalation of the dispute?
• The muscular approach of the U.S. to shore up global hegemony during the Trump presidency.
• China’s quest for world military and technological supremacy under the present leadership.
Measures by US
• In 2019, it blacklisted several Chinese AI start-ups for alleged human rights abuses in Xinjiang.
• In 2021, it blacklisted defence & surveillance companies under Chinese military-industrial complex.
• It imposed controls on exports of advanced computer chips to manufacture semiconductors to cut
China’s advancement in AI & supercomputing, which have powered its supersonic & nuclear weapons
capability.
• USA prohibited investments in the Chinese high-tech arena.
Measures by China
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• China banned the export of gallium and germanium- raw materials required for producing microchips
and weapons systems.
• China imposed curbs on exports of various types of graphite, a vital mineral for producing electric PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
vehicle batteries (China enjoys dominance in its global supply chain).
• Anti-espionage and data protection laws: China mandated firms to designate “for China” digital tools
and set up China-specific email IDs and separate country-exclusive servers.
{US-China} The Resolve Tibet Act
❖ The United States Congress passed the Resolve Tibet Act, aiming to counter Chinese disinformation
and promote dialogue for the resolution of the Tibet-China dispute.
Resolve Tibet Act
• The Resolve Tibet Act is the third major piece of U.S. legislation on Tibet, succeeding the Tibetan Policy
Act (TPA) of 2002 and the Tibetan Policy and Support Act (TPSA) of 2020.
• Unlike its predecessors, the Resolve Tibet Act explicitly challenges China’s historical claims over Tibet
and emphasises Tibetan self-determination and human rights.
Key Provisions
• Countering Disinformation: The Act authorises the use of funds to counter Chinese disinformation
about Tibet’s history, people, and institutions, including the Dalai Lama.
• Promotion of Dialogue: It urges China to engage in direct, meaningful dialogue with the Dalai Lama
or his representatives and elected Tibetan leaders without preconditions, aiming for a settlement.
• Human Rights and Self-Determination: The Act underscores Tibetans' right to self-determination and
human rights and China’s obligations under international covenants.
❖ For example: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
• Cultural Preservation: It seeks to recognise and address Tibetans' unique socio-cultural identity,
including their historical, cultural, religious, and linguistic distinctiveness.
• Geographical Definition: The Act amends the TPA to define the geographical areas comprising the
Tibetan Autonomous Region clearly.
Differences from Previous Legislation

• Tibetan Policy Act (TPA) of 2002: The TPA was cautious, recognising China’s claim over Tibet and
encouraging dialogue without challenging China’s territorial assertions.
❖ It maintained that the Dalai Lama sought greater autonomy rather than independence.
• Tibetan Policy and Support Act (TPSA) of 2020: The TPSA pushed for dialogue without preconditions,
emphasised Tibetan self-determination and encouraged international support for negotiations.
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• Resolve Tibet Act of 2024: Unlike the TPA and TPSA, this Act directly challenges China’s historical
claims over Tibet, promoting unconditioned dialogue.
Implications for India PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Geopolitical Dynamics: The Act could influence India’s diplomatic relations with both China and the
United States, necessitating a strategic balancing act.
• Support for Tibetan Refugees: India has a significant Tibetan refugee population, and the Act could
affect international support and resources for these communities.
• Strategic Interests: This legislative measure could impact India’s border security and regional stability
by changing the geopolitical landscape.
{Maldives} Maldives-China Relations: History and Recent visit
• Maldives-China relations will significantly impact the region's geopolitics.
China-Maldives ties: History

• Traditional ties of China-Maldives go back to the Tang dynasty (7th century AD) and the Silk Road.
• Famous Ming dynasty Chinese navigator Zheng He also visited Maldives twice in 1412 and 1430.
• Maldivian King Yusof also sent envoys to China on three occasions around 1417.
• Contemporary diplomatic relations between China and Maldives were established only in 1972.
• Economic and trade ties between the two countries began in 1981.
• Future-oriented comprehensive relationship was signed in 2014 during Xi Jinping's visit to Maldives.
• Maldives was among the first South Asian countries to the Belt & Road Initiative (BRI).
Chinese commentaries on the recent visit

• President of Maldives, Muizzu, was on a state visit to China to celebrate the 10th anniversary of Xi
Jinping's visit to Maldives.
• For the first time, a Maldivian President has chosen China for his first overseas visit instead of India.
• The “Comprehensive, friendly cooperative partnership” has been elevated to “Comprehensive
strategic cooperative partnership” between both countries.
• It is seen as a signal that the Maldives' president wants to strengthen bilateral and multilateral
cooperation between the two countries.
• India is blamed for having “undue concerns” and “unease” regarding Muizzu’s China visit.
• Chinese media has alleged India's “hegemonic neighbourhood first” policy in the sub-continent, with
New Delhi “always suspicious” of Beijing’s “growing economic and friendly cooperation”.
• They have dismissed accusations of Beijing indulging in a “zero-sum game”.
Role of the US
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• The strategic location of Maldives and deepening rivalry with China have prompted the engagement with
Malé.

• The US announced the opening of its embassy in October 2020.
• Framework on the Defense and Security Relationship was signed 2020 between the USA and the Maldives
2020.
{USA} USA’s Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) *
• The U.S. Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) programme expired in 2020.
What is a Generalised System of Preferences (GSP)

• It is a term in international trade used by most developed countries.
• It offers lower tariffs to developing countries as incentives for economic reform. However, these
programmes are constructed in such a way that they do not harm their domestic production.
• Each developed country has its own customised GSP programme.
Benefits
For the developing countries
• It helps access global trade, especially for small businesses and women-owned enterprises.
• It provides advantages to suppliers in trusted developing markets.
• It promotes labour reforms, environmental sustainability, and intellectual property rights.
For the U.S

• It reduces tariff bills, many of which are small- and medium-sized enterprises.
• It is useful for friendshoring and nearshoring new supply chains.
• It offers alternatives to Chinese imports.
• Friendshoring is the act of manufacturing and sourcing from countries that are geopolitics allies.
• Nearshoring It involves delegating tasks to third-party providers in neighbouring countries.
Importance of GSP in U.S.-India Trade

• Renewing GSP can elevate the bilateral trade relationship beyond $200 billion.
• A strong, enforceable trade agreement would provide stability in regulatory certainty and ease of
doing business. This will boost private investments from both countries in critical and emerging
technologies, including smartphone manufacturing and semiconductor production.
{Russia-North Korea} Russia-North Korea pact
❖ Russian President Vladimir Putin’s recent Pyongyang visit culminated with a landmark pact between
Russia and North Korea.
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Historical context of Russia-North Korea relations
• After WW II, the erstwhile Soviet Union wanted the installation of a communist regime in Korea. It
offered significant military assistance to North Korean founder Kim Il Sung during the Korean War. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• The USSR and China continued military and other aid to communist North Korea even after the war.
• The two nations solidified their alliance in 1961 with the signing of the Russo-North Korea Treaty of
Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, which contained a mutual defence agreement.
• After the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, this treaty was voided, and relations temporarily deteriorated.
• Russia still did not back North Korea’s nuclear ambitions and, for a time, even supported sanctions
against the country aimed at curbing Pyongyang’s nuclear capabilities.
• However, in the aftermath of the Ukraine invasion, Russia and North Korea stood together against the
Western liberal order based on highly pragmatic considerations.
About the recent pact

• It talks about cooperation on a wide range of issues, including mutual military support and unspecified
technological assistance.
• The partnership also calls for developing economic ties, an especially important issue for North Korea,
which suffers from an array of international sanctions.
• Article 4 of the landmark pact states that both countries will cooperate to provide immediate military
assistance without delay in accordance with Article 51 of the UN Charter and the laws of the DPRK
(North Korea) and the Russian Federation if either faces armed aggression.
 Article 51 of the United Nations Charter recognises a U.N. member state’s right to self-defence.
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Implications and responses
• It would lead to closer cooperation in weapons production, with North Korea manufacturing more
munitions for Russia and Russia providing more high-end help for North Korea.
• For South Korea and Japan, this treaty is likely to be perceived as a direct security threat, leading
both countries to strengthen their defences and rethink their security policies.
❖ Japan has already abandoned its long-standing pacifist foreign policy and building its military might.
❖ South Korea convened an emergency meeting of its national security council in response and said it
will now consider sending arms to Ukraine.
❖ Both South Korea and Japan are likely going to cement their alliance with the United States further.
• The Russia-North Korea pact could encourage similar partnerships elsewhere, most notably with Iran.
• China would be wary of Russia’s growing military collaboration with North Korea, which could under-
mine its near-exclusive geopolitical influence over Pyongyang.
{Russia-Ukraine} Russia-Ukraine Crisis
• Ukraine and Russia were a part of the erstwhile USSR and share cultural, linguistic and familial links.
• Among the USSR nations, Ukraine was the second most powerful nation after Russia.
• The relations between the two nations were cordial from the dissolution of the USSR up until recently.
• Tensions began in late 2013 over Ukraine’s landmark political and trade deal with the EU.
2014: Euromaidan Movement

• Most Ukrainians were angry with the then pro-Russia President Viktor Yanukovych’s decision to join
the Russia-led Eurasian Economic Union instead of the EU.
• Their protests were known as the Euromaidan movement, which saw massive clashes between the
protesters and security forces that reached their peak in 2014 and led to the ouster of Yanukovych.
• Soon after, amid fears of growing Western influence in Ukraine (Ukraine slipping out of Russia’s sphere
of influence), Russia invaded and annexed Crimea from Ukraine.
2022: Russia Invades Ukraine

• Russia was keeping the tensions high at the Ukraine border to get sanctions relief and other
concessions from the West.
• Also, it was seeking assurances from the US that Ukraine would not be inducted into NATO.
• However, the failure of such assurance by the West, and the pro-outlook of Ukraine towards the
West and NATO, gave an excuse for Russia to conduct a special military operation (later, a full-
fledged invasion) on Ukraine on the pretext of demilitarisation and denazification of Ukraine.
Causes Behind the Deepening Crisis
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Expansions Carried out by NATO

• Even after the dissolution of the Soviet Union (USSR), NATO continued its expansion. It started to pull
former Warsaw Pact states into its membership.
• Both for Russia and the West, Ukraine acted as a crucial buffer at times of war or uncertainty. With
Ukraine seeking NATO membership, this safe buffer for Russia was fast disappearing.
Balance of Power
• Ever since Ukraine split from the Soviet Union, both Russia and the West have vied for greater influence
in the country to keep the balance of power in the region in their favour.
Russia's Strategic Disadvantage Due to Geography

• Russia-Ukraine Crisis is also a fight to overcome geographical disadvantages faced by Russia.
• In the event of a war, the Russian navy cannot reach the Baltic Sea as NATO controls the Skagerrak
Strait, which connects it to the North Sea.
• If Russia gets past the Skagerrak, the GIUK Gap (Greenland, Iceland, UK) in the North Sea will
prevent its advance to the Atlantic.
• Beyond Bosporus Strait, the Aegean Sea, Mediterranean and Gibraltar Straits impede Russia’s
movement to the Atlantic Ocean or its route to the Indian Ocean via the Suez Canal.
• Its naval facility in the Syrian coastal city of Tartus is strategic but limited.
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Russia’s Demands
✓ A ban on further expansion of NATO to countries like Georgia that share borders with Russia.
✓ Pull back NATO’s military deployments to the 1990s level and prohibit the deployment of
intermediate-range missiles in the bordering areas.
✓ NATO must curb its military cooperation with former Soviet republics, including Ukraine.
Response from the West

➢ The U.S. has ruled out changing NATO’s open-door policy, which means NATO would continue to
induct more members. (Recently, Finland was inducted into NATO)
➢ The U.S. also says it would continue offering Ukraine training and weapons. The U.S. and the West are
imposing new economic sanctions on Russia.
Way Forward: Minsk Agreements

• A practical solution for the Russia-Ukraine situation is to revive the Minsk peace process.
• Minsk agreements were signed to stop the ongoing conflict between pro-Russian separatists and
the Ukraine administration in the mineral-rich Donbas region of Ukraine.
Minsk I
• Ukraine and the Russian-backed separatists agreed on a 12-point ceasefire deal in the capital of
Belarus in 2014. Its provisions included:
✓ prisoner exchanges,
✓ deliveries of humanitarian aid, and
✓ the withdrawal of heavy weapons.
• The agreement quickly broke down, with violations by both sides.
Minsk II
• In 2015, an open conflict was averted after the ‘Minsk II’ peace agreement was signed under the
mediation of France and Germany.
• Representatives of Russia, Ukraine, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)
and the leaders of two pro-Russian separatist regions signed a 13-point agreement.
• The five most important of the 13 points were, in brief:
✓ An immediate and comprehensive ceasefire.
✓ Withdrawal of all heavy weapons by both sides.
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✓ Restore complete control of the state border by the government of Ukraine.
✓ Withdrawal of all foreign armed formations, military equipment and mercenaries.
✓ Constitutional reform in Ukraine, including decentralisation, with specific mention of Donetsk and

Luhansk (paving the way for their secession from Ukraine!).
Effects on Global Supply Chain

Disrupted Ukrainian Exports
• Ukraine is the largest crop-producing country in Europe and is known as the breadbasket of Europe.
• It has high-quality soil in its eastern and southeastern parts (the most vulnerable to Russia’s
invasion).
• Ukraine accounts for more than 25% of the world’s trade in wheat and more than 60% of global
sunflower oil, and 30% of global barley exports.
• It sends over 40% of its wheat and corn exports to the Middle East or Africa.
• Some 45%-54% of the world's semiconductor-grade neon, critical for the lasers used to make chips,
comes from Ukrainian firms, which are now shut following the attack by Russia.
• The stoppage casts a cloud over the worldwide output of chips already in short supply.
Disrupted Russian Exports

• Russia is the world’s largest supplier of wheat. Russia is also a major global exporter of fertilisers.
• Europe gets nearly 40% of its natural gas and 25% of its oil from Russia.
• Russia is a significant source of many critical minerals deemed vital, including 30% of the globe’s supply
of platinum-group elements, 13% of titanium and 11% of nickel.
• Russia is also a significant neon source, used for etching circuits on silicon wafers.
• Russia exports rare metals like palladium to make semiconductors.
Black Sea Grain Initiative
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• Russia suspended the Black Sea Grain Initiative until its demands to allow the export of food and

fertiliser to the world are met.
• Black Sea Grain Initiative was launched in Istanbul by Russia, Türkiye, Ukraine, and the UN in 2022.
• This initiative allows commercial food and fertiliser (including ammonia) exports from Ukrainian ports
to global markets via the Black Sea.
• The purpose was to contribute to the prevention of global hunger, to reduce and address global food
insecurity, and to ensure the safety of merchant ships delivering grain and foodstuffs.
Crimea
• The Isthmus of Perekop connects the Crimean Peninsula to mainland Ukraine.
• In 2014, Russia invaded and subsequently annexed the pro-Russian Crimean Peninsula from Ukraine.
Why is Crimea so important for Russia?
• Vladivostok, the largest Russian port on the Pacific Ocean, is enclosed by the Sea of Japan, which the
Japanese dominate.
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• This does not just halt trade flow but prevents the Russian fleet from operating as a global power,
as it does not have year-round access to the world’s most important sea lanes.
• Moreover, most of the Russian ports, even when open for business, do not allow for easy access to PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
the Mediterranean Sea.

• This has left Russia with a military incentive to expand in the warmer water port of Crimea.
Sevastopol Port
• Warm-water ports are essential to Russian security because they enable Russia to control the sea,
project power, maintain good order, and observe a maritime consensus.
• The Port of Sevastopol is considered a critical hold for maritime routes between the Black Sea and Sea
of Marmara, and, therefore, the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.
• The port is one of the few warm deep-water ports available to Russia in the Black Sea.
• Also, the Russian Black Sea Fleet is situated in Sevastopol. Its presence in the area gives Russia a
military advantage, and it can carry out tactical manoeuvres (as it did in the Georgian-Russian conflict).
• Its importance has grown since the Syrian conflict because losing the Tartus fleet in Syria would
mean having only one warm-water port in Sevastopol.
{Russia-Ukraine} Safety of Nuclear facilities during war
• Zaporizhzhia nuclear facility was attacked again amid the Ukraine-Russia war. Zaporizhzhia is one of
five nuclear power stations in Ukraine. Russia controls Europe’s largest facility and, for almost two
years now, accused Ukraine of attacks.
Safety of nuclear reactors
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Strong but vulnerable
• Most nuclear reactors are made of several layers of steel and concrete and are designed to absorb PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
shocks from earthquakes of magnitude 8 or even higher.
• Ordinary shelling or gunfire can’t impact them seriously. The drone attack did not cause much
physical damage to the Zaporizhzhia station.
• However, failure can't be ruled out in case of a powerful bomb or missile attack.
Risk from power outage

• Nuclear reactors get heated to thousands of degrees Celsius from inside & have to be constantly cooled.
• This is usually done by a circulation of water, which is maintained through an external power source.
• Power outages cause disruptions in it. The failure of power caused the Fukushima disaster of 2011.
• After the Fukushima disaster, several nuclear reactors installed ‘passive’ cooling systems as an
additional layer of safety. These systems do not require electricity.
Fukushima disaster of 2011

• Though the plant survived the magnitude 9 earthquake and shut down its operations in response.
• However, the resultant tsunami floods disabled all power lines and backup systems.
• As a result, the facility suffered partial meltdowns and allowed the leakage of nuclear radiation.
Way forward: Seven Pillars of IAEA for nuclear plant safety

• Physical integrity of facilities must be maintained.
• All safety and security systems and equipment must be fully functional at all times.
• The operating staff must be able to ensure the safety of the facility without undue pressure.
• All nuclear sites must have a secure off-site power supply from the grid.
• There must be uninterrupted logistical supply chains and transportation to and from the sites.
• Effective on-site and off-site radiation monitoring systems, as well as emergency preparedness and
response measures, must be implemented.
• There must be reliable communication with the regulator and others.
{Russia-Ukraine} Swiss Peace Summit
Demands of Russia and Ukraine

Ukraine's 10-point plan
• Restoring Ukraine’s territorial integrity,
• Withdrawal of Russian troops and cessation of hostilities,
• Restoration of Ukraine’s state borders with Russia.
• Other demands include the release of prisoners and food security.
China's 12-point plan
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• Russia rejected the Ukrainian plan; however, it supports the Chinese 12-point plan.
• It focuses on hostilities and protecting civilians but makes no mention of Russia returning territory. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• It also stressed that "The security of a region should not be achieved by strengthening or expanding
military blocs", indirectly referring to NATO expansion.
• Russia has maintained its aims of “denazification, demilitarisation, and neutral status” of Ukraine.
India's stand on the Russia-Ukraine war

• India has expressed concerns over the ongoing violence.
• However, it has refrained from blaming either side.
{Geopolitics} Evolving Geopolitics of Global North and South

• The World Economic Forum annual meeting was in Davos, Switzerland, and NAM & G77 summits
occurred in Kampala, Uganda.
• The Davos Summit symbolised the world’s rich and powerful global north, and the underprivileged
global south met at Kampala (Uganda).
• Global South, often used in contrast to the developed Global North, are countries characterised as
“developing”, “less developed”, or “underdeveloped”.
• Both face a shared problem of dealing with structural changes in the international system.
• The old slogans of globalism in Davos and collectivism of the Global South in Kampala are no longer
credible or sustainable.
Evolution of a US-led Peaceful Order

• The Fall of the Berlin Wall collapsed in 1989, and the Soviet Union in 1991.
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• The end of the Cold War was followed by a period of relative harmony within the excellent power
constellation dominated by the US.
• The Washington Consensus encouraged the free movement of capital, goods, and labour. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• It also led to the redistribution of global economic activity to take advantage of cost differentials
and policy permissiveness.
• New political ideas of global governance matched this economic transformation.
• It was rooted in the conviction that supra-national institutions that transcend sovereignty were
necessary to manage the growing economic integration and collective threats like climate change.
Challenges to US-dominated Global North

• The elitist and hyper-global worldview of the global North produced a nationalist reaction.
• The long peace between major powers has ended with the war in Ukraine.
• The rise of China aggravated the failure to address the political resentments of post-Soviet Russia.
• A new alliance between Russia and China is the greatest challenge for the West since World War II.
• Mounting tensions in East Asia driven by China’s muscular regional policies and a revitalisation of US
alliances have added to it.
• Protection and nationalism in America, China’s weaponisation of economic interdependence,
particularly global institutions, immigration, and climate activism, posed significant challenges.
• Israel’s war on Gaza, the Houthi attacks on the Red Sea, and the US bombing of Houthi bases
complicated the situation in the Middle East.
Decline in the relevance of NAM and G77

• Both had a long history of solidarity and collective bargaining but limited accomplishments.
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• Regional institutions of ASEAN and the African Union are more consequential than NAM or G77.
• BRICS, with more significant political impact, have co-opted some of the traditional agenda of NAM
and G77.
• Further, the presence of Russia in the BRICS muddies the old North-South framework.
Contrasting agendas of China and India

• China and India will be represented at the ministerial level in both Davos and Kampala.
China
• China presents itself as the champion of the Global South.
• Several initiatives, including the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), Global Development Initiative (GDI),
Global Civilisation Initiative (GCI), and Global Security Initiative (GSI), reflect Beijing’s determination to
mobilise the Global South in rearranging the global order on Chinese terms.
India
• India aspires to reclaim its traditional role in the NAM and G77.
• While China aims to revise the global economic order, India focuses on integration and reform.
• India sees itself as a bridge between the North and the South.
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Arctic and Antarctica
{Antarctica} Maitri II Station in Antarctica
• GoI intends to operationalise a new research station in East Antarctica near the existing research
base Maitri. The research station is expected to be complete by January 2029.
India’s Research Stations in Antarctica

• The first permanent research station was “Dakshin Gangotri” in 1983 (now abandoned).
• Maitri: India’s second permanent research station operational since 1988. Lake Priyadarshini, a
freshwater lake, was built by India around Maitri.
• Bharati: Operational since 2012, it is India’s first committed research facility located 3000 km east
of Maitri.
India Antarctica Programme

• It is a scientific research and exploration program under the National Centre for Polar and Ocean
Research (NCPOR), Goa. It started in 1981 when the 1st Indian expedition to Antarctica was made.
India Antarctica Act 2022

• The Act seeks to give effect to:
❖ Antarctica Treaty.
❖ Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctica Treaty.
❖ Convention on the Conservation of Antarctica Marine Living Resources.
• Applicability: To any person, vessel, or aircraft that is a part of an Indian expedition to Antarctica
under a permit issued under the Act.
• The Act provides for a Central Committee on Antarctica Governance and Environmental Protection.
• Under the administrative control of the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES). 53
• It would ensure compliance with international laws to protect the Antarctica environment.
• The Act provides for penalties for contravention of the Act’s provisions. E.g., 20-year imprisonment
for conducting a nuclear explosion in Antarctica.
• It provides for the Antarctica Fund for the welfare of research work and protection of Antarctica.
• It also provides for designated courts and inspection teams to carry out inspections in Antarctica,
etc.
Activities Prohibited
• Nuclear explosion/disposal of radioactive wastes.
• Introduction of non-sterile soil/any specified substances and products.
• Discharge of garbage, plastic, or substances into the sea, which is harmful to the marine environment.
• Damage, destroy, or remove any historic site or monument.
Permit needed
• An Indian expedition to enter/remain in Antarctica.
• A person, vessel/aircraft registered in India to enter/remain in Antarctica.
• A person/vessel to drill, dredge, excavate for mineral resources, or collect samples of mineral
resources.
• Activities that may harm native species.
• Waste disposal by a person, vessel or aircraft in Antarctica.
Antarctica Treaty
• It laid the foundation of a rules-based international order for a continent without permanent
population.
• It remains the only single treaty that governs a whole continent.
• It was signed on 1st December 1959 (entered into force in 1961) in Washington.
• Initially, 12 member parties; currently, it has 54 members. India became a member of this treaty in
1983.
• Headquarters: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
• The treaty declares the continent as the world’s 1st nuclear-weapon-free zone to be preserved for
scientific exploration.
Provisions
• Application of the treaty: All areas south of latitude 60°. It excludes the high seas, which come under
international law.
• The treaty provides for the use of the continent only for peaceful purposes, including promoting the
freedom of scientific research.
• It neutralises territorial sovereignty, limiting any new claim or enlarging the existing claim.
• It forbids all contracting parties from establishing military bases, carrying on military manoeuvres,
testing any weapons (including nuclear weapons), or disposing of radioactive wastes in the area.
• Dispute settlement by the International Court of Justice if they cannot be settled by peaceful 54
negotiation or arbitration by the involved parties.
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctica Treaty

• Also known as Antarctica-Environmental Protocol or the Madrid Protocol, it was signed in 1991
(entered into force in 1998) as part of the Antarctica Treaty System.
• It prohibits mining, requires environmental impact assessments for new activities, and designates
the continent as a natural reserve.
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctica Marine Living Resources.

• Established in 1982 as a part of the Antarctica Treaty System.
• Objective: To preserve marine life and environmental integrity in and near the Antarctic region.
{Arctic} India’s Arctic Expedition
• The Ministry of Earth Sciences launched India’s 1st winter scientific expedition to the Arctic.
Why is India undertaking winter expeditions to the Arctic?

• It would cater to new scientific projects in atmospheric and space sciences.
• It will address the knowledge gap and data deficiency during winter polar nights, especially in
atmospheric and biological sciences and space physics.
• It makes India among select nations with extended in-time operations in the Arctic.
What makes the Arctic challenging for scientific explorations?

• Limited access, harsh climate, several months of darkness.
• Presence of dangerous wildlife like polar bears.
• Limited space for independent studies.
• Geopolitical complications, such as the current war between Ukraine and Russia.
Why has India undertaken fewer and only summer-time expeditions to the Arctic?
• Antarctica is a no-man’s land governed by an independent treaty called the Antarctic Treaty. Thus, it
is open for all countries to set up stations and facilities to undertake scientific studies.
• The Arctic has limited space for independent studies as the region belongs to various Arctic countries
with national jurisdictions and competing interests.
• In the absence of facilities for wintering observations and sampling, India has restricted its activities
to mostly spring-summer-autumn time till date.
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6 pillars of India’s Arctic Policy

• Science and Research,

• Climate and Environmental Protection,
• Economic and Human development,
• Transportation and Connectivity,
• Governance and International Cooperation,
• National Capacity Building.
{Arctic} India’s Arctic Imperative

• In March 2024, India’s first winter experience in the Arctic ended successfully. For over a decade,
India’s National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research saw no reason for a winter mission to the Arctic,
but that has changed recently.
Reasons for the growing interest in the Arctic

• Arctic warming: The faster-than-estimated warming of the Arctic and related impacts on climate
led to a change in the needs.
• Trade route: India is seized of the opening up of Arctic Sea routes, primarily the Northern Sea
Route, and would like to route Indian trade through the region, which would reduce shipping costs.
• Geopolitics: China's growing investment in the Arctic and Russia’s decision to grant China
expanded access to the Northern Sea Route increased India's focus on the Arctic region.
Potential for collaboration

• Norway, the Present chair of the Arctic Council, has close ties with India. Both have collaborated
to investigate changing conditions in the Arctic and Antarctic and their impact on South Asia.
• Denmark and Finland: Indian collaboration has come in areas such as waste management,
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pollution control, renewable energy, and green technology.

• Participation in Arctic Council’s working groups: India can play a greater role in tackling issues
such as the blue economy, infrastructure, and responsible resource development.

• Responsible image: India’s ‘responsible stakeholder’ credentials result in greater collaboration
scope.
Way forward
• India's Arctic Policy: The policy must be followed in letter and spirit.
• Addressing environmental concerns: While the Indian government seems keen to benefit from
seabed mining and resource exploitation in the Arctic, it needs a sustainable extraction mode.
Regional & Global Groupings
{Groupings} ASEAN
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

• It is a regional group of ten countries that promotes economic, political, and security cooperation.
• India is not a member of ASEAN.
Evolution of ASEAN
• It was established in 1967 in Bangkok (Thailand) with the signing of the ASEAN Declaration
(Bangkok Declaration). It has its secretariat in Jakarta, Indonesia.
• Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand are the founding members of ASEAN.
• It has ten member countries. Other members are Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Brunei.
Leadership
• ASEAN’s leadership rotates annually based on the alphabetical order of the English names of the
member states.
• A member state at the helm chairs the ASEAN summit.
• Myanmar was scheduled to take over the leadership in 2026.
• Recently, the ASEAN leaders have decided not to give the leadership of this bloc to Myanmar.
• The Philippines agreed to take over the regional bloc’s chairmanship in 2026.
• In 2021, the Myanmar military ousted the democratically elected government.
• The coup handed the power of government to the military.
ASEAN Summit
• It is the highest policy-making body in ASEAN comprising the Heads of State.
• As per regular practice, the ASEAN Summit is held twice annually.
• The first ASEAN Summit was held in Bali, Indonesia, on 23-24 February 1976. 57
ASEAN-India Summit 2023

• PM Modi presented a 12-point proposal to expand cooperation between India and the ASEAN at
the annual ASEAN-India Summit 2023.

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12-Point Proposal for Strengthening India-ASEAN Cooperation

• Establishing multi-modal connectivity and economic corridor that links South-East Asia-India-West
Asia-Europe (resembles China’s Belt and Road Initiative).
• Invited ASEAN countries to join the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure.
• Called for cooperation in disaster management.
• Invited ASEAN countries to join Global Centre for Traditional Medicine by WHO in India.
• Called for working together on Mission LiFE.
• Offered to share India’s experience in providing affordable and quality medicines to people through
Jan-Aushadhi Kendras.
• Called for collectively raising issues faced by Global South in multilateral fora.
• Called for a collective fight against terrorism, terror financing, and cyber-disinformation.
• Offered to share India’s Digital Public Infrastructure Stack with ASEAN partners.
• Announced ASEAN-India fund for Digital Future, focusing on digital transformation and financial
connectivity cooperation.
• Announced renewal of support to the Economic and Research Institute of ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA)
to act as a knowledge partner for enhancing our engagement.
• Called for enhanced maritime safety, security, and domain awareness.
Act East Policy

• It was announced by PM Modi in 2014.
• It is a successor to the Look East policy.
• Look East policy was introduced in the early 1990s. It was endorsed by former prime ministers Atal
Bihari Vajpayee and Manmohan Singh.
• It focuses on the extended neighbourhood in the Asia-Pacific region.
• The objective is to promote economic cooperation and cultural ties and develop strategic
relationships with countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
• It has emphasised India-ASEAN cooperation.
{Groupings} India-ASEAN FTA 59

• India and the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) will begin negotiations to
“modernise” the 15-year-old free trade agreement (FTA).
• ASEAN accounted for 11.3% of India’s global trade in 2022-23.
• The ASEAN India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITGA) is expected to be completed by 2025.
Need to Renegotiate FTA

• After the FTA, India’s trade deficit with ASEAN rose from $7.5 billion annually to $43.57 billion in
FY23.
• Incidences of re-routing of goods by China through the ASEAN countries cause duty losses.
New Expected Provisions

• New elements of product-specific rules will make FTA more efficient.
• Rules of Origin will be incorporated to increase market access and to stop Chinese circumvention.
• Rules of Origin are the criteria used to determine the origin of a product to establish duty charges.
• Trade remedies will protect domestic industry against unfair trade practices or unforeseen surges in
imports of goods.
• No new areas, such as environment, labour, MSMEs or gender, will be added to avoid new issues.
Types of Trade Agreements

• Trade Agreement: Cooperation between two or more countries for specific trade or investment
terms.
Free Trade Agreement

• Two or more countries provide preferential trade terms, tariff concession, etc., to the partner country.
• It is more detailed than a Preferential Trade Agreement with a "Negative list" of excluded items.
Preferential Trade Agreement(PTA)

• Preferential right of entry is given by reducing duties on "Positive list" items.
• Tariffs may be reduced to zero for some products, even in a PTA.
• India signed a PTA with Afghanistan.
Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement

• Besides the above cooperation, CEPA also includes the regulatory aspect of trade.
• India has signed CEPAs with South Korea and Japan.
Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement

• It covers negotiation on trade tariffs and "Tariff Rate Quota" only.
• It is not as comprehensive as CEPA.
• India has signed CECA with Malaysia.
Framework agreement
• Framework agreement primarily defines the scope and provisions of the potential deal. 60
Early Harvest Scheme

• It is a precursor to an FTA/CECA/CEPA between two trading partners.
• Before the conclusion of the actual FTA, countries identify certain products for tariff liberalisation.
{Groupings} Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
• India chaired the SCO’s Council of Heads of State on July 4 for the first time.
• PM Modi “virtually hosted” the presidents of Russia, China, and Central Asian Presidents and the
PM of Pakistan. The summit was planned initially as an in-person summit for the leaders in Delhi.
• Iran became the new permanent member of the SCO at this India-hosted summit of the grouping.
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)

• SCO is an Eurasian intergovernmental organisation and economic and security alliance.
• It emerged as the successor to the Shanghai Five, established in 1996 and consisting of China,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Tajikistan.
• SCO was formally formed in 2001, including Uzbekistan.
• India and Pakistan joined the grouping in 2017 in its first round of expansion.
Members States
• Members (9): China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan & Iran.
• Three Observes interested in full membership: Afghanistan, Belarus, and Mongolia, and
• Several Dialogue Partners that include Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, etc.
Importance
• SCO is the largest regional organisation globally, covering around 60% of the Eurasian landmass and
40% of the world's population.
• The SCO member states collectively contribute to ~20% of the global GDP.
Governance
• SCO mainly focuses on regional development and security issues like regional terrorism, ethnic
separatism, religious extremism, etc.
• It is governed by the Heads of State Council (HSC), its supreme decision-making body, which meets
once a year. The SCO's official languages are Russian and Chinese.
Presidency
• The rotational presidency of SCO has been handed over to India in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, in
2022.
• India will hold the presidency of the grouping for the first time for a year until September 2023.
• The next meeting of the SCO-HSC will be held in 2024 in Kazakhstan.
Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure

• The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) is a permanent organ of the SCO that serves to
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promote cooperation of member states against the three evils of terrorism, separatism and
extremism.
• It is headquartered in Tashkent.
• The head of RATS is elected for a three-year term.
Tourism and Cultural Capital

• Varanasi has been selected as the SCO region’s first “Tourism and Cultural Capital” for 2022-23.
• SCO will rotate the ‘Cultural and Tourism Capital’ title among the member states.
SCO Summit, 2023

• India hosted the summit for the first time. It was held virtually. Leaders of SCO called for a more
representative and multipolar world order. Iran was included as SCO’s ninth member.
• SCO members agreed to explore using “national currencies” for payments within the grouping.
The use of national currencies would circumvent international dollar-based payments.
New Delhi Declaration of the Council of Heads of State

• New Delhi Declaration was signed at SCO 2023 Summit.
• It states that the world must come together to "counter the activities of terrorist, separatist and
extremist groups, paying special attention to spread of religious intolerance, aggressive
nationalism, ethnic and racial discrimination, xenophobia, ideas of fascism and chauvinism."
• The Member States sought to develop common principles and approaches to form a unified list of
terrorist, separatist and extremist organisations.
• They opposed the militarisation of information and communication technologies.
India at SCO 2023

• India stays out of joint statements on:
1. SCO Economic Development Strategy 2030
2. China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)
• India opposes the BRI over its inclusion of projects in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.
• India criticised China for connectivity projects that do not respect sovereign boundaries.
{Groupings} BRICS
Evolution of BRICS
• In 2001, British economist Jim O’Neill coined the term ‘BRIC’, standing for the initials of four emerging
economies at the time – Brazil, Russia, India, and China.
• In July 2006, the leaders of BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) countries met for the first time in
St. Petersburg, Russia. In September 2006, the group was formalised as BRIC. South Africa joined in
2010, expanding it to ‘BRICS’.
• Now, BRICS includes these five economies, representing:
❖ 42% of the world’s population 62
❖ 30% of the world’s territory
❖ 23% of global GDP
❖ 18% of world trade.
Need of BRICS (Alternative mechanism for global governance)

• The unrepresentative character of global governance institutions has led to their failure.
• A more inclusive system like BRICS can fill such institutional vacuums.
• BRICS and SCO could ignite a genuine conversation on making global governance more
representative and inclusive.
The rationale behind creating BRICS
• To counter the dominance of European and Western countries at international forums and
institutions, such as the United Nations.
• To represent the global south at the centre of international agenda-setting.
BRICS agenda
• The chairmanship rotates among the group annually.
• The Chair has to set the agenda, priorities, and calendar for the year.
Issues
• The five countries are not yet close together and trust each other like the Group of Seven (Group of
advanced industrial nations).
• BRICS has not been able to steer the global economy in any significant manner.
• It doesn't really want to make economic agreements with its members.
• Its historical capability to influence global geopolitics is overestimated.
• As a bloc, it is hardly an attractive investment destination.
15th BRICS Summit

• It is the first in-person meeting since 2019. The agenda of the 15th Summit is ‘BRICS in Africa:
Partnership for Mutually Accelerated Growth, Sustainable Development and Inclusive
Multilateralism’.
Expansion of BRICS
• Over 40 countries have formally or informally expressed interest in joining an expanded BRICS.
• It reflects the anger in the global South countries about their place in the world.
• The expansion of the group would represent a major shake-up of the existing world order.
Benefits for China

• China is benefitting from the anti-Americanism of BRICS countries.
• Through BRICS, China is drawing many countries in the Global South closer to China.
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BRICS and Russia
• For Russia, the expansion of the BRICS states represents the chance:
To overcome international isolation.
•
• To bring its allies — like Belarus and Venezuela into the club.
Expansion with caution (Lesson for India)

• If everyone tries to bring their friends into the BRICS, then the tensions within BRICS will rise.
• Given its size, economic influence, spread of the Belt and Road Initiative, and diplomatic bandwidth,
China will influence an expanded BRICS.
• All the new members have very close economic ties to China. In the future, India may have to lobby
harder to make its vote in the BRICS grouping count.
• In an attempt to create a multipolar world and alternative mechanisms for global governance, India
should not boost the rise of China and the China-centric world order.
Benefits of expansion
• Champion of Global South: The expansion of the group is part of its plan to build dominance and
reshape global governance into a “multipolar” world order.
• The expansion puts the voices of the Global South at the centre of the world agenda.
• Expansion has strengthened its position as a global grouping.
• The inclusion of four major countries from the West Asian region denotes a shift in the non-Western
economic grouping’s underpinnings.
Importance for India

• The platform could be a means of establishing its larger efforts to represent the Global South.
• The 2017 Doklam stand-off at the Bhutan-India-China trijunction was resolved just days before
Modi and Xi were scheduled to meet for the then BRICS summit in China.
• All BRICS countries are members of G20.
• The Summit could move things along from a diplomatic perspective.
• This is the first in-person summit since the military standoff with China at the Line of Actual Control
began in 2020. This meeting could resolve the LAC situation.
• Just over two weeks after the BRICS summit, India will host the G20 summit, and India will want to
ensure full attendance by the leaders, including all BRICS members.
India and Global Groupings

How can India be a part of the Quad, G-20, BRICS, SCO and global South at the same
time?
• India’s active participation in non-western multilateral forums such as BRICS, SCO and the global
South must also be seen as India’s response to the undemocratic and inequitable governance
structures of institutions such as the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the UNSC.
• India’s objective is not to create or belong to an anti-U.S./West bloc either.
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• Developmentally, historically, and geographically, India belongs to BRICS, SCO, and the global South.
• But India does not only belong to them. Structurally and aspirationally, the G-20, G-7, Quad and the
like are where India is headed.
{Groupings} Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
• 6th edition of the International Conference on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure was held in New Delhi
on theme of ‘Investing today for a more resilient tomorrow.’
• Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) was established in 2019 at the UN Climate
Action Summit under India’s leadership and with the support of the UN Office for Disaster Risk
Reduction (UNDRR).
• It is a multi-stakeholder global coalition of nations, UN organisations, multilateral development
banks, corporate sector, and academic institutions.
• Objective: It aims to promote the resilience of infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks.
• Members: 39 countries and 7 organisations. Membership in the CDRI is open to all entities, subject
to the approval of the governing council.
• The governing authority of the CDRI is divided into three groups: the Governing Council, the
Executive Committee and the Secretariat.
• Secretariat: New Delhi, India
Initiatives by CDRI
• Infrastructure Resilience Academic eXchange (IRAX): It bridges the talent gap for building
disaster-resilient infrastructure.
• Infrastructure for Resilient Island States: To strengthen critical infrastructure in Small Island
Developing States (SIDS).
• CDRI WORLD knowledge portal: It acts as a central repository for resources, tools, and best
practices related to disaster-resilient infrastructure.
• Infrastructure Resilience Accelerator Fund (IRAF): Provides support to developing & small island
nations.
• CDRI Technical Resource Handbook: It provides practical guidance on assessing infrastructure
vulnerabilities and implementing resilience measures
• DRI Connect: It is a one-stop online space for DRI stakeholders to connect, learn and collaborate
towards improved practices, processes and policies for resilient infrastructure systems.
{Groupings} Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific

Partnership (CPTPP)
• Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) is a free trade
agreement (FTA) signed by 11 countries in 2018.
• It incorporates the provisions of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) Agreement (signed but not 66
yet in force), except for a limited set of suspended provisions.
• CPTPP requires countries to eliminate or significantly reduce tariffs and firmly commit to opening
services and investment markets.
Members of CPTPP
• Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Brunei, Chile, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru, Singapore and Vietnam.
• The U.K. has become the first European nation to sign CPTPP. It will become a member after it
ratifies.
• China, Taiwan, Ukraine, Costa Rica, Uruguay and Ecuador have applied to join the group.
Importance for UK
✓ It is seen as a bulwark against China’s dominance in the region.
✓ Since Brexit, the UK has sought other trade deals with countries and trading blocs around the world.
CPTTP will cut tariffs for UK exports to Asia Pacific countries.
Scepticism
➢ CPTTP will struggle to compensate for the economic damage sustained by leaving the EU.
➢ The UK already has trade deals with ten of the eleven CPTPP members, and the eventual economic
boost will be minuscule.
Free Trade Agreement (FTA)

• An FTA is a pact between two or more nations to reduce barriers to imports and exports among
them.
• Under a free trade policy, goods and services can be bought and sold across international borders
with minimal government tariffs, quotas, subsidies, or prohibitions to inhibit their exchange.
• In an FTA, the countries agree on certain obligations such as investor protections, intellectual
property rights, anti-dumping, etc.
• For the developed nations, the main goal of FTAs is to reduce barriers to exports, protect interests
competing abroad, and enhance the rule of law in the FTA partner country or countries.
• For developing nations, the main goal is to protect against dumping and anti-competitive
trade practices while promoting exports.
Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)

• The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) was a proposed FTA between twelve Pacific Rim economies:
Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, NZ, Peru, Singapore, Vietnam, and the
US.
• TPP was initially touted to be path-breaking for free trade but fizzled out with the withdrawal of
US.
• Remaining countries negotiated the CPTPP, which incorporates most of the provisions of the
TPP.
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)

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• RCEP is an FTA among the Asia-Pacific nations of Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia,
Japan, South Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, NZ, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and
Vietnam.
• While the US spearheaded TPP negotiations, China pushed for RCEP.
India’s concerns that led to the withdrawal from RCEP

• India (a protectionist nation with high tariffs) withdrew from RCEP negotiations in 2019.
Cheaper imports and Widening Trade Deficit
• India feared domestic sectors like steel, textiles, farms, dairy, etc., would be hit by cheaper
alternatives from other RCEP countries that employ cheaper and more efficient industry processes.
Farm sector is not excluded
• India has excluded agriculture from import liberalisation in the WTO and bilateral FTAs.
• But RCEP was hell-bent on bringing even the farm sector under import liberalisation.
Why the Dairy sector vehemently opposes FTAs like RCEP?
• Global dairy trade occurs not in milk but in its solid derivatives like milk powder, butter and
cheese.
• The MNC firms operating in India are forced to buy milk from Indian farmers as India’s dairy
imports are low due to high tariffs, especially on milk powder (60%) and fats (40%).
• FTAs like RCEP will make milk imports cheaper, and MNC firms will prefer importing milk products
from New Zealand or Australia rather than buying from India.
• Five percent of New Zealand’s exports in the dairy sector are enough to flood India’s domestic
market.
• While 70 million households depend on the dairy sector in India, the number is just 10,000 in
New Zealand (a temperate country with ideal conditions for dairy farming).
FTAs are essential for Global Value Chain (GVC)

• A global value chain (GVC) is the series of stages in producing a product or service.
• The GVCs exploit hyper specialisation for greater efficiencies.
• They do so by breaking down the production process across countries.
Explanation
• The common notion of international trade is that one country exports product X to the second
country and imports product Y from the second country.
• However, due to increased fragmentation and optimisation of the production process, this is
not how most of the trade happens.
• Product X is never entirely made in the first country. Instead, the production cycle involves half-
made goods crisscrossing a country’s borders — sometimes as exports and at other times as
imports.
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• The final product may be given the last touch in the first country, but the “value chain” involves
trading across several national boundaries.
Example of Global Value Chain
• The mechanical parts of German-made vehicles are manufactured in Germany, as German

engineers are masters at efficient manufacturing.
• However, the vehicle's electronics are imported from Chinese, Taiwanese, or South Korean
firms, as these countries are pioneers of electronics manufacturing.
• And the software for the vehicles is designed in Indian software hubs like Bengaluru.
• The final product is assembled in Germany or any other country and exported worldwide.
Why integrating into the Global Value Chans is essential?
• Productivity and income rose in countries that became integral to GVCs—Bangladesh, China,
and Vietnam, among others. The steepest declines in poverty occurred in precisely those countries.
• GVCs allow resources to flow to their most productive use, not only across countries and sectors
but also within sectors across stages of production. As a result, GVCs magnify growth and
employment.
What is India’s participation in GVCs?

• India’s integration with GVCs is among the lowest in G20 countries.
• India cannot miss out on being a part of GVCs, which can happen only if tariffs are reduced.
• It should work on reducing its dependence on agriculture for employment generation by
squeezing itself into the GVCs through FTAs like RCEP to boost manufacturing.
{Groupings} G7 and India
❖ The 50th G7 Leaders’ Summit was recently concluded in Apulia (Italy) with India's participation as
an Outreach Country.
History and evolution of G7

• The G7 is an informal grouping of leading industrialised nations, including the United States,
France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Canada.
• Representatives of the European Union (EU) are always present at the G7 leaders summit.
• The first “World Economic Summit”, which later became the G7, was launched in 1975 by former
French President Valéry Giscard d’Estaing and then German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt.
• Initial concerns were economic problems of the 1970s, including the first oil crisis and the
collapse of the system of fixed exchange rates (Bretton Woods).
• Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan and the US agreed on international economic policy
and initial measures to fight the global downturn.
• Canada became a member of the group at the 1976 summit in Puerto Rico, and with its
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inclusion, the G7 was born (Not a founding member).

• The first talks between the then-European Community and the G7 took place in London in 1977.
• Since the Ottawa Summit of 1981, the European Community (now the European Union) has
participated in all working sessions.
• In 1998, at the Birmingham Summit, the Group of Eight was constituted as Russia became a
member. Russia’s membership was suspended in 2014 following its annexation of Crimea.
G7 and G20
• The G20 is a larger group of countries, which also includes G7 members.
• The G20 was formed in 1999 to bring more countries together to address global economic con-
cerns.
• Apart from the G7 countries, the G20 comprises Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, India,
Indonesia, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, and Turkey.
• As opposed to the G7, which discusses a wide range of issues, the G20's deliberations are confined
to the global economy and financial markets.
Mechanism of G7 summits
• G-7 meet at annual informal summits, rotatedly presided over by leaders of member countries.
• The host country typically gets to invite dignitaries from outside the G-7 to attend the Summit.
• The groundwork for the summit, including matters to be discussed and follow-up meetings, is done
by the “sherpas” (representatives of members).
• It ends with the release of a non-binding communique summarising key political commitments.
• The G7 does not have a formal constitution or a fixed headquarters.
• Each year, starting from the 1st of January, one of the Member States takes over the leadership of
the Group on a rotating basis. The EU does not hold the rotating presidency of the G7.
G7 Summit 2024
• The agenda included defending the “rules-based international system” amid Russia’s aggression
towards Ukraine and addressing the Middle East conflict.
• It also included strengthening partnerships with developing nations, especially in Africa.
• Key priorities included migration, climate change, food security, and the implications of artificial
intelligence (AI) for humanity.
Key Highlights of G7 Summit 2024
• Key discussions centred on global conflicts, notably the Russia-Ukraine war & Israel-Hamas conflict.
❖ US & Ukraine signed 10-year security agreement to bolster Ukraine’s defence against Russia.
• Additionally, the G7 leaders agreed to a $50 billion loan package for Ukraine, utilising interest
from Russia’s frozen central bank assets as collateral.
• The UK announced new sanctions targeting entities involved in supplying military goods to
Russia, including those based in China, Israel, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkey.
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Relevance of G7
Achievements of G7
• In 1997, the G7 countries agreed to provide $300 million to the effort to contain the effects of the
reactor meltdown in Chernobyl.
• At the 2002 summit, members decided to launch a coordinated response to fight the threat of
AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, leading to the formation of the Global Fund.
• The Global Apollo Program was launched out of the 2015 G7 summit meeting.
 The Global Apollo Programme aims to make the cost of clean electricity lower than that from
coal-fired power stations across the world within 10 years.
Criticism and shortcomings
• Exclusive and Closed Group: G7 faces international backlashes due to a disproportionate effect on
the world economy. E.g. the Plaza Accord of 1985 had major ramifications for global currency
markets.
Plaza Accord
• It was an agreement to devalue the dollar to keep it from continuing to appreciate. It was
supposed to help reduce the U.S. trade deficit, make its exports more competitive & stabilise
trade with Japan.
• It failed and was replaced by the Louvre Accord in 1987.
• Outdated and Ineffective: The exclusion of two of the world’s largest economies, India and China,
question its effectiveness.
❖ An analysis from the think tank Bruegel (‘The G7 is dead, long live the G7’) said the share of
GDP of G7 members declined from roughly 50% in the 1970s to around 30% in 2018.
• Concern over internal cooperation: Disagreement on issues like climate change faces criticism.
❖ Then US President Donald Trump was often at odds with other G7 leaders and, at the 2019 sum-
mit, skipped a meeting on climate issues.”
India's participation in G7
• India's economic growth and its geopolitical role as a “swing state” have made it significant.
• Next year, India’s aggregate GDP is expected to overtake Japan’s & a couple of years later,
Germany’s.
• That would put the size of India’s economy ahead of all G7 countries except the US.
Significance of the G7 for India

• India has a stake in developing deeper collaboration with the institutions of the “collective West”.
• It provides a forum to India for strengthening relations with the world’s leading economies.
• It can also help India transform into a global mediator, a manager of the region, and a mobiliser
against China's looming threat.
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• By diversifying supply chains and fostering greater technological cooperation, India can advance the
idea of regional and global economic restructuring.
• India has long called for reforming global institutions to reflect modern-day geopolitical realities.
{Groupings} Group of Twenty (G20)
• The 2023 G20 summit was held in New Delhi. Group of Twenty (G20) is the forum for international
economic cooperation consisting of 19 countries, the EU, and the African Union.
Evolution of G20
• G20 was founded in 1999 after the Asian financial crisis. It was started as a forum for Finance
Ministers and Central Bank Governors to discuss global economic and financial issues.
• It was upgraded to the level of Heads of States in the wake of the 2007 global financial crisis.
• In 2009, it was designated the “premier forum for international economic cooperation”.
• It initially focused on broad macroeconomic issues, but now expanded its agenda to include
sustainable development, health, energy, environment, climate change, and anti-corruption.
G20 Presidency
• G20 Presidency is responsible for bringing together G20 agenda in consultation with other
members.
• India holds the Presidency of the G20 from 1 December 2022 to 30 November 2023.
• As the G-20 presidency, India sets the agenda for the year, identifies the themes and focus areas,
conducts discussions, and works out outcome documents.
Troika
• The Troika supports the Presidency. It consists of the previous, current, and upcoming presidency.
• During India’s Presidency, the Troika comprised of Indonesia, India, and Brazil.
G20 Sherpa
• Sherpas are special envoys of G20 leaders.
• They are representatives of member countries and are appointed directly by the Head of
Government. Amitabh Kant is India’s 2023 G20 Sherpa.
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How G20 Works

• G20 has no fixed headquarters or a permanent Secretariat. The secretariat moves by rotation
between the countries hosting the Presidency of the grouping each year.
• The G20 Presidency leads the G20 agenda for one year and hosts the Summit.
• The G20 consists of two parallel tracks:
• Finance Track is led by Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors of the member countries.
• Sherpa Track is led by the Sherpas of member countries.
• There are Working Groups in which representatives from the relevant ministries of the members,
invited, and various international organisations participate.
• These working groups meet regularly throughout the term of each Presidency.
• There are Engagement Groups that bring together civil societies, parliamentarians, think tanks,
women, youth, labour, businesses, and researchers of the G20 countries.
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G20 Summit
• The G20 Summit is held annually under the leadership of a rotating Presidency.
• The first G20 Summit was held in 2008 in Washington, DC.
• The US is the only country that hosted the summit twice in 2008 and 2009.
2023 G20 Summit

• The 2023 G20 summit was India's first G20 summit as a host country. PM Modi is the current G20
Chairman.
• India invited Bangladesh (India did not invite any other neighbour), Egypt, Mauritius, Netherlands,
Nigeria, Oman, Singapore, Spain, and UAE as Guests for the 2023 G20 summit held in Kashmir.
Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam or “One Earth, One Family, One Future'

• It is the theme of India’s G20 Presidency.
• It is drawn from the ancient Sanskrit text of the Maha Upanishad.
• It affirms the value of all life — human, animal, plant, and microorganisms — and their
interconnectedness on earth and in the broader universe.
Highlights of G20 Summit 2023

• The African Union becomes the permanent member of G-20.
• PM Modi launched the Global Biofuel Alliance.
• PM Modi launched the India-Middle East-Europe mega economic corridor.
• G20 leaders adopted the New Delhi Declaration.
African Union (AU)

• The AU is a continental body representing all African countries (55 member states).
• It was officially launched in 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (1963-1999).
• Mali, Sudan, and Guinea were suspended in 2021, and Burkina Faso was suspended in 2022 after the
military took power.
• The aims of the AU are:
❖ To achieve greater unity and solidarity between African countries and their people.
❖ To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and independence of its Member States. 74
❖ To promote democratic principles and institutions, popular participation, and good governance.
❖ To promote peace, security, and stability on the continent.
❖ To accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the continent.
Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA)

• It is an initiative by India as G20 Chair.
• A total of 19 countries and 12 international organizations have so far agreed to join the alliance.
• It includes both G20 members and non-member countries.
• Founding members include India, Singapore, Bangladesh, Italy, USA, Brazil, Argentina, Mauritius &
UAE.
• It aims to:
❖ Boost demand and technology transfer to produce biofuels and enhance trade.
❖ Foster global collaboration for the advancement and widespread adoption of biofuels.
New Delhi Declaration

• On Ukraine war: All states must act in a manner consistent with the purposes and principles of the
UN charter in its entirety.
• On food security: It called for immediate and unimpeded deliveries of grain, foodstuffs, and
fertilisers from the Russian Federation and Ukraine.
• On climate change: Need to accelerate efforts to phase down unabated coal power, in line with
national circumstances.
• Calls on parties to set an ambitious, transparent, and trackable New Collective Quantified Goal of
climate finance in 2024, from a floor of $100 billion a year.
• Recall and reaffirm the 2010 commitment by the developed countries to mobilise jointly $100 billion
in climate finance per year by 2020 and annually through 2025.
India’s Other International Initiatives

• International Solar Alliance
• Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure
Global Sovereign Debt Roundtable

• It is a joint initiative of the IMF, World Bank, and India (G-20 Presidency), launched in 2023.
• The objective is to build an understanding among key stakeholders involved in debt restructurings.
• It discusses debt sustainability and restructuring challenges and ways to address them.
• The roundtable focuses on process and standards, not on discussing country cases.
{Groupings} India-Middle East-Europe Corridor (IMEC)
• IMEC has immense potential to put India, the Middle East and Europe on the collective path to
growth, triggering regional and global cooperation.
India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)

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• IMEC is a network of transport corridors (railway lines and sea lanes).
• It consists of two separate corridors:
❖ East Corridor, which connects India to West Asia.
❖ North Corridor that connects West Asia to Europe.
• It is part of the Partnership for Global Infrastructure Investment.
Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment

• It is a joint initiative to fund infrastructure projects in developing countries.
• It was launched by G7 countries in 2022.
• It aims to counter China's Belt and Road Initiative.
• The infrastructure plan was first announced in June 2021 during the G7 Summit in the UK.
• US President Joe Biden had called it the Build Back Better World (B3W) framework.
Significance of IMEC
• Ancient Trade Route Revival: IMEC resurrects historic trade routes, notably the Red Sea, fostering
cultural and economic exchange.
• India's Reaffirmed Role: IMEC underscores India's historical significance in global trade networks.
• Geopolitical Influence: IMEC's establishment elevates the geopolitical importance of connected
regions, including India, the Middle East, and Europe.
Challenges of IMEC
• Infrastructure Development: IMEC faces complexities in building essential infrastructure at major
Gulf and Mediterranean ports.
• Cross-Border Connectivity: Achieving seamless cross-border connectivity demands international
cooperation, particularly in the Middle East.
• Environmental Sustainability: Addressing environmental considerations, such as reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, is crucial for IMEC's long-term viability.
• Coordination and Financing: Effective coordination among participating nations and securing
financing are pivotal challenges for the corridor's sustainability.
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{Groupings} Indo-Pacific Economic Framework

• Indo-Pacific Economic Forum (IPEF) is a US-led economic grouping launched at the QUAD summit
in 2022 (in Tokyo, Japan). Its focus is primarily on standard setting and facilitating trade.
• It is not a Free Trade Agreement; thus, it does not propose lower tariffs or preferential market access.
• 14 member countries of IPEF:
❖ All 4 Quad members (India, USA, Australia and Japan)
❖ 7 members of ASEAN (Except Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar), and
❖ New Zealand and Fiji.
• The member countries jointly account for about 40% of the global GDP.
• Pillars of IPEF: Trade, Supply Chain Resilience, Clean Energy-Decarbonisation-Infrastructure, and
Taxes and Anti-corruption measures.
Significance of IPEF
• Focus on economic prosperity: IPEF aims to establish “high-standard, inclusive, free, and fair-trade”
to fuel economic activity and investments in the Indo-Pacific region.
• Strengthening supply chain resilience: It aspires to secure access to vital raw materials,
semiconductors, critical minerals, and clean energy tech.
• Hedging against China: ASEAN countries can hedge against China without overtly antagonizing it
since it only calls for economic cooperation.
Challenges Associated with IPEF

• US-led, US-Centred initiative: It might become another forum to raise and harbor US tech firms’
commercial interests rather than the interest of the Indo-Pacific region.
• Volatile US leadership: Past unilateral withdrawals from CPTPP (Comprehensive & Progressive
Trade Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership), the Paris Deal, etc., have impacted USA’s credibility.
• A weak strategic tool for China’s containment: China is much more deeply integrated with many IPEF
members through the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP).
IPEC and India

Opportunities
• Opportunity: With India’s withdrawal from RCEP, IPEF (with several RCEP members) provides India
another opportunity to be part of a mega economic arrangement outside the influence of China.
• Resilient supply chains: IPEF members can serve as alternative sources for raw materials
requirements. For, e.g. Chips supplied from Malaysia, Minerals from Australia, etc.
• In line with India’s interest: All 4 pillars are aligned with India’s interests. For example, enhanced
access to clean energy to meet India’s Panchamrit commitment, announced at UNFCCC COP26.
• Geopolitical significance: India’s joining of IPEF is a solid commitment to Indo-Pacific and efforts to
insulate the region against China’s muscular nationalism and expansionist ambitions.
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• It also allows India to emerge as a rule maker and not merely a follower of the rules.
Associated Challenges
• Divergent positions: India’s position on cross-border data flows, data localization, e-commerce and
privacy rules, and labor, and environmental laws are in stark contrast to the USA.
• Impact on WTO negotiations: The USA can use this framework to pressure India to support a
permanent moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions at the WTO.
Way Forward
• The 3Ts: Trust, Transparency, and Timeliness mentioned by the PM during the launch ceremony of
IPEF – are very important for the success of this initiative.
• Synergise existing initiatives such as B3W (Build Back Better World), QUAD, etc., to avoid duplication
of efforts and ensure better outcomes.
{Groupings} Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity
❖ India participated in the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) Ministerial
meeting held in Singapore.
• The IPEF members signed various agreements, which are first-of-their-kind approaches to address
21st century challenges and strengthen economic engagement across the Indo-Pacific region.
• These agreements will enter into force after at least five IPEF partners complete their internal legal
procedures for ratification, acceptance or approval.
Agreements signed
IPEF Clean Economy Agreement
• It intends to accelerate efforts towards energy security and transition, climate resilience and
adaptation, GHG emissions mitigation, etc.
• The activities will be undertaken through joint collaborative actions such as Cooperative Work Pro-
grammes and the IPEF Catalytic Capital Fund.
Cooperative Work Programme (CWP)

• The IPEF partners announced three new CWPs: on emissions intensity accounting, on e-waste
urban mining (led by India), and on small modular reactors (SMRs).
IPEF Catalytic Capital Fund

• It supports the expansion of the pipeline of quality clean economy infrastructure projects.
• Founding supporters: Australia, Japan, Korea, and the United States.
• Administered by: Private Infrastructure Development Group (PIDG).
IPEF Fair Economy Agreement

• It intends to create a more transparent and predictable business environment, promote a level 78
playing field for businesses and workers, enhance efforts to prevent and combat corruption by
strengthening anti-corruption frameworks, etc.
{Groupings} NATO at 75
NATO in today's world

• Expanded membership: Maximum in history (32 members) → Making it bigger and stronger.
Finland (2023) and Sweden (2024), who had historically neutral foreign policy, are now NATO
members.
• Russia-Ukraine war: Insecurities of war led to a more united NATO.
• Relations with Russia have now “slipped to the level of direct confrontation".
• Rise of China: A news relevance to counter it not only economically but ideologically and
strategically.
Contemporary challenges being faced by NATO

• Disagreements on military spending: US supports a hike in spending while many members are
not in support. Only 11 out of the 30 members (2014) spent over the agreed limit of 2 per cent of
their GDP.
• Membership delay: Despite a liberal “open door” policy for membership, all members must ratify a
new applicant's entry. Yet individual members stall new entries, for example, Sweden and Finland
case.
• Intra-block tensions: The French President commented on a lack of strategic coordination between
European allies and the United States and Turkey.
• Ukraine-Russia war funding: The plan to create a five-year, $107 billion fund for Ukraine drew
mixed reactions from members.
{Groupings} NATO Summit 2023
• 2023 NATO summit was held in Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. The highlights include:
1. Creation of NATO-Ukraine Council
2. Inclusion of Finland
3. Changing stance of the USA
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

• NATO is a political and military alliance created in the aftermath of World War II by 12 countries
from Europe and North America in 1949.
• The Washington Treaty (North Atlantic Treaty) forms the basis of NATO.
• The headquarters of NATO is in Brussels, Belgium, while the Allied Command Operations
headquarters is near Mons, Belgium.
• During the Cold War, NATO operated as a check on the threat posed by the Soviet Union (USSR).
• The alliance remained in place after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact.
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Functioning
• North Atlantic Council is NATO's principal political decision-making body.

• The principle of collective defence (an attack against one Ally is an attack against all) is enshrined
in Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty, which commits NATO members to mutual defence.
Member States
• NATO makes its decisions by consensus. Hence, if a new country wants to join NATO, it must be
supported by all other members. Any of its member countries can veto a new member.
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Post-Cold War Era

• When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, questions were raised about NATO’s relevance and future.
• NATO succeeded in refashioning from collective defence to collective security.
• It has been a mutually beneficial arrangement, offering security to Europe at a low price.
• For the U.S., NATO has been an ideal vehicle for power projection worldwide.
• NATO has been involved in military operations in the Balkans, the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa.
NATO Summit 2023

NATO-Ukraine Council
• It replaced the NATO-Ukraine Commission.
• It is a joint body where NATO Allies and Ukraine participate as equals.
• It provides for joint consultations, decision-making and activities.
• It also serves as a crisis consultation mechanism between NATO and Ukraine.
The inclusion of Finland and approval of Sweden as NATO members

• Turkey previously opposed Sweden and Finland joining NATO because of their alleged support for
Kurdish militants. Now, Turkey has changed its stance and no longer holds that opposition.
USA's stance on NATO

• At the summit, President Biden strongly supported NATO and Ukraine.
• This is significant because President Trump had a different approach and considered leaving
NATO.
NATO Plus
• The U.S. has expressed openness to greater engagement with India within NATO, with discussions of
including India in the NATO-Plus framework.
• India rejects the idea because joining this NATO framework, which primarily aims to contain China,
can potentially undermine India's autonomy.
• NATO Plus is a grouping of NATO and five countries — Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Israel,
and South Korea. The group works toward boosting global defence cooperation.
Advantages for India if it joins the NATO Plus
✓ India would gain access to seamless intelligence sharing between these countries.
✓ India would get access to the latest military technology without much of a time lag.
✓ It would further strengthen India’s defence partnership with the United States.
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{Groupings} Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

• The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states that are not formally aligned with or
against any major power bloc.
• It was established based on the principles agreed upon at the 1955 Asia-Africa Conference held in
Bandung (Indonesia) (known as the "Ten Principles of Bandung").
• It was founded in 1961 in Belgrade, Serbia, as a movement opposed to the East-West ideological
confrontation of the Cold War.
• Founding fathers of the movement: Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Shri
Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Ahmed Sukarno of Indonesia, and Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia.
• Objective of NAM: To ensure "the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and
security of non-aligned countries" in their struggle against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism,
racism, and all forms of foreign subjugation.
• At present, the NAM consists of 120 member countries that account for about 60% of the United
Nations' overall membership.
• NAM is without any formal administrative structures and without a budget.
Achievements of NAM
• Focus on the 4Ds (Détente, Disarmament, Decolonisation and Development of Third World).
• Independent voice to the Global South, giving them the freedom to pursue their own agenda. E.g. it
condemned racial discrimination and injustice and lent full support to the antiapartheid movement
in South Africa and Namibia.
• The non-aligned declarations on nuclear testing and non-proliferation especially helped concretise
the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty.
• It also helped create several nuclear-weapon-free zones as well as formulate the Nuclear Non-
proliferation Treaty.
• The tradition of ‘non-use of nuclear weapons’, or the ‘nuclear taboo’, was strengthened partially
due to activism by the non-aligned countries at the UN.
• It has ended the monopoly of Western agencies over news dissemination services with the setting
up of a non-aligned Newspool.
• NAM's role in establishing world peace by solving various political conflicts such as the Korean War
and the problems of Kampuchea, Vietnam, Congo, Iran, Iraq, Namibia, the Middle East, etc.
Ten principles of Bandung

• Respect of fundamental human rights and of the objectives and principles of the Charter of the
United Nations.
• Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations.
• Recognition of the equality among all races and the equality among all nations, both large and
small.
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• Non-intervention or non-interference in the internal affairs of another -country.

• Respect for the right of every nation to defend itself, either individually or collectively, in
conformity with the Charter of the United Nations.

• (a) Non-use of collective defense pacts to benefit the specific interests of any of the great
powers.
• Non-use of pressures by any country against other countries.
• Refraining from carrying out or threatening to carry out aggression, or from using force against
the territorial integrity or political independence of any country.
• Peaceful solution of all international conflicts in conformity with the Charter of the United
Nations.
• Promotion of mutual interests and cooperation.
• Respect for justice and international obligations.
Failures of NAM
• Lack of collective action and collective self-reliance, and the non-establishment of an equitable
international economic or information order.
• Inability in resolving the Arab-Israel conflict.
• Inability to halt the arms race, regional conflicts (Iran-Pakistan, Russia-Ukraine), etc.
Importance of NAM for India

• Support for India’s Candidature at UNSC.
• Safeguarding India’s Strategic autonomy: India can mobilize the larger constituency of developing
countries & emerging economies for support on key issues – COVID, protectionism, UN reforms, etc.
• Crucial to the rise of India’s stature as the voice of the developing world or global south, facilitating
south-south cooperation.
• Formation of a multipolar world with India becoming an independent pole in global affairs.
• India’s Opportunity to shape post-COVID world order with support from NAM.
Is NAM losing its relevance in current times?

Arguments in Favour
• NAM’s relevance was diluted with the end of Cold War and rise of a Multipolar world.
• Benign neglect: Even as NAM has continued to maintain its schedule of periodic meetings, there is
a diminishing political commitment towards it.
• Perceived tilt towards big powers: Many member countries, including India, have strengthened
their engagement with the developed world to secure capital, trade, technology, and markets.
• Fissures within NAM countries lead to difficulty in arriving at a consensus on various global issues
leading to the raising of divisive issues, score-settling among members, etc.
• Increasing relevance of Alternative forums like G-20 and regional cooperation frameworks like
BIMSTEC, ASEAN, SCO, RCEP, etc.
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• NAM a mere ‘talk shop’: Since a majority of the members are developing nations, inability to
command adequate power to enforce their decisions on resource-rich developed nations.
Argument Against
• NAM members represent 2/3rd of the UN Membership and commands voice against any
international hegemony to dominate smaller states. E.g. voice against unequal world economic
order, reforms of Multilateral institutions (UN, WTO, etc.).
• Collective position: NAM members coordinate with one another during debates, giving them a
huge bargaining power on various global issues such as Climate change, poverty eradication,
globalisation, protecting trade interests of developing countries at WTO, etc.
• Relevance in the wake of the new ‘Two Front’ Cold War unfolding between US-China and US-
Russia.
• Neo-colonialism: NAM still remains a strong pillar of support for developing nations fighting
against racism, occupation and neo-colonialism. E.g. occupation of Palestine; ‘Debt trap Diplomacy’
faced by African and Asian nations at the hands of China etc.
• Reinforcing strategic autonomy: Even as developing countries have strengthened their
engagements with the developed ones, the threat of ‘arm twisting’ is apparent. E.g. Controlling the
right to peaceful use of nuclear energy, restricting access to technologies via IPR clauses, etc.
• Focus on Peace: Bandung principles on peace and development still hold relevance as Armed
conflicts continue to rage in Iraq, Libya, Syria, Yemen, Ukraine etc. and challenges of Terrorism, ethnic
violence, refugee issues, etc. persist.
Revitalising NAM: The Way Ahead

• Meeting unrealized long-standing goals of the Movement, i.e. Peace, development, economic
cooperation, and the democratization of international relations.
• Taking on New challenges of the interconnected world thrown up by Climate change, extremism,
aggressive nationalism, terrorism, refugee crises, etc., and aligning efforts with SDG goals.
• Greater push for reforms in Multilateral institutions like the UN, IMF, WTO, etc to enable them
to tackle 21st century challenges.
• Effectively meeting security challenges of terrorism, cyber security, weapons of mass destruction
(WMD), universal nuclear disarmament, drug trafficking, organised crime, etc.
{Groupings} Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)
• Four years after India walked out of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)
agreement, neighbours Sri Lanka and Bangladesh are now considering their chances of
membership in the 15-nation trading bloc.
• The RCEP is a free trade agreement (FTA) among the Asia-Pacific nations that accounts for about
30% of the world's population and 30% of global GDP, making it the most significant trade bloc. 84
• The RCEP was conceived at the 2011 ASEAN Summit in Bali, Indonesia, while negotiations were
formally launched during the 2012 ASEAN Summit in Cambodia.
• The treaty was signed in 2020 at the virtual ASEAN Summit hosted by Vietnam.
India and RCEP

• India, which took part in the initial negotiations but later decided to opt out, was invited to join
the bloc at any time.
Why India Didn’t Join The RCEP In 2019

• Trade Deficit: India’s trade deficit with RCEP countries exceeds $100 billion, with China alone
contributing to a $54 billion deficit.
• Data Localisation: India advocated for the right of all RCEP countries to protect data and restrict
cross-border data flow in the national interest.
• Dairy Industry: India, a major producer of liquid dairy products, feared an influx of cheap solid
dairy products from New Zealand, potentially impacting Indian farmers and dairy entrepreneurs.
• Agriculture: Southern Indian plantation farmers were apprehensive about cheaper imports of tea,
coffee, rubber, cardamom and pepper from Malaysia, Indonesia & other RCEP nations.
• Concerns about China: The threat of cheap Chinese goods raised concerns, therefore, India
proposed separate customs duty levels for Chinese imports.
• Automatic Trigger Safeguard Mechanism (ATSM): To protect against import surges, India
wanted an ATSM that would allow for conditional increases in customs duty on imported products.
• Ratchet Obligation: The RCEP agreement stipulates that commitments cannot be undone. India
sought certain exemptions to this rule.
Why should India consider joining RCEP?

• Market Access (2.3 billion people)
• Counterbalancing China and Strategic Alliances
• Attracting Investment
• Technology and Knowledge Transfer
{Groupings} Financial Action Task Force
• The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is deliberating on a set of binding rules to bring fugitive
economic offenders across countries to justice.
• It was established in 1989 during the G7 Summit in Paris to develop policies against money
laundering. In 2001, its mandate expanded to include terrorism financing.
• Its headquarters is in Paris, France.
• Its members include 39 countries. India became a member of FATF in 2010.
FATF maintains two types of lists

• Black List: Countries known as Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories are put on the blacklist.
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❖ These countries support terror funding and money laundering activities.

❖ Three countries, North Korea, Iran, and Myanmar, are currently on FATF’s blacklist.
• Grey List: Countries that are considered a safe haven for supporting terror funding and money
laundering are put on the FATF grey list.
❖ This inclusion serves as a warning to the country that it may enter the blacklist.
❖ Some countries that are currently on FATF’s grey list are Pakistan, Syria, Yemen, and Zimbabwe.
Consequences of being on the FATF blacklist

• No financial aid is given to them by the IMF, World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB) etc.
• They also face a number of international economic and financial restrictions and sanctions.
India and its Neighborhood Relations
{India-Bangladesh} Bangladesh Elections
• Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina won the re-election for a fifth term.
• The main opposition, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), boycotted the polls.
• Western nations, including the US, UK, and EU, have urged Bangladesh to hold free, fair, and
participatory elections.
Concerns Related to the Politico-Economic Sphere of Bangladesh

• Authoritarian Practices: The Awami League’s (AL) authoritarian measures, including arrests and
harassment of opposition leaders, have fueled resentment among the masses.
• Corruption and Nepotism: Perceived corruption and nepotism within the AL have widened the
gap between the government and the impoverished population.
• Islamist Influence: The AL encouragement of Islamist groups like Hefazat-e-Islam Bangladesh has
created a toxic environment within the ruling party.
• Radicalization: Islamist organisations, through religious schools and mosques, have radicalised a
significant portion of the population, especially the youth.
• Islamist Opposition: The Islamist parties, including Jamaat-e-Islami, Hefazat, and Islami Oikyo Jote,
now fill the opposition space.
• Political Analyst’s Perspective: Political analysts argue that the AL’s crackdown on the BNP has
inadvertently strengthened Islamist parties, which seek to implement strict Sharia laws and turn
Bangladesh into an Islamic state.
• Economic Crisis: Falling forex reserves, currency depreciation, and mounting external debt
have created a looming debt crisis.
• Chinese Loans: Much of the infrastructure development relies on high-interest loans from China.
Election in Bangladesh and India’s Interests 87
Security Interests
• A stable, prosperous and friendly Bangladesh is in India’s best interests.
• The previous BNP-led government was quite hostile to India — and provided a haven to numerous
anti-India terrorist and militant groups.
• It allegedly also had links to Pakistan’s ISI.
• The Present Government's crackdown on anti-India elements and counter-terrorism cooperation
with India has single-handedly improved India’s overall security situation over the last decade.
• Bangladesh’s action resulted in the arrest of many top leaders of the NE insurgent groups like the
ULFA and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland.
• Also, Given the deteriorating situation in Myanmar, it becomes even more important that India and
Bangladesh remain close security partners.
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Economic Interests
• Bangladesh has replaced Pakistan as the second-largest economy in the South Asian region.
• As per World Bank data, the GDP of Bangladesh was $460 bn in 2022, and Pakistan’s was $375 bn.
• In 2022-23, Bangladesh was the fifth largest export destination for Indian goods after the US, the
UAE, the Netherlands, and China.
• It accounted for over 2.7 per cent of all Indian exports, worth $12.2 billion.
Regional Connectivity & Cooperation

• Protocol on Inland Water Trade and Transit (PIWTT), operational since 1972, permits the
movement of goods over vessels from India through Bangladesh's river systems on 8 specific routes.
• Under the present regime, Bangladesh facilitates efficient connectivity to India’s Northeast through
overland transit and inland waterways.
• Securing sea lines of communication: Bangladesh strategically places nearby essential sea lanes.
It can play a significant role in containing piracy in the Indian Ocean.
• Bangladesh is also crucial for economic integration within the subcontinent, especially since Pakistan
refuses to support regional economic cooperation.
• Bridge to Southeast Asia: Bangladesh is a natural pillar of the Act East policy.
• It can act as a ‘bridge’ to economic and political linkages with South East Asia and beyond.
• Bangladesh is an essential component of BIMSTEC and BBIN initiatives.
• Dhaka hosts the secretariat of The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation (BIMSTEC), which connects Myanmar and Thailand.
• India wants Bangladesh to become a fulcrum for regional cooperation in the Bay of Bengal littoral,
which links South and Southeast Asia.
• India’s friends, such as Japan, have invested heavily in Bangladesh.
Bangladesh-China Relations
• Bangladesh’s two-way trade with China exceeded $25 billion in 2022. Bangladesh aligns
strategically with China, helping transform its landscape through mega projects.
• Chinese investments in BRI-financed infrastructure projects have surpassed $10 billion.
• Bangladesh has significant military relations with China, and it is the second-largest importer of
Chinese arms.
• Bangladesh has granted port access to India and China, fostering modernisation in Mongla port
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under the banners of the BRI and Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Corridor (BCIM).

• Pyra Port- A similar cooperative enhancement was undertaken, but India backed out due to the PPP
being granted to a Chinese company.

• There are around $450 million of Chinese investments into 1,845 MW of domestic power
generation as of 2021.
Bangladesh-USA Relations
• Bangladesh has had tense relationships with the US and the UK, given their proximity to Pakistan
and their damaging role in 1971.
• The present regime unsurprisingly views the US with tremendous distrust.
• The US has been relatively inconsistent regarding calling out authoritarianism. While the Americans
seldom talk about democracy in Pakistan, they tend to bully Bangladesh.
• The US has begun to appreciate India’s interests in Bangladesh (After the G20 Summit) and is toning
down its hostility toward Dhaka.
{India-Bangladesh} Indo Bangladesh Protocol (IBP) Route
• India and Bangladesh will initiate the first trial movement of vessels between Maia Port in India and
Sultanganj Port in Bangladesh on February 12.
• It is set to take place on Indo Bangladesh Protocol (IBP) Route no. 5 & 6.
• The waterway route from Maia (IBP route) to Dhubri (NW-2) via Aricha will reduce the distance by
around 930 kilometres compared to the existing waterway route.
• This development is in line with the Act East Policy.
Indo Bangladesh Protocol (IBP) Route
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• IBP protocol was signed for the first time between India and Bangladesh in 1972. Under this,
inland vessel of one country can transit through the specified routes of the other country.
• 50:50 cargo sharing by Indian and Bangladeshi vessels is permitted both for transit and inter-
country trade. This protocol route includes the river routes of Ganga, Brahmaputra, and their
tributaries across the two countries.
• It connects the National Waterway (1, 2, 16 & 97).
• This route enables easier access to the markets in the Northeast.
• The Inland Waterways connectivity through the IBP route also holds significance for Bhutan.
• As per the transit agreement between India and Bhutan, Dhubri on NW-2 is declared as an agreed
exit/ entry point in India for Bhutan's EXIM cargo movement.
• Number of Port of call increased to 11 with 2 extended Ports of calls in both countries.
• A port of call is an intermediate port where ships customarily stop for supplies, repairs, or
transhipment of cargo.
• National Waterway-1: The Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly River system between Haldia and
Allahabad.
• National Waterway-2: Brahmaputra river between Bangladesh Border and Sadiya.
• National Waterway-16: Barak River from Bhanga to Lakhipur.
• National Waterway-97: Sunderbans Waterways from Namkhana to AtharaBankiKhal.
{India-Bangladesh} Indo-Bangla Railway Project
• The Agartala-Akhaura rail link project has been inaugurated. It is a 12.24 rail link between Agartala
in Tripura and Akhaura in Bangladesh. It will connect Tripura to Kolkata through Bangladesh.
• In 2010, Bangladesh and India signed an MoU to start the first Indo-Bangla railway project.
Benefits of Indo-Bangla Rail Link

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• Provides direct access between the NE of India with the Chittagong port of Bangladesh.
• The travel time between Kolkata and Tripura via Dhaka will be reduced.
• Boosts the bilateral relations and promote tourism, trade, and cultural exchange.
• Boosts the growth of small-scale industries of the NE region.
• Helps the local producers to export their products outside the country faster.
• Reduces the dependence on the strategic Siliguri Corridor.
Siliguri Corridor (Chicken's Neck)

• It is a 22km (14-mile) stretch that connects the Indian mainland with its north-eastern states.
• The NE states of India are only accessible through this narrow strip of land in West Bengal.
India's International Land Border
• India has 15,106.7 Km of land border and a coastline of 7,516.6 Km, including island territories.
• The Indian States of West Bengal, Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, and Mizoram share boundaries with
Bangladesh.
Name of the country Length of the border (in Km)
Bangladesh 4,096.7
China 3,488
Pakistan 3,323
Nepal 1,751
Myanmar 1,643
Bhutan 699
Afghanistan 106
Trains run between West Bengal and Bangladesh

• Three trains run between West Bengal and Bangladesh:
• Bandhan Express has revived an old railway link between Kolkata and Khulna.
• Prior to the 1965 war between India and Pakistan, this route was served by the Barisal Express.
• In 2017, the government restarted the service.
❖ Maitree Express between Kolkata and Dhaka Cantonment started in April 2008.
❖ Mitali Express connects Siliguri in North Bengal with Dhaka, started in 2022.
{India-Bangladesh} Teesta WaterTreaty
• Narmada Bachao Andolan leader Medha Patkar has urged West Bengal CM to agree to the sharing
of River Teesta water with Bangladesh.
• The activist referred to The Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of International Rivers and
added that the water of rivers running through international borders needs to be shared.
Teesta River
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• Teesta River is a tributary of the Brahmaputra River (known as Jamuna River in Bangladesh).
• It originates in the eastern Himalayas near Chunthang in Sikkim.
• It is a transboundary river that flows through Sikkim, West Bengal, and Bangladesh.
• It is the largest river of Sikkim and the second largest river of West Bengal after the Ganges.
• Teesta is the fourth largest transboundary river shared between India and Bangladesh, after the
Ganges, Brahmaputra, and the Meghna (GBM) river system.
• The flow of the Tista is greatest during the summer (June to September) when the monsoon rains
and glaciers supply abundant water.
• Its lower reaches are marked by flooding and frequent, violent course changes and navigation is
impaired by shoals and quicksand near the junction with the Jamuna.
Importance of Teesta
Importance for India
• Teesta is the lifeline of Sikkim and drains almost the entire floodplain of Sikkim.
• Teesta is the lifeline of North Bengal and almost half a dozen districts of West Bengal are dependent
on the waters of Teesta.
Importance for Bangladesh
• According to a report by The Asia Foundation in 2013, Teesta’s flood plain covers about 14% of the
total cropped area of Bangladesh and provides direct livelihood to about 7.3% of its population.
Teesta River Dispute Between India and Bangladesh

• In 1947, the Boundary Commission was set up under Sir Cyril Radcliffe to demarcate the boundary
between West Bengal (India) and East Bengal (Pakistan, then Bangladesh from 1971).
• All India Muslim League demanded the Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts on the grounds that they
are the catchment areas of the Teesta River system.
• Indian National Congress and the Hindu Mahasabha, in their respective reports, established India’s
claim over the two districts.
• In the final declaration, considering the demographic, administrative, and other factors, the BC gave
a major part of the Teesta’s catchment area to India.
• In 1972, the India-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission, a bilateral working group, was established 93
in the Indo-Bangla Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Peace.
• In 1983, an Ad Hoc arrangement for sharing the Teesta water was made, according to which
Bangladesh got 36% and India 39% of the waters, while the remaining 25% remained unallocated.
• According to the agreement, ad hoc sharing was valid until 1985.

• In 1998, Bangladesh started the Teesta Barrage irrigation project (3 cropping seasons per year).
• In 2011, an interim deal was offered, which gave India 42.5% and Bangladesh 37.5% of Teesta water.
• But West Bengal’s CM, Mamata Banerjee, opposed the deal, and so it was shelved.
Why did West Bengal Object to the Interim Deal of 2011?
• West Bengal fears that releasing so much water to Bangladesh will affect irrigation systems in five
districts of North Bengal (Coochbehar, Jalpaiguri, South and North Dinajpur, and Darjeeling).
• This fear is more accentuated as many of the glaciers in the Teesta basin have retreated.
• In 2011, the West Bengal government commissioned a study on the Teesta issue under the
hydrologist Kalyan Rudra. He submitted his findings, but the detailed report is not publicly available.
Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of International Rivers

• It is a non-binding international treaty regulating how transboundary rivers and their connected 94
groundwaters may be used.

• It was adopted by the International Law Association (ILA) in Helsinki, Finland in 1966.
Key principles of the Helsinki Rules are:
•
❖ Equitable utilization
❖ No harm to basin area and water resources
❖ Cooperation
❖ Data sharing
❖ Dispute resolution
❖ Prevention of pollution
India’s Relationship with Bangladesh

• India has had a good relationship with Bangladesh, carefully cultivated since 2008, especially with
the Sheikh Hasina government.
• India has benefited from its security ties with Bangladesh, whose crackdown against anti-India
outfits has helped the Indian government maintain peace in the eastern and Northeast states.
• Bangladesh has benefited from its economic and development partnership. Bangladesh is India’s
biggest trade partner in South Asia.
• India also grants 15 to 20 lakh visas every year to Bangladesh nationals for medical treatment,
tourism, work, and entertainment.
• For India, Bangladesh has been a key partner in the Neighbourhood First Policy and possibly the
success story in bilateral ties among its neighbours.
• But there have been recent irritants in the relationship. These irritants include the countrywide
National Register of Citizens (NRC) and the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), and the rise in
killings at the Indo-Bangladesh border by “BSF or Indian nationals”.
• However, India and Bangladesh have cooperated during the Covid-19 pandemic.
• The two countries have also cooperated in railways.
{India-Sri Lanka} Katchatheevu Island
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History of the Island and How it Became an Issue for Indo-Sri Lankan Relations
• In Medieval period, Katchatheevu was controlled by the Jaffna kingdom of Sri Lanka.
• In the 17th Century, the island's control passed to the Ramnad zamindari based out of
Ramanathapuram.
• In the British Raj, the island became part of the Madras Presidency.
• In 1921, both India and Sri Lanka (both British colonies at that time) claimed Katchatheevu in order
to determine fishing boundaries. This dispute was not settled until 1974.
Why India Ceded the Island to Sri Lanka?

• In 1974, then PM Indira Gandhi signed the ‘Indo-Sri Lankan Maritime Agreement’ to settle the
maritime border between India and Sri Lanka.
• Conditions of the Agreement: India ‘ceded’ Katchatheevu to Sri Lanka.
• Reason: Gol thought the island had little strategic value and that giving up its claim over it would
deepen its ties with Sri Lanka. Indian fishermen were allowed to access Katchatheevu.
• Criticism: The agreement did not clearly cite fishing rights, which led to confusion between both
nations.
Emergency Period in India (1975-1977)

• An agreement in 1976 barred either country from fishing in the other’s Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ).
• Issue: Katchatheevu lay right at the edge of the EEZs of either country, so the agreement created
further confusion regarding fishing rights.
Sri Lankan Civil War (1983-2009)

• Sri Lankan naval forces preoccupied with the Sri Lankan Civil War.
• Result: Incursions by Indian fishermen into Sri Lankan waters were commonplace.
• Issue: Bigger Indian trawlers tended to overfish and damage Sri Lankan fishing nets and boats.
2009 Onwards
• After the end of the Civil War in 2009, Sri Lanka beefed up its maritime defences and focused on
Indian fishermen.
• Present Situation: The Sri Lankan navy routinely arrests Indian fishermen. There have been many
allegations of custodial torture and death.
• Consequence: The demand for Katchatheevu is revived each time such an incident happens.
National Emergency in India 1975

• Originally, under Article 352, a National emergency could be declared on the basis of "external
aggression or war" and "internal disturbance" in the whole of India or a part of its territory.
• The National Emergency of 1975 was declared on the grounds of internal disturbance.
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• But after the 44th Amendment Act (1978), National Emergency can only be declared on grounds
of:
❖ "External aggression or war", also called External Emergency,

❖ "Armed rebellion", also called Internal Emergency.
Sri Lankan Civil War

• Sri Lankan Civil War was an armed conflict that lasted for around 26 years (from 1983 to 2009)
between the government of Sri Lanka and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE).
• LTTE was a separatist militant organisation primarily composed of Tamil nationalists.
• The LTTE (or Tamil Tigers) was founded in the 1970s with the aim of establishing an independent
Tamil state called Tamil Eelam in the north and east of Sri Lanka.
• The conflict had its roots in long-standing ethnic and political tensions between the majority
Sinhalese population and the minority Tamil population in Sri Lanka.
What is Tamil Nadu’s Position on Katchatheevu?

• Katchatheevu was given away to Sri Lanka in 1974 without consulting Tamil Nadu state assembly.
• There were protests against PM Indira Gandhi’s move, citing two reasons:
❖ The historical control of the Ramnad Zamindari over the island.
❖ Traditional fishing rights of Indian Tamil fishermen.
• In 1991, after India’s disastrous intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War, the Tamil Nadu Assembly
sought the retrieval of Katchatheevu.
• In 2008, the late J Jayalalitha, then AIADMK supremo, filed a petition in court saying Katchatheevu
could not be ceded to another country without a constitutional amendment.
• However, GoI’s position has largely remained unchanged. It argued that since the island had always
been under dispute, “no territory belonging to India was ceded nor sovereignty relinquished.”
{India-Bhutan} Bhutan King’s Visit to India
China-Bhutan-India Relations
Border Disputes
• China-Bhutan: Unresolved border disputes over several areas in the western and northern sectors
of their boundary. China claims about 12% of Bhutan’s territory, including the strategic Doklam
plateau, which is also claimed by Bhutan and supported by India.
• India-China: A long-standing border dispute along their Himalayan frontier, especially in the eastern
sector of Arunachal Pradesh, which China claims as part of Tibet.
• India-Bhutan: Mostly peaceful, resolved and open border except few small areas.
Strategic Interests
• India-China: Both are competing for influence and leverage in the region, with Bhutan being a key
buffer state between them.
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• India-Bhutan: India has signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation with Bhutan. India also
provides economic and military assistance to Bhutan and access to its markets and ports.
• China-Bhutan: China has been trying to attract Bhutan with offers of diplomatic recognition, trade
and investment, and border settlement.
Economic Cooperation
• India-Bhutan: India is Bhutan’s largest trading partner, accounting for about 80% of its exports &
imports.
• China-Bhutan: Trade between these two countries has been increasing in recent years, with China
becoming Bhutan’s second-largest trading partner in 2018.
❖ China and Bhutan have also explored the possibility of opening up tourism links, which could
boost Bhutan’s economy.
Significance of Bhutan for India

• Geographical significance: Bhutan shares borders with four Indian states: Assam, Arunachal
Pradesh, West Bengal, and Sikkim. Through the Siliguri Corridor, it provides access to India's
northeastern states.
• Economic Significance: India has consistently been Bhutan’s top trading partner, both as an import
source and as an export destination. Since 2014, India’s trade with Bhutan almost tripled in 2021-22,
accounting for about 80% of Bhutan’s overall trade.
• Cultural Significance: Both countries have Buddhist populations & India helps preserve Bhutan's
cultural heritage.
• Strategic Significance: It shares borders with India and China, acting as a buffer state between the
two regional powers and contributing to regional security.
• Regional Stability: Bhutan's stability is crucial for maintaining regional peace and stability in South
Asia and the overall stability of the region.
India Bhutan Relations: Convergences

• Cultural ties: Both countries share a common cultural heritage of Buddhism and have historical links
dating back to the 8th century when a Buddhist monk, Padmasambhava, went from India to Bhutan
and led the Nyingmapa sect of Buddhism.
• Hydro-power cooperation: India has constructed four hydro-electric projects (HEPs) in Bhutan
totalling 2136 MW, already operational and supplying electricity to India.
• Strategic partnership: India also plays a role in protecting Bhutan’s sovereignty and territorial
integrity, especially in the face of China’s claims over parts of Bhutan’s border.
• Space cooperation: Both countries jointly inaugurated the Ground Earth Station of the South Asia
Satellite (SAS) in Thimphu and launched India-Bhutan SAT, the first satellite jointly developed by
India and Bhutan.
• Fintech: The RuPay Card India’s Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) application was launched in
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Bhutan to promote cashless payments between the two nations.

• Education and Capacity Building: Many Bhutanese students benefit from scholarships provided by
Indian Govt. for studying in Indian educational institutions. Under the ITEC program, India provides
administrative and technical skills to government officials and private sector employees.
India Bhutan Relations: Divergences

• Border disputes: Disputes such as in the middle zone between Sarpang and Geylegphug and the
eastern frontier with Arunachal Pradesh.
• Hydropower cooperation: Seen as favourable to India and impacting the economy and the
environment of Bhutan.
• India's paternalistic attitude towards Bhutan: Bhutan criticises India’s alleged attempt to thwart
the Bhutanese bid to diversify its foreign policy (2013) and interference in internal politics.
• Regional Connectivity: Bhutan is hesitant to join BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal).
Way Forward
• Deepening Economic Cooperation: Exploring opportunities for collaboration in sectors such as
infrastructure, energy, tourism, agriculture, and information technology.
• Strengthening Strategic Cooperation: By collaborating on security issues, including
counterterrorism, border management, and intelligence sharing.
• Regional Cooperation: Collaborate closely on regional forums such as the SAARC and BIMSTEC.
{India-Maldives} Maldives and Lakshadweep
• The tourism potential of Maldives and Lakshadweep was recently in the news. Tourism contributes
30% to the Maldivian economy with 60% of foreign currency earnings.
Maldives: A success story

• Early start: It was started in 1972 with the development of 60 tourist beds.
• Maldives tourism master plan 1996-2005 emphasised tourism as an essential economic activity.
• Connectivity: With more than 40 carriers serving the countries, it is well connected to the world.
• Visa-free travel to significant tourist inflow, including China, India, and Russia.
• Infrastructure: With 180 resorts, 15 hotels, 811 guesthouses, and 140 safari vessels offering a total
of more than 62,000 beds, it boasts excellent infrastructure capabilities.
• Local hospitality: Homestays with the 2009 amendment allowing tourists to stay with local
populations improved hospitality.
Lakshadweep
Tourism Attractions
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Place Significance
Agatti Agatti Airport, Lagoon
Bangaram Tourist resorts, Bangaram hut
Administrative headquarters, Most developed,
Kavaratti Lighthouse
Kadmath Beautiful shallow waters, Water sports
Folk culture and folk dances, Isolated from the leading
Minicoy group
Kalpeni, Tilakkam, Pitti, and Cheriyam Folk dances
Limitations
Smaller area
• It occupies a smaller area with only ten islands inhabited, with a lack of capacity to cater to a "large
influx of tourists". For eg, Bangaram and Kavaratti each have a capacity of about 200 cottages.
Environmental concerns
• The fragile ecology and the need for the conservation of the corals, lagoons and other ecosystems
limits the construction.
• Justice R V Raveendran (retd) Panel suggested that infrastructure development proposals should
be in accordance with an Integrated Island Management Plan in consultation with elected local
self-government bodies.
Lack of investments
• India has lacked investment in its tourism potential due to concerns about locals and the
environment.
Connectivity issue
• With only one aircraft between Kochi and Agatti, few operational ferries Lakshadweep lacks
robust connectivity.
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Entry restrictions
• With a Lakshadweep Administration permit and police clearance certificate, entry is very restricted
for Lakshadweep.
Steps taken for Lakshadweep tourism

• Lakshadweep Tourism Policy 2020 allowed the PPP model, but follow-up to policy did not occur.
• Infrastructure through Paradise Island huts (Being managed by Govt. led SPORTS -Society for
Promotion of Nature Tourism and Sports) and a 90-room hotel by SMART city initiative are being
launched.
• Other initiatives were also launched during the PM's visit to Lakshadweep.
For details on Lakshadweep, visit Lakshadweep.
{India-Maldives} India – Maldives
Maldives
• Maldives has an area of 90,000 sq. km, with the sea encompassing 99.6 per cent.
• The remaining land is distributed over more than 1,200 islands.
• Experts predict that 80% of the Maldives will cease to exist by 2050 due to “Global Boiling”.
• Maldives, with 98 per cent literacy, is a nation of contradictions.
• These include a constitution that bars non-Sunnis from becoming a Maldivian citizen.
• Maldives has a nascent civil society, a problem of increasing drug abuse and growing inequality.
• Maldivian economy is dependent on external factors with a distorted labour market.
China Visit of Maldivian President

• Current Maldivian President Muizzu is regarded as “pro-China” and is on a state visit to China. 101
• The Maldivian President discussed tourism diversification at China's “Invest Maldives” Forum.
• China was the top source of tourists for the Maldives. India, post-COVID, took this position.
• China was hailed as “the closest ally and developmental partner of Maldives”.
• The Maldivian President also commended the Belt and Road initiative.
• Agreements to enhance trade and socioeconomic cooperation will also be considered.
• Post-election, Maldivian President Muizzu first visited Türkiye, reversing his predecessors trend.
• Earlier, Maldives' Vice President also participated in the China-sponsored China-Indian Ocean
Region Forum on Development Cooperation (CIORF).
• Maldives' first bilateral FTA was signed with China in 2017.
Belt and Road Initiative

• BRI is an ambitious plan initiated by Chinese President Xi in 2013.
• It aims to develop new trade routes connecting China with the rest of the world via land and
maritime networks to improve regional integration, increase trade and stimulate economic
growth.
India-Maldives Ties: Convergences

Recent Connectivity Measures
• $500 million Greater Malé Connectivity Project (GMCP): The largest civilian infrastructure
project in the Maldives, connecting Malé with 3 neighbouring islands.
• Direct cargo ferry service between Cochin to Male: To provide predictability in supplies for
importers in Maldives and exporters in India.
• Air travel bubble: To facilitate people’s movement for employment, tourism & medical emergencies. 102
Political and Strategic Front

• Both countries have reaffirmed their commitment towards “India first policy”. Both countries are part
of UN, Commonwealth, NAM, and SAARC.

• Maldives extends its full support to India’s entry into the UNSC as a permanent member, while India
supports Maldives entry as a non-permanent member.
Defence and Security Cooperation

• A comprehensive Action Plan for Defence was signed in 2016 to consolidate defence partnership.
• India provides the largest number of training opportunities for the Maldivian National Defence Force
(MNDF), meeting around 70% of their defence training requirements.
• The joint military exercise 'Ex Ekuverin' between the Indian Army and the Maldives National Defence
Force is conducted annually.
Economic and Trade

• India & Maldives trade agreement in 1981, which provides for export of essential commodities.
• India emerged as Maldives’ 3rd largest trade partner in 2021. India-Maldives bilateral trade crossed
the $300 MN mark for the first time in 2021.
• A Bilateral USD Currency Swap Agreement between RBI and Maldives Monetary Authority in 2019.
Tourism
• The tourism sector of Maldives is the major source of foreign exchange earnings and accounts for
about 75% of the government’s revenue.
• India was the 5th largest source of tourists in 2018, which raised to the top-most source in 2022.
Education and Capacity Building

• India has traditionally offered a substantial number of scholarships to Maldivian youth under ICCR,
“India Science and Research Fellowship (ISRF) Programme and ITEC programme.
India-Maldives Ties: Divergences

• Political volatility: Continued fluctuation between “India First” policy, and the ‘India Out’ campaign.
• Territorial security: Combined impact of Political instability, Economic crises, Islamic Radicalization
(in Maldives) has led to threat of Terrorism, jeopardising security & development within India and its
neighbourhood.
• Rising influence of Pakistan-based madrassas and Al Qaeda, recent attack on Md. Nasheed, a pro-
democracy & pro-India leader.
• Non-traditional challenges: Including piracy, maritime terrorism, smuggling, human trafficking etc.
• China’s rising assertiveness in IOR: for e.g., Belt & Road initiative, infrastructure projects, port
development, military cooperation etc.
Way Forward 103
• Strengthen bilateral relations: Both the countries need to strengthen cooperation on common
agendas – trade & development, maritime security, climate change, capacity development, people-
to-people relations, defense cooperation, Islamic extremism etc.

• Increase Investment: India can maintain its political influence in South Asia only if with a strong
economic presence must quickly move to conclude pending FTAs with neighbouring nations.
• Promoting Maldives’ “Blue Economy” can be a key to booting economic ties & island development.
• Timely execution of developmental projects may serve to improve India’s credibility vis a vis China.
• Policy Change: India's “wait and watch” policy needs a re-look and proactive responses must be
crafted to support development and stability in Maldives.
Strained Relations
• President-elect Mohamed Muizzu plans to remove Indian troops from the Maldives to ensure the
country's independence and sovereignty in his foreign policy.
• Currently, there are 75 Indian military personnel in the Maldives. They operate Dornier aircraft and
two helicopters provided by India.
Reasons for Opposition

• Pro-China Tilt:
❖ Mr Muizzu and his political camp have been historically sensitive in their relations with India,
which dates back to the administration of President Yameen.
❖ During his term, Yameen's administration had a pro-China stance, which caused a strain in the
relations with India.
• No Military Presence:
❖ Muizzu has pledged to keep the Maldives free from any foreign military presence, whether
Indian, Chinese or from any other country.
{India-Myanmar} India suspends FMR with Myanmar
• India suspends the Free Movement Regime (FMR) with Myanmar. Further, to facilitate better
surveillance, a patrol track along the border will also be paved.
104
• Indo-Myanmar Border (IMB) is a 1,643 km long border between Myanmar and four Indian
states, namely Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Border with Myanmar had been predominantly unfenced, except for a small section in Manipur
covering approximately 10 km.
• A Free Movement Regime (FMR) used to exist between India and Myanmar.
Free Movement Regime (FMR)

• The FMR is a mutually agreed arrangement between India and Myanmar that allows tribes living
along the border on either side to travel up to 16 km to the other side without a visa.
• Under it, every member of the hill tribes, who is either a citizen of India or a citizen of Myanmar
and who is a resident of any area within 16 km on either side of the border can cross over on
production of a border pass with one-year validity and can stay up to two weeks.
• It was implemented in 2018 as part of the GoI’s Act East policy.
• The Manipur government has suspended the FMR since 2020, post-COVID-19 pandemic.
Why was FMR started?

• The British demarcated the border between India and Myanmar in 1826.
• The British did not seek the people’s opinion in the region.
• The border effectively divided people of the same ethnicity and culture into two nations.
• FMR was conceptualised:
To facilitate people-to-people contact.
To provide impetus to local trade and business.
Issues with FMR?

• The illegal migration of tribal Kuki-Chin peoples into India from Myanmar is one of the key issues
in the ongoing Manipur conflict.
• It aids illegal immigration, drug trafficking, contraband goods and fake Indian currency notes.
• In Manipur, the aftermath of the military junta’s resurgence in Myanmar in 2021 has seen a notable
increase in drug seizures, soaring from nearly 3 tonnes in 2021 to over 10 tonnes within a year.
• Manipur government has alleged that village chiefs have been illegally settling migrants from
Myanmar in new villages in the hills, leading to deforestation.
• The border is almost entirely unfenced, and runs through forested and undulating terrain resulting
in difficulties in monitoring.
Is ending FMR the only solution?

• According to a paper published by Anuradha Oinam of the Centre for Land Warfare Studies (CLAWS)
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neither cancelling the FMR nor completely fencing the border is the solution as it could affect
livelihoods, education and essential travel for health care.
• Managing and administering the border areas effectively is pertinent for reducing drug trafficking
and illegal cross-border movement on unfenced borders.
{India-Myanmar} Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project
• Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project (KMTTP) has “almost died” after the rebel Arakan
Army (AA) captured the Paletwa township near the Mizoram border in January.
• The Kaladan Multi Modal Transit project was conceived in 2008 jointly by India and Myanmar.
• It is aimed at connecting the port of Kolkata with the port of Sittwe in Rakhine or Arakan State
which would then be connected to Mizoram by road and the Kaladan river which flows by Paletwa.
• The project will be entirely funded by India and the Inland Waterways Authority of India has
been appointed as project development consultant.
• Components: Involves sea, river, and road transportation:
• Sea Route: From Kolkata to Sittwe (539 km).
• River Route: Sittwe to Paletwa via the Kaladan River (158 km).
• Road Component: Paletwa to Indo-Myanmar border (110 km), and further into Mizoram.
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Significance
• The project offers India's northeastern states access to the sea and an opportunity to develop greater
economic linkages with Southeast Asia.
• It will reduce the traffic-load over the only connecting link by land through the narrow Siliguri
corridor and substantially reduce the distance between Kolkata and the Northeast.
• The Sittwe port offers quicker access to the largest Myanmarese market - the most densely
populated regions of the Irrawaddy basin and Yangon.
• It enables traders and businessmen from Northeast India to explore markets in Thailand, Malaysia,
Singapore, and vice-versa.
• With the operationalisation of the Sittwe port, food-starved Mizoram will get sufficient quantities
of rice from Myanmar and this would further enhance border trade between the two countries.
{India-Nepal} External Affairs Minister’s Visit to Nepal
India-Nepal Relations: Convergences

Economic cooperation
• India is Nepal's largest trade partner (Nepal is India’s 11th largest) and the largest source of total
foreign investments, accounting for 32% of total FDI in Nepal.
Military relations
• India has been assisting the Nepal Army in its modernisation by supplying equipment and providing
training, assistance during disasters, and joint military exercises (E.g. Exercise Surya Kiran).
• The Gorkha regiments of the Indian Army are raised partly by recruitment from hill districts of Nepal.
Connectivity
• India has been assisting Nepal in developing border infrastructure by upgrading roads in the Terai
area.
• Development of cross-border rail links at Jogbani-Biratnagar, Jaynagar-Bardibas; and
establishment of Integrated Check Posts at Birgunj, Biratnagar, Bhairahawa, and Nepalgunj.
Development
• Various projects have been implemented in the areas of Health, Agriculture, digital technology, etc. 107
E.g. acceptance of UPI by Nepal.
• The total economic assistance earmarked under ‘Aid to Nepal’ budget in FY 2022-23 was Rs 6.8
billion.
• During the 2015 Nepal earthquake, India was the first country to respond by dispatching National
Disaster Response Force teams and special aircraft with rescue and relief materials.
Water resources cooperation

• A three-tier bilateral mechanism was established in 2008, to discuss issues relating to cooperation
in water resources, flood management, inundation, and hydropower between the two countries.
• Investment in Arun-3 run-of-the river hydroelectric project.
Energy cooperation
• India and Nepal have had a Power Exchange Agreement since 1971 for meeting the power
requirements in the border areas of the two countries.
• Agreement on ‘Electric Power Trade, Cross-border Transmission Interconnection and Grid
Connectivity’ signed in 2014 to facilitate cross-border electricity transmission & power trade.
• India has built hydroelectric projects, like Pokhara, Trisuli, Western Gandak, Devighat, etc in
Nepal.
• South Asia’s first cross-border petroleum products pipeline connecting Motihari in India to
Amlekhgunj in Nepal was inaugurated in 2019.
Culture & Community

• The India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1950 forms the bedrock of the special relations
that exist between India and Nepal.
• Under the Treaty, Nepalese citizens enjoy unparalleled advantages in India, availing facilities and
opportunities at par with Indian citizens.
• Familiarization visits to India by Nepalese journalists/editors and short-term training in India for
Nepalese editors/ journalists/experts/officials in the field of print & electronic media and
archaeology.
• Sister-city agreements (Kathmandu-Varanasi, Lumbini-Bodhgaya, and Janakpur-Ayodhya) signed
between both countries.
India-Nepal Relations: Divergences

• Trade in favor of India: Trade between the two countries is highly in favor of India.
• Border disputes between the two countries at Susta, Kalapani, and the ‘tri-junction’ of Lipulekh.
• Release of a New Map by Nepal in 2019 claiming Kalapani, Limpiyadhura, and Lipulekh of
Uttarakhand and the area of Susta, Bihar as part of Nepal.
• Revision of India-Nepal Friendship Treaty 1950 as Nepal views it outdated, unequal and gives
unprecedented powers to India to interfere in Nepal’s domestic matters.
• Big-brother attitude: India has been accused of interfering in the country's internal affairs, acting
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as a ‘hegemon’ or ‘big brother’, driving its policies in self-interest, and overlooking Nepal's
sensitivities.
• Lack of timely implementation of projects: E.g. Kosi Agreement (signed in 1954) and Mahakali
Treaty (in 1996) to build the Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project have not been implemented to date.
• Security concerns: Open borders between both are being abused for fostering illegal activities such
as Illegal migration, infiltration, Human trafficking, smuggling of fake currencies, drugs and arms,
etc.
• China factor: China's chequebook diplomacy, its influence, and its presence (Nepal’s participation
in BRI, Trans-Himalayan Multi-Dimensional Connectivity Network) in the region pose challenges to
the India-Nepal relationship.
Nepal-China Relations
• Political sphere: India's critical stance on Nepal’s promulgation of the Constitution, the unofficial
blockade, and the discontinuation of fuel supply adversely impacted India’s image in Nepal.
• China, on the other hand, used its economic diplomacy to project itself as a non-interfering
neighbor by welcoming the new Constitution and opening trade posts at the border.
• Connectivity sphere: ‘Trans-Himalayan Multidimensional Connectivity Network’ agreement
with China to build all-weather road connectivity between Nepal and Tibet. MoU on BRI signed.
• Defence Cooperation: Conduct of joint Sino-Nepal military exercises for the first time.
Way Forward
• Enhancing connectivity through timely completion of pending projects.
• Focus on core areas such as economic diplomacy, people-to-people ties, and cultural connections
to create stronger dependency bonds.
• Enhancing connectivity through timely completion of pending projects.
• Winning the perception battle by exhibiting India’s commitment to an equitable and sustainable
partnership based on mutual respect, the principle of sovereignty, and non-interference.
• Promoting ‘backdoor diplomacy’ to unite the entire political spectrum and encourage talks to
resolve thorny issues. E.g. Madhesi rights.
• Resolving border issues by forming a Joint Technical Boundary Committee.
• Backchannel diplomacy, also known as Track II diplomacy, is the practice of informal, unofficial,
and non-governmental contacts and activities between private citizens or groups of individuals.
• Chequebook diplomacy is a foreign policy that involves countries exchanging economic aid and
investments to gain diplomatic favour.
{India-Pak} India-Pakistan bilateral trade
Halting of trade
• Article 370 abrogation: Bilateral trade between India and Pakistan has been halted since 2019.
• 200 per cent tariff: India revoked Pakistan’s Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status” post-Pulwama
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attack and imposed high tariffs on Pakistani imports.
Composition of trade before suspension

Restriction despite MFN since 1996: Pakistan allowed only 138 products to be imported with a
•
negative list of 1209 products.
• Trade surplus from India: Total value of goods and services it exported to Pakistan was much larger.
• Very little share in India's trade: India-Pakistan trade was $2.29 Bn (0.35% of India’s overall trade).
• Imports from India: Cotton, organic chemicals, plastics, tanning/dyeing extracts, nuclear reactors,
boilers, machinery, and mechanical appliances.
• Imports from Pakistan: Mineral fuels and oils, edible fruits and nuts, salt, sulphur, stone and
plastering materials, ores, slag and ash, raw hides, and leather.
Demand to resume trade
• Circumvention of trade: Imports to Pakistan are continued through Dubai or Singapore, resulting
in extra freight, transhipment, transportation costs, etc.”
• Multiple crises: Devastating floods in 2022, high inflation, political instability, and structural issues
led to a food and energy crunch in Pakistan.
• Central Asian trade: Indian traders hope to improve access through Attari integrated check post.
{India-Pak} Indus Water Treaty (IWT), 1960
• The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), 1960, regulates the Indus water courses between India and
Pakistan.
• The Indus River System comprises the Indus and its tributaries, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Jhelum, &
Chenab.
• IWT provides India absolute control of all the waters of the eastern rivers — Ravi, Sutlej, & Beas.
• Pakistan will receive unrestricted use of all waters of the western rivers — Indus, Jhelum and
Chenab.
• India is permitted to use the waters of the western rivers for domestic use, non-consumptive use,
agriculture, and hydroelectric power generation.
The Success of IWT

• The IWT, having survived several wars and phases of bitter relations, is considered an example of
cooperation between two unfriendly neighbours.
• The detailed procedures, dispute resolution mechanism, and restraint from India are to be credited
with the survival of the IWT.
Recent Issues
• In the last decade, exercising judicial recourse to settle competing claims and objections has
increased.
• Pakistan had objected to India's plan to construct 110
❖ 330 MW Kishenganga hydroelectric project on the Jhelum River and
❖ 850 MW Ratle Hydroelectric Project on the Chenab River.
• But under the IWT, India is permitted to construct the run-of-river hydroelectric projects on the
tributaries of the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab before these rivers flow into Pakistan.
Latest Development
• In January 2023, Pakistan approached the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) over the two
hydropower projects in Jammu and Kashmir.
• India boycotted the court process as it goes against the pre-existing dispute resolution channel.
• India claimed that the PCA is not competent to consider these questions.
• India insisted such questions should be decided through the neutral expert process.
• In July 2023, the court unanimously passed a decision rejecting each of India’s objections.
• The decision of PCA is binding on both parties without appeal.
Dispute Resolution Process Under IWT

• According to the IWT, there are three possible steps to decide on objections raised by either side:
1. Working within the Permanent Indus Commission (PIC) of the Indian and Pakistani delegation
of water experts that meet regularly.
2. Consulting a World Bank-appointed neutral expert.
3. Setting up a court process to adjudicate the case through the World Bank and the Permanent
Court of Arbitration (PCA).
• However, while India has held that each step must be fully exhausted before both sides agree to 111
move on to the next step, Pakistan has moved to PCA without waiting for India's concurrence.
{India-Pak} Para diplomacy and Karatarpur Sahib

• Proposals to engage Pakistan for "Kartarpur Sahib" bring to the fore the idea of ‘Para-diplomacy’.
Paradiplomacy
• Paradiplomacy involves formal interactions between entities below the federal level — provincial
and local governments — in pursuit of shared national goals.
• Paradiplomacy, conducted in tandem with the central government, can often produce openings that
cannot be generated between the national governments' congealed positions.
India’s complications in para diplomacy

• West Bengal had, in fact, complicated Delhi’s engagement with Dhaka.
• Similarly, Tamil Nadu governments have often exercised their veto over Delhi’s ties with Sri Lanka.
Paradiplomacy opportunities on the Pakistan border

• The state and Centre have to work for “exchange of territory” with Pakistan in return for Kartarpur
Sahib.
• Reopening the Attari and Hussainiwala borders with Pakistan for trade and tourism.
• Special economic zone along the entire Punjab border seems to be a possible idea to work with.
Kartarpur Corridor
• It connects the Darbar Sahib Gurdwara in Narowal (Pakistan) with the Dera Baba Nanak shrine in
Gurdaspur (India’s Punjab).
• It was built to commemorate the 550th birth anniversary celebrations of Guru Nanak Dev.
• Village Kartarpur is located on the west bank of the River Ravi, where Guru Nanak Dev spent
the last 18 years of his life.
Credits: The Quint

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Difficulties in para diplomacy with Pakistan
• Past baggage: It is hard to change the territorial status quo along the Radcliffe Line with a history
of distrust and bloodshed.
• Pakistan Army's resistance to economic cooperation: The Pakistan Army is not inclined to resume
trade with India.
Refer to India-Pak trade to know more about halting of Indo-Pak trade.
Way forward
• India’s neighbourhood policy must work with the interests of the people in the border provinces.
• A consensus between the centre and the regional parties in the border provinces on developing a
productive relationship with the neighbours is a must.
{India-China} Growing trade deficit with China
• China’s share of India’s industrial goods imports has risen from 21% to 30% over 15 years,
according to a report by the Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI).
• GTRI defined industrial goods by excluding agriculture, minerals, petroleum & jewellery products.
• India’s imports from China crossed $101 billion in 2023-24 from about $70 billion in 2018-19.
• Goods imports from China have risen 2.3 times faster than India’s total imports over 15 years.
• China is the top supplier in eight major industrial sectors, including machinery, chemicals,
pharmaceuticals, and textiles.
• It is contrary to popular perception that Chinese imports are high only in the electronics sector.
China's share in India's imports
• India’s total merchandise imports stood at $677.2 billion in 2023-24, of which 15%, or $101.8
billion, were sourced from China.
• Iron, steel, and base metal imports showed a lower dependence on China, with just a 17.6% share
of inflows coming from the neighbouring nation.
• Half of the imports from China consist of capital goods and machinery, indicating a critical need
for focused research and development in this area.
• Intermediate goods like organic chemicals, Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, and plastics, which
represent 37% of imports, show a pressing need for upgrading these industries.
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• In 2005, India exported $10 billion worth of goods to China and enjoyed a trade surplus with its
neighbour between 2003 and 2005.
• After 2005, Chinese goods dominated trade flows, steadily magnifying the trade deficit for India.
Reasons behind the trade deficit

• A narrow basket of commodities, mostly primary, that India exports to China.
• Market access impediments for most Indian agricultural products and the competitive sectors, such
as pharmaceuticals, IT/ITES, etc.
• The domestic industry, especially in the pharmaceutical sector, opposes the removal of concessions
on customs duties from China. The solar energy and toy industries also opposed similar moves.
• Even the Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme may have a significant Chinese presence with
Chinese supply chain partners and service providers.
Strategic Implications
• Implications are ‘profound’ and affect not only economic but national security dimensions.
• Stimulating domestic industries, reducing dependency on single-country, especially from a
geopolitical competitor like China, is necessary.
• Impact on geoeconomics: The use of economic instruments to promote and defend national
interests and to produce beneficial geopolitical results by China can not be ruled out.
• Weaponisation of economy: The German think tank Mercator Institute for China Studies
identified around 130 cases of coercive behaviour by China from 2010 to June 2023. For example,
last year, China suspended imports of Japanese seafood following the release of treated
wastewater from the Fukushima nuclear power plant.
{India-China} China’s ‘Xiaokang’ border defence villages along LAC
• China moves its nationals into its vacant ‘defence villages’ along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
What are Xiaokang border defence villages?

• China has been constructing 628 Xiaokang or “well-off villages” along India’s borders with the
Tibet Autonomous Region for over five years now.
• The border villages include structures that are mostly double-storey, large & spacious buildings.
• Though their exact purpose remains unclear, they are understood to be dual-use infrastructure
capable of being used for both civil and military purposes. This has been a concern from a defence
perspective. It can also be a way to assert Chinese claims over certain areas along the LAC.
Is there any law governing these border villages?

• A new law on China’s land borders was brought into effect from January 1, 2022.
• It was passed in 2021 by the Standing Committee of China’s National People’s Congress China’s
rubber-stamp Parliament) for “protection and exploitation of the country’s land border areas”.
India’s response
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• The Indian government announced the Vibrant Villages Programme in 2022 to develop its border
villages into modern villages with all amenities and as tourist attractions.
• The programme builds on the existing Border Area Development Programme (BADP) under the
Union Ministry of Home Affairs.
Other infrastructure projects by China along India’s borders

• Construction of new roads and bridges to improve connectivity through the passes in the northeast.
• There has also been a push to develop alternate routes to the LAC and improve inter-valley
connectivity in the northeast.
Line of Actual Control (LAC)
• LAC is the demarcation that separates Indian-controlled territory from Chinese controlled territory.
• India considers the LAC to be 3,488 km long, while the Chinese consider it to be only around 2,000
km.
• LAC is divided into three sectors:
Eastern sector (spans Arunachal Pradesh & Sikkim): Boundary dispute over the MacMahon Line.
Middle sector (Uttarakhand & Himachal Pradesh): It is the only one where India and China have
exchanged maps on which they broadly agree.
Western sector (in Ladakh): Boundary dispute pertains to the Johnson Line.
For details on LAC, visit >PMFIAS-IG-01-India.
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{India-China} India – China Dispute
• Three athletes from Arunachal Pradesh were denied accreditation cards and instead offered stapled
visas by China.
• Accreditation cards have dual purpose of being an ID card for the Asian Games as well as a visa.
Stapled Visa
• A stapled visa is an unstamped paper attached to a passport page, which can be detached easily.
• This differs from a regular visa that is affixed and stamped by the issuing authority.
• China issues stapled visas to Indian nationals from Arunachal Pradesh and J&K, a practice that challenges
India’s authority over these regions.
• However, the Indian government does not recognise these visas as valid.
India – China Border Dispute
• The India – China Border is the second longest border of India, next to Bangladesh.
• Five Indian states, namely J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh touch
the Indian boundary with China.
• The Sino-Indian border is generally divided into three sectors:
❖ Western sector
❖ Middle sector
❖ Eastern sector
The Western Sector

• Separates J&K from the Sinkiang (Xinjiang) province of China.
• The western sector boundary is largely the outcome of the British policy towards J&K.
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• China claims the Aksai Chin district, the Changmo valley, Pangong Tso and the Sponggar Tso area of
north-east Ladakh as well as a strip of about 5,000 sq km down the entire length of eastern Ladakh.
• China also claims a part of the Hunza-Gilgit area in North Kashmir (ceded to it in 1963 by Pak).
The Middle Sector
• Two Indian states Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand touch this border.
The Eastern Sector

• The 1,140 km long boundary between India and China runs from the eastern limit of Bhutan to a point
near Diphu Pass (Talu Pass) at the trijunction of India, Tibet and Myanmar.
• This line is usually referred to as the Mc Mahon Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon, then foreign secretary
of British India, who negotiated the boundary agreement between Great Britain and Tibet at Shimla
accord in 1913-14.
Recent Developments in the Galwan Clash Area

Indian Infrastructure Initiatives
• India is constructing a black-topped road towards Finger 4 on the north bank, expected to be
completed by 2025.
Budgetary Allocation and Progress
• The Border Roads Organization (BRO) budgetary allocation has increased significantly.
• The BRO's capital budget for 2023-24 was ₹5,000 crore, a 43% increase from the previous year.
• The India-China Border Roads (ICBR) plan has made significant progress in constructing over 1,400 km
of strategic roads along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
Chinese Infrastructure Initiatives
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• Construction work is underway on the main bridge on the Chinese side, while the second bridge has
already been completed.
• Large-scale construction activity has been observed on the north bank, including road connectivity
towards Shandong village.
• A Chinese air defence site is located east of the Khurnak Fort.
Ongoing Disputes and Talks

• Despite the infrastructure developments, the Corps Commander-level talks between India and China
remain deadlocked.
• Friction points at Depsang and Demchok continue to be contentious, with the Chinese side blocking
Indian patrols.
Pangong Tso
• In the Ladakhi language, Pangong means extensive concavity, and Tso is lake in Tibetan.
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• Pangong Tso is a long narrow, deep, endorheic (landlocked) saline (brackish) lake situated at a height
of more than 14,000 ft (4,270 m) in the Ladakh Himalayas.
• The 135 km-long lake is shaped like a boomerang and is 6 km wide at its broadest point. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• The Karakoram Mountain range (Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, China & India) ends at the north bank
of Pangong Tso.
• 1/3rd of the lake is under Indian control while the rest is under Chinese control.
Tactical significance of the Lake
• By itself, the lake does not have major tactical significance. But it lies in the path of the Chushul
approach, one of the main approaches that China can use for an offensive into Indian-held territory.
• The Chushul Valley has a vital airstrip that played an important role during the 1962 War with China.
• Chushul is the gateway to Leh. If China enters Chushul, it can launch its operations against Leh.
• Chushul is one of the five Border Personnel Meeting points between the Indian and Chinese armies.
{Diaspora} Project PRAYAS
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• The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) launched Project PRAYAS (Promoting Regular &
Assisted Migration for Youth and Skilled Professionals) in partnership with Ministry of External Affairs.
• It is a joint collaboration between the IOM India and Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA). PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• It envisages development of a roadmap for improved coordination between Central and State
Governments to encourage sharing of best practices between States and enhanced engagement with
the MEA on matters related to the international migration cycle.
• The project adheres to the objectives of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
(GCM) and the Migration Governance Framework (MiGOF).
• It also aligns with Goal 10.7 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to
facilitate orderly, safe, regular, and responsible migration and mobility of people.
Indian Diaspora
• It encompasses people who can trace their origins to India or are Indian citizens living abroad,
temporarily or permanently.
• The Diaspora comprises Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs), and Overseas
Citizens of India (OCIs), and it reflects India's rich social, ethnic, religious, and cultural tapestry.
• India has a 32 million-strong diaspora with UAE, USA, Saudi Arabia hosting the largest Diaspora.
• Indian Diaspora contributes largest remittance flow in world – Nearly $80 Billion (3% of Indian GDP).
Role of Diaspora in making India Self Reliant

• Promoted the concept of ‘Indianness’: From Bollywood celebrities endorsing Indian fashion on global
red carpets to Indian chefs popularising Indian cuisines in international culinary scenes, the Indian
diaspora has seamlessly integrated into societies worldwide.
• Leveraging Diaspora Investment: Real-world instances of diaspora investments can be seen in
successful startups, innovative entrepreneurial ventures, and advancements in technology.
• Promotes GoI idea of 'Vocal for Local': E.g., the preference for Indian tea brands, embrace of Indian
textiles by fashion influencers abroad contribute to building trust in Indian products globally.
• Source of remittances accounting for 13% of global remittances & 3% of country’s GDP.
• Leveraging Diaspora Diplomacy: From Sundar Pichai, Har Gobind Khoran to Political figures like
Kamala Harris acting as a tool of Soft power in the era of Hard power by influencing policy matters.
• Role in Research & Innovation: The Indian diaspora can act as ‘living bridges’ to make India self-reliant
in next generation technologies. E.g. Vaibhav Summit.
Challenges faced by Indian Diaspora

• Heterogeneous Nature with Differential needs demanding differential support from Government.
E.g. Welfare measures by Gulf Diaspora, Investment opportunities by Diaspora in wealthier nations.
• Regulatory Cholesterol & Bureaucratic Hurdles like red tape, multiple clearances, corruption, etc.
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discourages diaspora to collaborate with India or to invest in the country.
• Protectionism measures by host countries: Due to the global slowdown, unemployment worldwide, the
restriction on immigration has impacted Indians. E.g. “Nitaqat” policy of Saudi Arabia. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Disturbances in the Middle West: Shia-Sunni conflict, sudden eruption of violence as seen during Hamas
Israel conflict presenting challenge of sudden evacuation from turbulent regions.
• Other threats: Racism and religious discrimination, social isolation, exploitation from local employers
(for e.g. Kafala System in Gulf countries) etc.
Way Forward
• Organizing Programmes on lines of Pravasi Bharatiya Divas to engage with them, update them on
the policies and celebrate their achievements.
• Other measures: Addressing problems of blue-collar workers working overseas, focus on promoting
tourism among 2nd generation PIOs, etc.
GoI Initiatives for Indian Diaspora

• Indian Community Welfare Fund (ICWF) to support Indian nationals in crises abroad.
• Madad Portal for online lodging of grievances for emigrants & Social security through Pravasi Suraksha
Yojna.
• SWADES (Skilled Workers Arrival Database for Employment Support) to conduct skill mapping of
the returning citizens under the Vande Bharat Mission.
• Vande Bharat Mission for repatriation of Indian diaspora during COVID, and Operation Raahat and
Sankat Mochan for evacuation of people stuck in conflict zones etc.
• Global Pravasi Rishta Portal, Vaibhav (Vaishwik Bharatiya Vaigyanik) Summit, Know India
Programme, Tracing Roots, Pravasi Teerth Darshan Yojana etc for better engagement with Diaspora.
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Foreign Policy
{Diplomacy} Vaccine Diplomacy
• During the COVID-19 pandemic, for the first time in history, three non-Western powers, Russia, China
and India, dominated international vaccine aid.
Background of Vaccine Diplomacy

• Traditionally, Western powers have been the major donors of health aid while non-Western nations
have been the recipients.
• Health aid is a part of a country’s diplomatic toolkit, to be deployed judiciously in pursuit of geopolitical
goals. During the Cold War, the two big powers, the U.S. and the Soviet Union developed and delivered
vaccines against smallpox and polio. This came to be known as ‘vaccine diplomacy’.
Reasons Why Non-Westren Powers Dominated Vaccine Diplomacy During COVID-19

• Russia, China, and India were more proactive than Western powers in distributing vaccines to emerging
markets during COVID-19 due to two reasons:
❖ Many countries were in desperate need of vaccines.
❖ Western nations were hoarding vaccines.
• They succeeded in vaccine diplomacy due to their three relative strengths:
❖ Vaccine R&D: Countries with an advantage in vaccine R&D more open to technology transfer.
❖ Manufacturing: Countries with greater manufacturing capability more likely to keep vaccine
production within their borders than outsourcing it overseas.
❖ Delivery: Countries with expansive distribution networks prefer bilateral/multilateral distribution.
Russia’s Role: Technology Transfer
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• Russia, which is strong in vaccine R&D and weak in production and distribution, has relied on
outsourcing vaccine production with technology transfer. This has two advantages:
• It will either promote sales (when its vaccines have low global credibility) or encourage offshore PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
production (when the country has limited domestic production capacity).
• Technology transfer is welcomed by developing countries to secure vaccine supply and develop their
pharmaceutical industry. So, it can be used to enhance soft power of the giving country.
• This was the approach Russia took with its Sputnik-V vaccine.
• Western nations do not need to use technology transfer as bait to attract foreign customers because
their reputation in pharmaceutical R&D is already established.
India’s Role: Massive Donations

• India was producing 60% of the world’s vaccines even before the pandemic.
• So, India’s vaccine diplomacy was characterised by mass-production of Western-invented vaccines and
prompt bilateral donations.
• large-scale sales to bilateral buyers and multilateral COVAX initiative
• The “Western-invented” Covishield was the major currency of India’s vaccine diplomacy, as it
leveraged the massive capacity of Serum Institute of India (SII), the world’s largest vaccine producer.
• India quickly rolled out large-scale bilateral programme called ‘Vaccine Maitri’ (Vaccine Friendship).
• Two broad patterns were observed in India’s vaccine diplomacy:
❖ A ‘neighbourhood first’ policy
❖ A preference for Caribbean and African states with sizeable populations of Indian diaspora
• Along with geopolitical interest, India needed to cover the cost of manufacturing.
• So, India donated to countries with which it has strong geopolitical and economic ties, but it sold to
wealthy countries beyond its geopolitical reach.
• India’s vaccine diplomacy was interrupted by the second wave of COVID-19. Due to massive domestic
demand, India had to ban all vaccine exports. This provided an opportunity for Chinese manufacturers
to step up and fill the gap.
China’s Role: Costly Investments

• China made tremendous investments in vaccine development, production, and distribution. It slowed
preference for African and ASEAN countries (regions that are focus areas of the Belt and Road
Initiative).
• Due to the geopolitical rivalry between China and India in South Asia meant that Pakistan became “the
first and largest beneficiary of China’s vaccine aid.
Role of Government Support

• Governmental support for pharmaceutical industry can be a game-changer; both in enhancing vaccine
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R&D capability and increasing production capacity.
• Both Russian and Chinese governments poured vast resources into vaccine R&D which have helped
them in their advancement of vaccine diplomacy.
• Establishing a clear and agreeable commercial structure.
{Diplomacy} Shifts in India's Middle East diplomacy
• The Middle East is one of the most successful yet difficult regions for Indian diplomacy.
• India called for de-escalation in the aftermath of Iran’s retaliatory strike.
Four broad transitions in India's stand

• Balanced view: The call for de-escalation is viewed as “balanced” and in favour of regional peace.
• Shift in focus: Instead of balancing contradictions between the West and the Middle East, it has now
focused on the region’s internal contradictions.
• Non-ideological engagement: The current approach shows that its stand is not ideologically pre-
determined but based on the merits of the issue at hand and India's interests in the Middle East.
• Religious narratives: The recent shift underlines that religion can’t be the dominant factor in dealing
with the Middle East, as was the dominant narrative in domestic politics.
India’s stakes in the Middle East

• Safety of Indian diaspora: The safety of about 18,000 Indians in Israel, 5,000-10,000 Indians in Iran,
and about 90 lakh people in the Gulf and West Asia region is a concern.
• Energy security: The West Asia region contributes 80 per cent of India’s oil supplies, which a potential
conflict will impact.
• Projects in the Middle East: India sees the region as its extended neighbourhood, which is crucial for
projects like the Chabhar Port and the India-Middle-East-Europe Economic Corridor.
• Tight rope walk: India has to balance between Israel and Iran while balancing an anti-terrorism stand
with its strategic interest in Iran.
{Foreign Policy} Gujral Doctrine
• Gujral doctrine is an accommodative Policy vis-à-vis India’s Neighbours.

• It seeks friendship based on sovereign equality and non-interference, with ‘non-reciprocal
magnanimity’ towards the smaller neighbouring countries such as Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Sri
Lanka.
• It seeks to end India’s endless contestations with neighbours and resolve longstanding problems.
5 Main Principles of Gujral Doctrine

• No reciprocity with small neighbours.
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• No territory of any South Asian state to be used against any other state.
• Non-interference in each other’s internal territory.
• Mutual respect for territorial integrity & sovereignty.
• Dispute resolution at the bilateral level through peaceful means.
Contemporary Significance of Gujral Doctrine

• India’s “Neighbourhood First” policy is closely aligned with the Gujral doctrine.
• Promote peace, stability, and prosperity: A peaceful neighbourhood allows India to become a high
growth economy & a regional power
• It leads to ‘Development without Distraction,’ which is crucial for India’s rise as a global power and
regional prosperity.
• Builds regional cooperation as unilateral concessions help build trust and ‘dependency bonds’ to
promote regional cooperation on emerging issues of climate change, economic development,
terrorism, COVID crises etc.
• Perception management (Elder, ‘not Big Brother’) by neutralising anti-India rhetoric and making
government-to-government negotiations easier.
Challenges in the implementation of Gujral Doctrine

• Delay in implementation of projects: For eg, Chabhar Port.
• Outstanding boundary issues like China (Ladakh), Pakistan (Sir Creek), Nepal (Kalapani area), Sri Lanka
(Kachatheevu Island), etc.
• Increasing China’ forays in the near neighbourhood: For eg, Border settlement with Bhutan, etc.
• Shift from soft power to hard power: Galwan Standoff, etc.
Way Forward
• Use multiple platforms to increase engagement like SCO, SAARC, BIMSTEC etc.
• Desist from ‘big brotherly’ approach and more sensitive to political dynamics of neighbours.
• Expediting implementation of key projects. For eg, Kaladan Multimodal Project.
• Projecting its ‘Soft Power’ in the region through development diplomacy by extending Lines of Credit,
disaster relief, humanitarian aid, educational scholarships and capacity-building programmes.
{Foreign Policy} Neighbourhood First Policy
❖ The presence of leaders from South Asia & Indian Ocean at the swearing-in ceremony of India’s PM
underlines Delhi’s continuing commitment to the “neighbourhood first” policy.
What is India’s Neighbourhood First Policy?

• India's Neighbourhood First Policy is unique in that it guides its approach towards the management
of relations with countries in its immediate neighbourhood, namely Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
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Bhutan, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
• Objective: Enhancing physical, digital and people-to-people connectivity across the region, as well as
augmenting trade and commerce. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
Significance
✓ Overcome low integration: Making unilateral concessions can help build trust and ‘dependency
bonds’ to promote regional cooperation on emerging issues such as climate change, economic
development, terrorism, etc.
✓ Internal Security imperatives: Ensure a Coordinated Security approach to prevent internal and
external non-state actors from destabilising the country and rapid resolution of boundary and water
disputes. E.g., the Teesta water sharing agreement, Indus water treaty, etc.
✓ Containment of increasing Chinese footprint in India’s neighbourhood: Improving relations with
neighbours will counterbalance Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean region and help India fulfil its
goal of being a Net Security Provider in the region.
✓ Leveraging soft power diplomacy: India's deep cultural and historical connections with its neighbours
strengthen people-to-people ties, solidifying India's influence in the region through soft power
diplomacy. For e.g. Buddhism as a tool to strengthen people-to-people ties in Southeast Asia.
✓ Bridging development deficits: Actively engaging with neighbouring countries helps in the develop-
ment of India's northeastern states, thus narrowing development disparities in the region.
✓ Support in multilateral forums: Working with neighbouring partners strengthens India's leadership
role in representing the interests of the Global South at international forums. This fosters better
understanding and cooperation on global issues.
Challenges
➢ Power asymmetry between India and its neighbouring nations: India’s engagement within the
domestic political affairs of its neighbouring nations to safeguard its national interests portrays India
as the hegemonic power in the region.
➢ Identity crisis: India’s neighbours suffer from identity crisis vis-à-vis India as everything that they
identify themselves with, for e.g. language, religion, customs, etc, traces its origin from Indian
subcontinent and they find themselves under India’s looming shadow.
➢ Delayed implementation of developmental projects due to logistical and bureaucratic challenges.
For e.g. Kaladan multimodal project.
➢ Geopolitical tensions: Issues like border disputes and political disagreements can complicate
relationships.
Way forward
✓ Proactive, fast-track diplomacy with neighbours & evolving a comprehensive Neighbourhood policy.
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✓ Following the doctrine of non-reciprocity as outlined in the Gujral Doctrine.
✓ Desist from ‘big brotherly’ approach and remain detached from internal dynamics.
✓ Expediting implementation of key projects, particularly development projects in hydropower and
connectivity (Physical, Digital & People to people).
✓ Development Diplomacy to project its ‘Soft Power’ in the region through Lines of Credit, grant
assistance, humanitarian aid, educational scholarships and capacity-building programmes.
India’s Bilateral Relations With Major Powers
{India-EU} Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA)
• The India- EFTA, Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) was recently signed by the
Minister of Commerce & Industry.
• This agreement marks a shift towards closer economic relations with European nations and the Western
world. It's the first FTA that India has signed with any European country.
• It shows India's strong commitment to trade liberalisation, especially during a time when
protectionism is on the rise.
• This follows swiftly after the conclusion of FTAs with Australia and the UAE, with negotiations for FTAs
with the U.K. and the EU also progressing.
EFTA
• European Free Trade Association (EFTA) consists of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, & Switzerland.
• The India-EFTA deal was concluded after ten years of disagreements and the abandonment of
negotiations in 2013.
• Talks were halted after 13 rounds of discussions, but recent geopolitical shifts and a mutual goal to
decrease dependence on China influenced the renewal of negotiations.
• The TEPA enhances market access and simplifies customs procedures, making it easier for Indian
and EFTA businesses to expand operations in the respective markets.
• EFTA is offering 92.2% of its tariff lines, which covers 99.6% of India’s exports.
• The EFTA’s market access offer covers 100% of non-agri products and tariff concession on Processed
Agricultural Products (PAP).
• India is offering 82.7% of its tariff lines, which covers 95.3% of EFTA exports, of which more than 80%
of import is Gold.
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• Sensitivity related to PLI in sectors such as pharma, medical devices, and processed food has been
considered when extending offers.
• Sectors such as dairy, soya, coal & sensitive agricultural products are kept on the exclusion list.
India and EFTA

• In 2023, India ranked as the EFTA's fifth-biggest trading partner, following the EU, the US, the UK,
and China. The total two-way trade between India and EFTA reached $25 billion, with Indian exports
at $2.8 billion and imports at approximately $22 billion.
• The EFTA nations, with a population of 13 million and a combined GDP exceeding $1 trillion, are the
world's ninth-largest merchandise trader and the fifth largest in commercial services.
• More than 300 Swiss companies, such as Nestle, Holcim, Sulzer, and Novartis, apart from banks such
as UBS, operate in India. Indian IT majors TCS, Infosys and HCL work in Switzerland.
India’s key Imports & Exports from the four countries

• Imports: Gold ($20.7 billion in 2021-22), silver, coal, pharmaceuticals, vegetable oil, dairy machinery,
medical items, crude and scientific equipment.
• Exports: Chemicals, iron and steel, gold, precious stones, yarns, sports goods, glassware and bulk
drugs to these nations.
Key features of TEPA

Investment
• EFTA countries to invest $100 billion in India, creating one million jobs over 15 years.
• India can withdraw tariff concessions if the investment and job targets aren't met.
• For the targets to happen, India must grow at 9.5% and EFTA investments must yield over 16% annually.
• If not achieved, both sides can lower their goals, and India can adjust tariff concessions after 18 years.
• The investment chapter isn't subject to dispute resolution.
Trade in goods
• EFTA countries gain more access to India's market with tariff concessions.
• India will eliminate tariffs on most products within seven to 10 years.
• Tariffs on cut and polished diamonds will reduce from 5% to 2.5% in five years.
• Tariff cuts for wines will vary based on price, gradually decreasing over 10 years.
• EFTA exports like seafood, fruits, coffee capsules, oils, sweets, and processed foods benefit.
• Also covered are smartphones, bicycle parts, medical equipment, clocks, watches, medicines, textiles,
apparel, iron and steel products, and machinery.
• Excluded products: Gold, dairy, soya, coal, and some agricultural products.
India's exports to EFTA countries will not be significantly affected because most products already have
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•
low or zero tariffs owing to the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status in EFTA countries. For instance,
98% of India's $1.3 billion merchandise exports to Switzerland are industrial products with zero tariffs.
Trade in services
• Both India and EFTA members agreed to liberalise services across various sectors.
• Norway commits to allowing access for Indian yoga instructors and traditional medicine practitioners,
following its legal rules.
• Norway and Switzerland offer four and three years, respectively, for skilled Indian professionals under
intra-corporate transfers, with work permit requirements.
• TEPA includes a framework to ease recognition of service suppliers' qualifications.
• Financial and telecom services have separate annexes aiming to facilitate service provision.
• Unlike past FTAs, TEPA extends service trade benefits to any corporate entity incorporated in an EFTA
member, regardless of location of its operations, including those with which India does not have FTAs.
• However, benefits under the investment chapter are limited to entities with substantial business
activities within EFTA.
Sustainable development
• TEPA includes a chapter on Trade and Sustainable Development (TSD), covering environmental and
labour aspects. It's the first time India has included such commitments in an FTA.
• The TSD chapter mentions various international agreements and conventions on environment and
labour, the implementation of which is based on a balance of rights and obligations. For example,
• The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement recognise differential
obligations for developed and developing countries.
• Labour conventions under International Labour Organization are based on a tripartite framework
involving government & organisations representing employers & employees.
• While the TSD chapter doesn't involve dispute resolution, India needs to ensure any scrutiny of its
implementation respects the balance in these agreements.
Intellectual Property Rights

• EFTA countries have pharmaceutical and high-tech multinational companies. They want stronger
commitments to protect intellectual property rights than the WTO's TRIPS Agreement. TEPA
acknowledges some of these requests.
• For instance, India's Patents Act allows opposition to patent applications before they are granted.
• TEPA's IPR Annex says these oppositions should be swiftly rejected if they are prima facie unfounded.
• This means India's internal process may face scrutiny to ensure this standard is met.
• Also, Indian law requires annual reports on how patents are being used. TEPA wants this reporting
frequency to increase to three years, with annual reports needed only in specific cases.
• This raise concerns that Indian law may need to change to accommodate this requirement.
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{India-Iran} 10-year Contract for Chabahar Port
• India and Iran signed a 10-year contract for the operation of Chabahar port in Iran.
• India Ports Global Ltd (IPGL) and Ports & Maritime Organisation of Iran (PMO) signed the contract.
• IPGL will invest approximately $120 million to equip and operate the port for the duration of the contract.
• India has also offered a credit window in rupees equivalent to $250 million for mutually identified
projects to improve port infrastructure.
History of the Chabahar Project
• 2002: India’s involvement in the project was discussed first at the National security advisor level in 2002.
• 2003 Vajpayee-Khatami agreement: During Iranian President Khatami's visit to India, the New Delhi
Declaration was signed, with Chabahar as one of the projects included.
• Slow follow-up: As India drew closer to the administration of President George W Bush and the US
putting Iran in the “axis of evil” along with Iraq and North Korea, it pressured India to go slow.
• Progress after 2015: The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) improved US-Iran relations,
and the project received greater attention.
• Trilateral Agreement 2016: India, Iran and Afghanistan signed a trilateral agreement to establish the
International Transport and Transit Corridor.
• Waiver from US sanctions: Trump administration exempted the project from the US sanctions on Iran.
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• August 2023: Meeting of the Indian PM and Iranian President on the sidelines of the BRICS Summit gave
a clear political direction to finalise and sign the long-term contract.
Rising significance of Chabahar Project

• Liberalisation: Post 1990s, the Indian economy opened up and looked for ways to increase India’s
engagement with the world.
• Rise of Taliban: The Taliban took over Afghanistan in 1996 and impacted the land route.
• Alternate route: After Pakistan and Afghanistan, the next best is through Iran, which borders Central Asia
and the Caspian Sea.
• China in Gwadar: China began to develop the Gwadar port in Pakistan as part of the Belt and Road
Initiative (BRI), making the Chabahar port more significant.
International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC)
Credits: dw.com
• The INSTC envisages the movement of goods: Mumbai to Bandar Abbas in Iran by sea; Bandar Abbas
to Bandar-e-Anzali, an Iranian port on the Caspian Sea, by road; Bandar-e-Anzali to Astrakhan, a
Caspian port in the Russian Federation by sea; To other parts of the Russian Federation and Europe
by rail.
Current Status of Project

• There are two distinct ports in the Chabahar project, Shahid Beheshti and Shahid Kalantari.
• India’s investment is restricted to the Shahid Beheshti port.
• IPGL has been operating Chabahar Port through its wholly-owned subsidiary, India Ports Global
Chabahar Free Zone (IPGCFZ), since 2018.
• It also facilitated the supply of humanitarian assistance, especially during the Covid-19 pandemic.
• To date, a total of 2.5 million tonnes of wheat and 2,000 tonnes of pulses have been trans-shipped from
India to Afghanistan through Chabahar port.
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• In 2021, India supplied 40,000 litres of environment-friendly pesticide (malathion) through the port
to Iran to fight locust attacks.
{India-Canada} India-Canada and Khalistan Movement
• Canadian PM alleged a potential link between the GoI and the killing of a pro-Khalistan leader.
• Canada expelled a diplomat from the Indian High Commission in Ottawa, and India also expelled a
Canadian diplomat.
India-Canada Bilateral Relations

• India-Canada bilateral relations elevated to a strategic partnership in 2015.
People-to-People Relations
• Canada hosts one of the largest Indian Diasporas in the world.
• Seven lakh NRIs & 1.6 million people of Indian origin live in Canada (total population 38.8 million).
• The present House of Commons (total strength of 338) has 19 MPs of Indian origin.
Economic Relations
• India’s total trade with Canada (goods and services) in 2021-22 was US$11.68 billion.
• Canadian Pension Funds have substantial investments in India. India became the 10th largest trading
partner of Canada in 2022.
Agriculture
• The bilateral MoU on agriculture cooperation was signed in 2009. A Joint Working Group has been set
up under the MoU. A Joint Working Group for Pulses has been set up separately.
• Canada is one of India's largest sources of pulses (in 2021, almost 30% of our total pulses imports
were from Canada).
India-Canada strained ties

• India criticised the Canadian government for:
❖ Proximity to individuals sympathetic to Khalistan activities.
❖ Incitement of violence against Indian diplomats
❖ Damage to diplomatic premises
❖ Threats to the Indian community and places of worship
• Extremist elements and their nexus with:
❖ Organised crime
❖ Drug syndicates
❖ Human trafficking
• In response to India's concerns, Justin Trudeau stated that Canada would defend:
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❖ Freedom of expression
❖ Peaceful protest and Conscience
• The defence of Khalistanis under the aspect of "free speech" is selective and hypocritical.
Domestic Politics Impacting Relations

• Trudeau's domestic political considerations have negatively impacted Canada's relations with India.
• Trudeau's Liberal Party relies on the support of Jagmeet Singh's New Democratic Party.
• Singh's party includes members with ties to Khalistani extremism.
Effect of strained relations

• India and Canada paused their Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) negotiations.
• Canada cancelled a trade mission to India scheduled to arrive in Mumbai in October.
India-Canada Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA)

• It is a proposed bilateral trade agreement between India and Canada in 2008.
• The negotiations for the India-Canada CEPA were formally launched in 2010.
• The primary objective of the CEPA is to promote trade and economic relations.
Benefits
• Provide Indian businesses better access to the Canadian market and vice versa.
• Reducing or eliminating tariffs on goods and services can increase trade flows.
Current Status
• The CEPA has been under negotiation for several years but has not been finalised yet.
• In March 2022, both sides agreed to re-launch the CEPA negotiations.
Khalistan Movement
• The Khalistan movement is a fight for a separate, sovereign Sikh state in present-day Punjab (both
India and Pakistan).
• The movement was crushed in India following Operation Blue Star (1984).
• It continues to evoke sympathy and support among sections of the Sikh population, especially in the
Sikh diaspora in countries such as Canada, the UK, and Australia.
Timeline of the Khalistan Movement

India’s Independence and Partition
• The movement’s origins have been traced back to India’s independence and subsequent partition
along religious lines.
• The Punjab province saw some of the worst communal violence.
• After partition, the following cities went to Pakistan:
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• Lahore (capital of Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s great Sikh Empire)
• Nankana Sahib (birthplace of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism)
Demand for Autonomous Punjabi Suba
• At the time of Independence, the Punjabi Suba Movement demanded the creation of a Punjabi-speaking
state. In 1966, Punjab was reorganised to reflect the Punjabi Suba demand.
• The erstwhile Punjab state was trifurcated into:
❖ Hindi-speaking, Hindu-majority states of Himachal Pradesh and Haryana
❖ Punjabi-speaking, Sikh-majority Punjab.
Anandpur Sahib Resolution

• In 1973, Akali Dal in Punjab presented the Anandpur Sahib Resolution.
• It asked Punjab to have more control over its affairs, decide its own borders, and make its own rules.
Rise of Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale
• Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale emerged and positioned himself as the authentic voice of the Sikhs.
Dharam Yudh Morcha
• In 1982, Bhindranwale launched a civil disobedience movement (Dharam Yudh Morcha) with support
from the Akali Dal's leadership.
• The movement was geared towards the demands articulated in the Anandpur Sahib Resolution.
• He took up residence inside the Golden Temple, directing demonstrations and clashes with the police.
• GoI declared the movement tantamount to secession.
Operation Bluestar
• Operation Blue Star began on June 1, 1984, to flush out militants from the Golden Temple and
neutralise Bhindranwale.
• Bhindranwale was killed, and the Golden Temple was freed of militants.
• It gravely wounded the Sikh community worldwide and galvanised the demand for Khalistan.
Current Status
• Punjab has been peaceful for a long time, but the Khalistan movement still exists in some Sikh
communities abroad. Many in the Sikh diaspora still support Khalistan.
• Some still support Khalistan due to memories of the troubled 1980s.
India-Canada Ties
• There are 3,21,00,340 overseas Indians, of which 5.26% are in Canada.
• These include 1,78,410 Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and 15,10,645 Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs).
• Canada is home to more Sikhs as a percentage of the national population than India.
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• Every 7th Indian student studying abroad is in Canada. In 2022, of 13,24,954 Indian students abroad,
13.83% were in Canada.
Economic ties PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
FDI
• Canada accounts for 0.56% of the total FDI in India. The total FDI equity inflow in India between April
2000 and June 2023 stood at $645,386.0884 million, of which 0.5 per cent came from Canada.
Tourism
• Canada is the fourth largest source of tourists in India (based on 2021 figures)
• Canada accounted for 5.3% of Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) in India. 72.6% of the Canadian FTAs were
members of the Indian diaspora.
Trade
• Bilateral trade with Canada accounts for only 0.70% of India’s total trade
• Canada was India’s 35th biggest trading partner country. (India has higher bilateral trade with smaller
countries like Nepal and Taiwan.)
Imports and Exports

Top three import categories
• Mineral fuels, mineral oils and products of their distillation; bituminous substances; mineral waxes.
• Pulp of wood or of other fibrous cellulosic material; waste and scrap of paper or paperboard.
Top five Indian imports from Canada
• Coking Coal: Coking Coal was the most valued item India imported from Canada during 2022-23.
Canada was the 5th largest coking coal supplier to India after Australia, the US, Singapore, & Russia.
• Potassium Chloride: Canada is India’s biggest source of potassium chloride. The other countries that
supplied potassium chloride to India were Israel, Jordan, Belarus, Turkmenistan, and Russia.
• Lentils: Canada is the biggest supplier of ‘masur’ dal to India. The other countries exporting lentils to
India are Australia, the Netherlands and the UAE.
• Newsprint: Canada is a major source of newsprint. Russia, Korea, Malaysia, and the UAE were the
other countries that supplied newsprint to India.
• Wood Pulp: Canada is also a significant source of wood pulp. New Zealand, Sweden, Estonia, the US,
and the Netherlands supplied wood pulp to India last year.
Top three export categories
• Pharmaceutical products
• Articles of iron or steel
• Nuclear reactors, boilers, machinery and mechanical appliances; parts thereof
Major Agri imports from Canada
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• Canada is important to India as a supplier of two major Agri-related commodities.
Muriate of potash (MOP) PMF IAS CA (International Relations)

• MOP is India's third most consumed fertilizer after urea and di-ammonium phosphate. Canada was
India’s largest MOP supplier last year, followed by Israel and Jordan.
Masur
• India is a significant importer of pulses, with Masur being the biggest after tur. Canada is India’s largest
Masur supplier, followed by Australia.
{India-Palestine} India’s Support for Palestine

• India voted in favour of a draft U.N. General Assembly resolution that supported Palestine as a full
member of the United Nations.
History of India’s Stand on Palestine

• In 1947, India voted against the UN Resolution to partition Palestine into a Jewish state, an Arab state
and an international city. Instead, it preferred a federal state, with Arabs and Jews enjoying the widest
possible autonomy, with a special status for Jerusalem.
• Further, though India recognised Israel in 1950, it did not establish diplomatic relations until 1992.
• After India established full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992, bilateral ties between New Delhi and
Tel Aviv began to deepen. But India publicly maintained its support for the creation of a Palestine
state with East Jerusalem as its capital and based on the 1967 borders.
• In 1974, India became the first non-Arab state to recognise the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO) as the sole and legitimate representative of the Palestinian people.
• In 1988, India became one of the first countries to recognise the Palestinian State.
• In 1996, India opened its Representative Office in Gaza, which was later shifted to Ramallah in 2003.
• India voted in favour of Palestine becoming a full member of UNESCO.
• In 2012, India co-sponsored and voted in favour of the UNGA Resolution that enabled Palestine to
become a ‘non-member Observer state’ at the UN without voting rights.
• In 2015, India supported the Bandung Declaration on Palestine (Sought the liberation of Palestine
from illegal Israeli Occupation) at the Asian African Commemorative Conference.
Changes under the present government

• In recent decades, India strengthened ties with Israel, including buying arms, and has toned down its
support for Palestine's cause in the last decade, especially in fora, such as the United Nations. However,
the formal position remains unchanged — India supports the two-state solution, with Israel and
Palestine living side by side as good neighbours.
• Post the October 7 attack, India supported a resolution that called for “an immediate humanitarian
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ceasefire” and expressed “deep concern” over Israel’s continuing occupation of Syria’s Golan Heights.
Learn in detail about the October 7 attack and the Genesis of the Palestine Conflict.
{India-Russia} India-Russia Relations
India-Russia Relations: Convergences

Economic and Investment
• India-Russia trade hit a record of about $40 billion in 2022–23. Both countries aim to increase bilateral
investment to US$50 billion and bilateral trade to US$30 billion by 2025.
• Strategic Economic Dialogue: Agreement to jointly invest resources in projects in the Far Eastern region
of the Russian Federation. India has provided a $1 billion line of credit.
Connectivity
• Collaboration on Projects such as the Chennai – Vladivostok Maritime Corridor, International North-
South Corridor (INSTC) etc.
Space
• Both countries are partnering in space exploration through the Gaganyaan program.
Strategic
• Russia has supported India’s bid for a permanent seat in UNSC and entry into the Nuclear Supplier
Group.
• Inclusive Indo-Pacific regional strategy: Consultations on “integration and development initiatives in
the greater Eurasian space and in the regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans” denotes emerging
strategic convergence between India and Russia.
• Track-II dialogue on India-Japan-Russia Trilateral Cooperation in the Russian Far East.
Defence and Security

• 10 Year Defence Pact signed for military technology cooperation for the next decade (2021-2031).
• About 70% of India’s defence forces are equipped with Russian weapons, including S-400 Missiles.
• Cooperation in the manufacture of the “Brahmos” missile system, AK-203 assault rifles, SU-30 aircraft
and T-90 tanks. Military Exercise: Indra.
Energy Cooperation
• Nuclear energy: New reactors being constructed by Russia at Kudankulam as a “flagship joint
project”.
Diaspora and Cultural Exchanges

• Approx. 4,500 Indian students are currently enrolled in medical and technical institutions in Russian.
• Hindustani Samaj: The oldest Indian organization in Russia, functioning since 1957.
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• Programmes like 'Namaste Russia' promote educational collaboration between India & Russia.
India-Russia Relations: Divergences PMF IAS CA (International Relations)

• Small and stagnant trade volumes: India-Russia trade ($10 billion) and connectivity considerably lag
behind those between China and Russia ($110 billion) and between India & US ($120 billion).
• Growing India-US proximity: Russia is apprehensive of India strengthening ties with its partners in the
Quad, and deepening defence cooperation with the US, pushing Russia into China’s orbit.
• Russia’s growing alignment with China in the form of defence agreements, energy projects (cross-border
gas pipeline between China & Russia’s Far East), endorsement of the Belt & Road initiative, etc.
• Chinese Factor: Since 2015, China has accounted for 85% of foreign investment in the Russian Far East.
China is also the top trading partner of the Russia-steered Eurasian Economic Union.
• Growing Russian cooperation with Pakistan: E.g. Russia conducted a military exercise with Pakistan.
• Connectivity challenges: INSTC projects were delayed due to unilateral sanctions by US on Iran &
Russia.
Way Forward
• Diversify collaborations and deepen their relations to mutual benefit, including Chabahar, the Arctic,
Chennai-Vladivostok Eastern Maritime Corridor, manufacture of Sputnik V in India, etc.
• Cooperate at the multilateral level, such as on regional and global issues in multilateral bodies including
UNSC, SCO, G-20, BRICS, ASEAN-led fora and others.
• Exploring policy convergence involving strategic coordination between Russia’s concept of Greater
Eurasia and India’s espousal of an inclusive Indo-Pacific framework.
• Promoting trilateral cooperation between Russia, China & India to reduce mistrust between India &
China.
• Ensuring regional security: India and Russia should work together to achieve stability and security in
the region, especially in Afghanistan, through an Afghan-led and Afghan-owned peace process.
• Re-establishing the Rupee-Rouble Payment Mechanism to facilitate trade in local currencies, bypass US
sanctions, and enhance competitiveness.
{India-UAE} India-UAE Relations
• UAE has become India’s strategic partner and one of the most important linchpins of India’s
engagement in the Gulf region.
Importance of UAE for India

• Convergence of ideas on global climate issues. Both India and the UAE co-launched the Global Green
Credit Initiative.
• Economic Partnership
❖ Bilateral trade grew to $85 billion in 2022-23. UAE is India’s 3rd largest trading partner & 2nd largest
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export destination. It is also the 4th largest overall investor in India.
❖ The India-UAE Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, signed on February 18, 2022.
It aims to increase trade in services to $115 billion in five years.
❖ The bilateral investment treaty with the UAE was ratified on February 1, 2024. This has the potential
to boost manufacturing and attract increased foreign direct investment.
• Co-operation in Fintech: The RuPay card, a key component of India’s Digital Public Infrastructure
(DPI), has been accepted in the UAE since August 2019.
• Internationalisation of INR
❖ From July 2023, the rupee was being accepted for transactions at Dubai’s airports.
❖ India and the UAE also operationalised a rupee-dirham settlement system.
❖ In August 2023, the Indian Oil Corporation made a rupee payment to the Abu Dhabi National Oil
Company for crude oil imports.
• Energy security
❖ UAE is the only nation in the region that has strategic oil reserves stored in India.
❖ An agreement was signed between Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Ltd (ISPRL) and the Abu
Dhabi National Oil Company to invest in the strategic crude oil storage facility in Mangaluru with
an initial investment of $400 million.
• Internationalisation of India’s education: The IIT Delhi Abu Dhabi campus has been established.
• Global groupings
❖ During the OIC Foreign Ministers’ Meeting in 2019, UAE invited India’s External Affairs Minister as a
keynote speaker/guest of honour country despite protests from Pakistan.
❖ The UAE was one of few nations specially invited for the G-20 summit, in September 2023, under
India’s G-20 presidency.
❖ The I2U2 or the West Asian Quad comprising India.
❖ India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEEC) infrastructure project.
UAE launches 10-year Blue Visa

• The UAE Cabinet has approved a 10-year Blue Residence visa for individuals contributing significantly
to environmental protection.
• Eligible individuals include members of international organisations, international companies,
associations, non-governmental organisations, global award winners, distinguished environmental
activists and researchers.
• Areas include marine life, land-based ecosystems, air quality, sustainability technologies, the circular
economy, etc.
• Eligible persons can apply through the Federal Authority for Identity, Citizenship, Customs, and Port
Security (ICP). Relevant authorities can also nominate eligible individuals.
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Other Residency Options
• The UAE typically issues residency visas with a two-year validity.
• In 2019, the UAE introduced 10-year Golden Visas. Golden Visas are for investors, entrepreneurs,
scientists, outstanding students, graduates, and humanitarian pioneers.
• In 2022, the UAE launched five-year Green Visas. Green Visas are for skilled professionals, freelancers,
investors, and entrepreneurs.
• UAE is the top destination for Indian migrants, according to a report by a United Nations agency.
• There were 3.47 million Indians in the UAE in 2020, according to the World Migration Report 2024.
UAE’s Golden Visa

• Legendary actor Rajinikanth recently received the UAE’s prestigious Golden Visa from the Department
of Culture and Tourism.
Eligibility
• Skilled professionals, entrepreneurs, investors with some minimum threshold;
• Students from prestigious universities and talented individuals with exceptional skills or achievements
in various fields like science, arts, culture, etc.
Key features of Golden Visa

• Long-term residency: Offers residence permits valid for either 5 or 10 years with the option to renew.
• No sponsor required: Unlike traditional UAE residency visas, the Golden Visa does not require
sponsorship from a local employer. Moreover, it provides the right to sponsor family members and
an unlimited number of domestic help.
• Freedom to Work: The ability to live and work in the UAE without a separate work permit.
{India-Iran} India's Trade with Israel and Iran
India-Israel Trade
• Growing since 1992: India-Israel trade has doubled in the last five years and risen significantly, from
$200 mn in 1992 to $10.7 bn (excluding defence) in the Financial Year 2022-23.
• Trade surplus of $6.13 bn: India’s exports to Israel were worth $8.45 bn, while India’s imports from
Israel stood at $2.3 bn.
• Israel's share in India's total trade: Israel comprised 0.92 per cent of India’s total trade during FY 2022-
23, making it India’s 32nd biggest trading partner.
• India's share in Israel's total trade: India is Israel’s second-largest trading partner in Asia and the
seventh-largest globally.
• India's exports to Israel: Diesel and diamonds (78% of exports in 2022-23), aviation turbine fuel,
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radar apparatus, Basmati rice, T-shirts, and wheat.
• India's imports from Israel: Space equipment, diamonds, potassium chloride, mechanical appliances,
turbo jets, and printed circuits. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
India-Iran Trade
• Declining trade: The value of the India-Iran trade has declined in the last five years, except for an uptick
in FY 2022-23, mainly due to US sanctions on Iran.
• Trade surplus of $1 bn: In 2022-23, India’s exports to Iran accounted for $1.66 billion, while India’s
imports from Iran stood at just $0.67 billion.
• Iran's share in India's total trade: During FY 2022-23, bilateral trade was 0.20 per cent of India’s total
trade. Iran was India’s 59th biggest trading partner.
• India's exports to Iran: Agricultural goods and livestock products, including meat, skimmed milk,
buttermilk, ghee, onions, garlic, and canned vegetables.
• India imports from Iran: Methyl alcohol, petroleum bitumen, liquified butanes, apples, liquified
propane, dates, and almonds.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Equations

• Israel is not a very significant source of investment for India, with only 0.4 per cent ($288 million ) of
the total FDI inflows between April 2000 and December 2023.
• Cumulative Overseas Direct Investment (ODI) from India to Israel from April 2000 to May 2023 was
around US$ 383 million.
• India has invested heavily in various Iranian projects like the Shahid Beheshti Port at Chabahar.
• FDI inflows from Iran to India were recorded at just $1 million from April 2000 to December 2023.
Economic impacts of Israel-Iran tensions on India

• Petroleum prices: No direct impact is expected, as major producers like the USA, Russia, and North Sea
operators are not in the conflict zone. However, the worsening Red Sea situation can sour the prices.
• Project delays: Projects like the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) can get delayed.
{Africa} India-Kenya Bilateral Relations
A brief history of India-Kenya relations

• There was an established trade network that connected India and the Swahili Coast (includes modern-
day Kenya, Tanzania, and parts of Mozambique) before the arrival of Europeans.
• This network facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas between the two regions, including spreading
Islam and Indian culture to the Swahili Coast.
• It was largely maintained by Arab and Persian traders who transported goods such as gold, ivory, and
slaves in exchange for textiles, spices, and other luxury items in India.
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• During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, both countries were under the British Empire's control.
• They have a shared history of fighting against the oppressive and exploitative rule of colonial powers.
• In 1948, before Kenya's independence, India established the office of Commissioner for British East PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
Africa residents in Nairobi.
• After the independence of Kenya in 1963, India elevated the position of the Commissioner to that of a
High Commission, officially upgrading diplomatic relations between the two countries.
• India later also set up an Assistant High Commission in Mombasa, the second-largest city in Kenya.
• The India-Kenya Trade Agreement was signed in 1981, under which both countries accorded each
other Most Favored Nation status.
• The India-Kenya Joint Trade Committee (JTC) was set up at the Ministerial level in 1983.
Development Cooperation and Capacity Building
• India offers development assistance to Kenya in the form of loans and credit.
• Joint efforts to combat the COVID-19 pandemic and to consolidate economic collaboration during the
post-COVID-19 period.
• According to the Kenya Investment Authority (Ken Invest), India is the second largest investor in Kenya.
• Over 400 Kenyan nationals enrol in training and scholarship programmes every year in various fields
under the Indian Technical & Economic Cooperation (ITEC) Programme.
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Important International Institutions
{International Organisations} World Trade Organisation (WTO)
• The European Union has expressed disappointment over India’s appeal against the ruling of WTO’s
dispute settlement panel in the case of duties imposed by India on ICT imports.
• WTO is an intergovernmental organization that regulates and facilitates international trade between
nations, operating in a member-driven and consensus-based manner.
• Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.
• 164 member states (India is a founding member), representing over 98% of global trade and GDP.
• Formally established on January 1, 1995, under the 1994 Marrakesh Agreement, the WTO replaced the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1948 after the culmination of the Uruguay Round,
an eight-year-long negotiation process.
Mandate of the WTO

• The WTO's mandate encompasses the facilitation of trade in goods, services, & intellectual property.
• It achieves this by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements that aim to reduce or
eliminate tariffs, quotas, and other trade restrictions.
• Additionally, the WTO oversees independent dispute resolution mechanisms to ensure compliance with
trade agreements and resolve trade-related disputes.
• While the WTO prohibits discriminatory practices among trading partners, it allows for exceptions in
cases related to environmental protection, national security, and other significant objectives.
WTO General Council

• It is the WTO’s highest-level decision-making body. It has representatives from all member countries.
• It has the authority to act on behalf of the Ministerial Conference (WTO’s top-most decision-making
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body), which meets about every two years.
• WTO General Council also meets, under different rules, as the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) and as the
Trade Policy Review Body. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
Key Principles of WTO

• Most Favoured Nation (MFN): Equal treatment of all trading partners.
• National Treatment: Equal treatment of foreign and domestic goods and services.
• Fair Competition: Non-discriminatory, rule-based trading.
• Free Trade: Reduction in tariff and non-tariff barriers.
• Predictability: Transparency & binding (bound rates)
• Encouraging Development & Economic Reforms: Special assistance & concessions to developing
countries & LDCs.
Relation between WTO and UN

WTO is not a part of the United Nations. However, it has maintained strong relations with the UN.
• WTO-UN relations are governed by the “Arrangements for Effective Cooperation with other 144
Intergovernmental Organizations-Relations Between the WTO and the UN” signed in 1995.
• The WTO Director General participates in the Chief Executive Board within the UN system.
WTO’s Dispute Settlement Body

• The Uruguay Round negotiations resulted in the adoption of the Dispute Settlement Understanding
(DSU) to govern trade disputes between member states.
• Accordingly, the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) was established in 1995 to address disputes between
WTO members. The General Council sometimes meets as the DSB.
• The DSB possesses the authority to establish dispute settlement panels and make decisions based on
their recommendations.
• DSB may also consider reports from the Appellate Body, which hears appeals from panel reports.
• Currently, the appellate body, constituting the second tier (DSB is the first tier) of the WTO's Dispute
Settlement System (DSS), remains non-functional.
Appellate body's non-functionality

• From 1995 to 2019, the appellate body upheld the international rule of law by holding powerful countries,
such as the US and the EU, accountable for breaching international laws.
• However, its once-supportive entity, the US, has now become its most prominent critic, obstructing the
appointment of its members.
US argument
• The US argues that the appellate body must consistently interpret and apply WTO agreements without
establishing binding precedents.
• According to the US, creating binding precedents through appellate body decisions represents judicial
overreach and exceeds its institutional mandate.
{International Organisations} UNHRC
• More than 250 Rohingya refugees, including women and children, have been confined in a detention or
holding centre in Jammu since March 2021.
• Most of them have United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) cards that validate
their identity as refugees seeking safety.
• Many human rights activists alleged that:
❖ These refugees are being treated as criminals.
❖ They are living in a prison-like facility.
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❖ Their movement has been restricted.
Rohingya
• Rohingya are an ethnic group, largely comprising Muslims. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• They predominantly live in the Rakhine State of Myanmar, i.e., South-Western Myanmar.
• They speak a dialect of Bengali as opposed to the commonly spoken Burmese language.
• Myanmar considers them as migrants and not granted citizenship after Independence.
• Since they are not citizens, their movements are restricted within the Rakhine state.
Background
• In 2017, the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (Insurgent group) attacked police posts and an army
base in Rakhine state.
• In response, the Myanmar military launched a campaign of mass atrocities against the Rohingya in
Rakhine State. It caused more than 7,70,000 Rohingya to flee. At least 20,000 of them are in India.
India and Refugees

• India has no domestic law or policy on refugees and asylum seekers.
• It is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol.
• Refugees are considered illegal immigrants and treated like other foreigners according to the
Foreigners Act of 1946.
• The Foreigners Act empowers the central government to detain a person until deportation back to their
country of origin.
• Therefore, even with UNHCR recognition, registered refugees in India are susceptible to administrative
detention under the Foreigners Act.
• Thus, hundreds of Rohingya refugees have been arbitrarily detained, many languishing indefinitely in
India’s jails and detention centres.
Violation of rights
Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• It states that everyone has the right to seek and enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
Article 6 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
• It states that every child has an inherent right to life, survival, and development.
• India ratified the CRC in December 1992.
Right under IC
• The Indian constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty under Article 21.
• This right is for all persons, whether citizens or foreigners.
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GoI's internal guidelines (2011) on the detention and treatment of refugees
• It states that refugees should be released from detention within six months, subject to:
❖ Collection of biometric details
❖ Conditions of local surety and good behaviour
❖ Reporting to the police every month
• Hence, holding children in detention facilities and denying them the freedom to access education is an
absolute violation.
1951 Refugee Convention of UNHRC and its 1967 Protocol

• It is related to the Principle of Non-Refoulement, which asserts that refugees should not be forced to
return to a country where they face serious threats to their life or freedom.
• The 1951 convention was initially limited to Europe, but the 1967 protocol removed this limitation.
• India is not a signatory of the 1951 UN Convention or the 1967 Protocol.
• UNHCR stated that Non-Refoulement is considered part of customary international law and binding
on all states whether they have signed the Refugee Convention or not.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

• It was established by the United Nations General Assembly in 1950.
• It was established in the aftermath of the Second World War.
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• UNHCR is mandated to protect and safeguard the rights of refugees.
• It acts as the guardian of the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• It was proclaimed and adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948.
• For the first time, it sets out the universally protected fundamental human rights.
• It sets the foundation for the development of the international human rights law.
Customary International Law

• It refers to international obligations arising from established international practices, as opposed to
obligations arising from formal written conventions and treaties.
Policy on illegal migrants
• All foreign nationals, including those who enter the country without valid travel documents or
overstay beyond the validity of their visa period, are governed by:
❖ The Foreigners Act, 1946
❖ The Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939
❖ The Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920
❖ The Citizenship Act, 1955, and rules and orders made thereunder.
{International Organisations} IMF
• Pakistan gets a lifeline from IMF with a new $3 billion bailout to help avoid default.
• International Monitory Fund (IMF) was formed in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference along with
the World Bank. Hence, they are known as Bretton Woods twins.
• India is a founder member of the IMF and World Bank.
• It helps the countries facing the Balance of Payment (BOP) crisis.
• IMF’s primary purpose is to ensure the stability of the international monetary system – the system of
Exchange rate and International payments that enable countries to transact with each other.
• IMF works to:
❖ Foster global monetary cooperation
❖ Secure financial stability
❖ Facilitate international trade
❖ Promote high employment
❖ Sustainable economic growth
❖ Reduce poverty around the world.
Voting Power in IMF
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• Voting power is based on the quota system. Each member has a number of basic no. of votes and one
additional vote for each Special Drawing Rights (SDR) of 1,00,000 of member country’s quota.
• India is ranked 8th in IMF with a quota of 2.76% and 2.64% of total votes. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
Special Drawing Rights (SDR)

• SDRs are supplementary foreign exchange reserve assets defined and maintained by the International
Monetary Fund (IMF).
• SDRs were created in 1969 to supplement a shortfall of foreign exchange reserve assets (gold & dollars).
• SDRs are IMF units of account, not currencies. They denote a right to currency possessed by IMF member
countries, allowing them to conduct exchanges.
• IMF allocates SDRs to countries and they cannot be held or used by private parties.
• The value of an SDR is based on a basket of five key international currencies reviewed by the IMF every
five years: the U.S. Dollar (43.38%), the Euro (29.31%), the Renminbi (Chinese Yuan 12.28%), the Japanese
Yen (7.59%), and the British Pound Sterling (7.44%).
• The value of the SDR is determined daily based on market exchange rates.
• The SDR basket is reviewed every five years or earlier if warranted.
{International Organisations} 75 years of Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights completed 75 years of its establishment. It was adopted by the
UN on December 10, 1948, in response to the actions during World War II.
• It was discussed by the UN Commission on Human Rights and adopted by the General Assembly in
the same year through Resolution 217.
• It created universal foundational principles regarding the perception of human rights and state-
individual relationships.
• Although not legally binding, its principles are part of legally binding international agreements.
• The UDHR, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and its two Optional
Protocols, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), form
the International Bill of Human Rights.
Significance of UHDR
• Established a comprehensive framework of fundamental human rights, covering civil, political,
economic, social, and cultural aspects.
• Global consensus on human dignity irrespective of their background has been a foundational
document in shaping international human rights law.
• Influence on National Constitutions: For eg, India's Constitution incorporates principles from the
UDHR, emphasising individual liberties and freedoms.
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• Advancements in Women's Rights: Subsequent treaties like the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) build upon the principles enshrined in the UDHR.
• Protection Against Discrimination: The UDHR has been instrumental in fostering a global movement
against discrimination. For eg, the U.S. Civil Rights Movement. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Human Rights Education: The UDHR has become a cornerstone for human rights education globally,
fostering awareness and understanding of basic human rights principles among people of all ages.
Challenges in implementation of UDHR

• Cultural relativism creates challenges in applying universal standards and universality of human rights.
• Enforcement: Lack of binding enforcement mechanism leaves its enforcement heavily on the goodwill
of nations, making it challenging to address violations.
• Economic disparities impede the realization of rights such as the right to education, healthcare, etc.
• Political resistance particularly in authoritarian regimes, to maintain control and suppress dissent.
• Selective implementation leads to an incomplete realisation of the principles outlined in the UDHR.
• Emerging challenges, such as digital rights and environmental concerns, pose new challenges not
explicitly addressed in the original document.
• Misuse and Abuse of power for political gain. For e.g., Rwandan Genocide.
{International Organisations} 76th International Day of UN Peacekeepers
• The Indian Army commemorated the 76th International Day of UN Peacekeepers at the National War
Memorial, New Delhi.
UN Peacekeeping
• UN peacekeepers provide security, political and peacebuilding support to help countries make the
difficult, early transition from conflict to peace.
• There are currently 11 UN peacekeeping operations deployed on three continents.
Credits: UN Peacekeeping
• The UN Peacekeeping forces were awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in the year 1988.
• Capstone Doctrine covers the basic principles and key concepts related to UN peacekeeping.
Role of Peacekeeping operations include

• Maintaining peace and security;
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• Facilitate the political process, protect civilians;
• Assist in the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of former combatants;
• Support the organisation of elections;
• Protect and promote human rights; PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Assist in restoring the rule of law.
Three basic principles of UN Peacekeeping

• Consent of the parties;
• Impartiality;
• Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate.
India and Peacekeeping

UN Military Observer Group In India And Pakistan (UNMOGIP)
• Appointed by the UN Secretary-General based on the U.N. Security Council Resolution 39 of January
1948 that set up the U.N. Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP).
• Arrived on 24 January 1949 to supervise the ceasefire between India and Pakistan in Jammu & Kashmir,
as permitted by the Karachi Agreement of July 1949.
• Following renewed hostilities of 1971, UNMOGIP has remained in the area to observe the ceasefire.
• HQ: Srinagar (May to October) and Islamabad (November to April)
• India officially maintains that the UNMOGIP’s role was “overtaken” by the Simla Agreement of 1972
that established the Line of Control(LoC).
• Pakistan continues to seek cooperation from the UNMOGIP.
India as contributor
• India is one of the largest contributors. Indian Armed Forces are deployed in nine peacekeeping
missions: UNDOF, UNIFIL, UNTSO, UNFICYP, MONUSCO, UNMISS, UNIFSA, MINUSCA, and MINURSO.
• The Indian Army has established a Centre for UN Peacekeeping (CUNPK) in New Delhi to impart niche
training in peacekeeping operations.
• In support of the UN's gender parity drive and Nari Shakti initiative, India has deployed Female
Engagement Teams (FETs) in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Abyei (the second-largest Indian
women contingent after Liberia). India has also deployed women military police in Golan Heights.
• Recognising the contributions, Major Radhika Sen was awarded “Military Gender Advocate of the
Year 2023” by the UN Headquarters.
{International Organisations} UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian

Refugees
• UN agency for Palestinian refugees has suffered funding cuts from western nations after Israel accused
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its staff of being involved in the October 7 Hamas attack.
• Israel has also claimed that Hamas siphons off funds given to UNRWA and fights from in and around
the agency’s facilities.
• Further, Israel has alleged that Hamas tunnels (are) running next to or under UNRWA facilities and
accuses the agency of teaching hatred of Israel in its schools.
• UNRWA was established in 1949 by a U.N. resolution to carry out direct relief for Palestinian refugees
following the Arab-Israeli War of 1948. Its mandate was later extended to include refugees from the
1967 Six-Day War.
• The Agency began operations in May 1950 and was originally expected to be short-lived.
• In the absence of a comprehensive solution to the Palestine refugee problem, the General Assembly
has repeatedly renewed UNRWA’s mandate.
• UNRWA’s mandate is subject to periodic renewal every three years and has consistently been
extended since its founding, most recently until June 30, 2026.
• Headquarters: Gaza City and Amman.
• UNRWA's chief officer is the commissioner-general, who is appointed by the UN secretary-general
and reports directly to the General Assembly.
• The Agency operates in the occupied West Bank, East Jerusalem, and Gaza, as well as in Jordan,
Lebanon, and Syria. In these neighbouring countries, the Palestinian refugees took shelter after their
violent expulsion.
• It is the only UN agency dedicated to helping refugees from a specific region or conflict.
• UNRWA is distinct from Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR),
established in 1950 as the main agency to aid all other refugees worldwide.
• UNHCR’s mandate covers Palestinians who are refugees within the meaning of the 1951 Refugee
Convention, which could include Palestine refugees as defined by UNRWA.
• UNHCR normally takes up the case of Palestinian refugees only when they are outside UNRWA’s
area of operations.
• Most of the funding for UNRWA comes from “voluntary contributions” from U.N. member states, with
a small portion of its financing coming from the U.N.’s regular budget.
• The task of finding a comprehensive solution for the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the Palestine
refugee problem, however, is not part of UNRWA’s mandate but is rather the responsibility of the
parties to the conflict and other political actors.
• Services provided: Education, Healthcare, Camp infrastructure and improvement, Microfinance,
Emergency assistance. It also focuses on broader initiatives like infrastructure development and
economic empowerment.
Who is a Palestine Refugees as Defined by UNRWA?

• Anyone whose normal place of residence was in Mandate Palestine during the period from 1 June
1946 to 15 May 1948 and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 Arab-
Israeli war qualifies as a Palestine refugee, as defined by UNRWA, and is eligible for UNRWA
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registration.
{International Organisations} United Nations PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• The United Nations is an international organisation founded in 1945. There are 193 UN Member States,
all of which are part of the General Assembly.
• New members are admitted to the United Nations based on the Security Council's recommendation
and a two-thirds vote from the General Assembly.
• It has its headquarters in New York.
League of Nations
• The WW I encouraged the world to invest in an international organisation to deal with conflict.
• Many believed such an organisation would help the world avoid war. As a result, the League of
Nations was created in June 1919 as part of the Treaty of Versailles.
• However, despite its initial success, it could not prevent WW II (1939-45).
• The League closed when WW II broke out in 1939. The UN was founded as a successor to the League
of Nations.
Inception of UN
• After the end of WWII (1939-45), Countries that had dominated world affairs experienced extensive
destruction. Two new powers, the US and the USSR, emerged, ready to challenge each other.
• Amid a period of turmoil in international relations, the UN was founded on October 24, 1945.
• UN was primarily tasked to maintain world peace & save future generations from the evils of war.
History of the Birth of the UN

• In August 1941, American President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston
Churchill held a secret meeting aboard naval ships in Placenta Bay (Newfoundland, Canada).
• They discussed the possibility of creating a body for international peace efforts and issued a
statement called the Atlantic Charter that paved the way for the creation of the UN.
• The US joined the war in December 1941. For the first time, President Roosevelt coined the term
‘United Nations’ to identify countries allied against the Axis powers.
• On January 1, 1942, representatives of 26 allied nations met in Washington to sign the declaration
of the United Nations, which spelt out the war objectives of the Allied powers.
• This document contained the first official use of the term “United Nations".
• Over the next couple of years, several meetings took place among the Allied Big Four — the USA,
the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China — to decide on the post-war charter that would
describe the precise role of the United Nations.
• The United Nations finally existed on October 24, 1945, after being ratified by 51 nations.
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• It included five permanent members and 46 other signatories.
• The first meeting of the General Assembly took place on January 10, 1946.
Goals of UN
• The four main goals of the UN include:

❖ Maintaining international peace and security
❖ Developing friendly relations among nations
❖ Achieving international cooperation in solving international problems
❖ Being at the centre for harmonising nations’ actions in attaining these common ends.
United Nations Security Council

• The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the UN and is
considered the apex of the UN system.
• It is responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security.
• The UNSC is the only UN body with the authority to issue binding resolutions on member states.
UNSC Membership
• UNSC consists of fifteen members, and each member has one vote.
• Permanent Members: Five (China, France, Russia, UK, and US) (P5)
• Non-permanent members: Ten
• Each year, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) elects five non-permanent members by a two-
thirds majority for two years on a regional basis.
• A retiring member is not eligible for immediate re-election.
• The five permanent members have veto power — opposition from any of these five Countries blocks
the resolution regardless of international support.
• When the UN was founded in 1945:
• There were 51 member-states of the UN.
• Eleven members were part of UNSC (22% of the member states)
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• Permanent Members: Five
• Non-permanent members: Six
• In 1965, the Security Council expanded from eleven to fifteen members by adding four more PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
elected non-permanent members.
• Today, there are 193 member-states of the UN and only fifteen members of the UNSC (less than 8%
of the member states).
India and UNSC

• India is not a permanent member of the UNSC.
• In 2021, India was elected as a non-permanent member of the UNSC for the eighth time.
Benefits for non-permanent members

• Non-permanent members get monthly presidency of UNSC, and as a president, they could decide
the matter to discuss in meetings.
• Non-permanent members can preside over several committees and working groups of UNSC.
Issues of UNSC
Troubling Role of P5 and its Veto
• Veto power makes P5 nations more equal than others, ignoring the collective will of 188 members.
• The veto system has become a tool to block the UN’s work and not encourage it.
• The recent conflicts in many states indicate the failure of the UNSC and the misuse of veto.
• During the Russia-Ukraine conflict, when Russia invaded a sovereign UN member-state, the UNSC
proved powerless to respond because of a veto by Russia.
• Russia’s increasing resort to the veto has blocked resolutions on Ukraine, Syria, North Korea, etc.
Doesn’t Reflect the Present World Order
• The UNSC reflects the geopolitical realities of 1945 and not of today. Five countries are permanent
members of the UNSC merely because they won a war 76 years ago.
• The world has changed, but not the UNSC. Lack of representation for Africa, South America and Asia is
a major issue of UNSC (China is the only Asian P-5 member).
• Africa, with 55 member states, has no presentation in permanent membership.
• It is impossible to address the present problems if institutions do not reflect today’s world order.
• The lack of progress in reforms has “serious implications” for the relevance of the UN.
Obstacles to council reform

High procedural hurdles to amending the UN Charter
• Any amendment in the UN Charter requires:

• A two-thirds majority of the overall membership (129 of the 193 states in UNGA) with no opposition
from permanent five members.
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• To be ratified by two-thirds of the member states.
Divergent member state positions

• China is the only country among P5 opposing India's entry into the UNSC. Support from other
permanent members does not amount to anything since China can veto India’s candidacy.
• Ironically, India had supported China's candidature as a permanent member of the UNSC.
Negotiating groups within UNGA are neutralising each other’s bid
• L.69 Group
❖ It is a pre-reform group of developing countries.
• The group is seeking:
❖ An expansion of permanent and non-permanent membership to the UNSC
❖ Reform in the body's working methods
❖ Better representation of developing country aspirations, including African countries and Small
Island Developing States (SIDS).
G4 Group
• It comprises four countries: Brazil, India, Germany, and Japan.
• They support each other's bids to become permanent members of the UNSC.
• They are demanding the reforms and representation of African countries in UNSC.
Coffee Club
• It is an informal group comprising 40 member states.
• It has been instrumental in holding back reforms to the UNSC.
• It opposes bigger regional powers from getting permanent seats in the UNSC.
❖ Italy and Spain are opposed to Germany's bid.
❖ Pakistan is opposed to India's bid.
Expansion of the Security Council

• Without structural changes, the UNSC’s performance and legitimacy will inevitably suffer.
• There is a need to strengthen and reform the UN by expanding permanent and non-permanent
members of the UNSC.
• Since 1945, even as the UN’s overall membership has nearly quadrupled, the council’s composition
has expanded only once, in 1965.
• In October 2008, the UN formally authorised intergovernmental negotiations on the “question of
equitable representation and increase in the membership of the Security Council.”
• Inclusion of developing countries, including India and Africa, is essential to reflect contemporary
realities.
Achievements of the UN
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• Expansion of Membership: The UN comprised only 51 member states in 1945. De-colonisation led to
an expansion of its membership. At present, 193 countries are members of the UN.
• Scope: The UN has expanded its scope to cover many global issues, such as health, environment, and
women empowerment.
• Health: In 1948, it created the World Health Organisation (WHO) to deal with communicable diseases
like smallpox, malaria, and HIV.
• Refugees: In 1950, the UN created the High Commissioner for Refugees to care for the millions
displaced during WWII. It continues to be on the frontlines of crises faced by refugees worldwide.
• Environment: In 1972, the UN Environment Programme was created.
• War Crimes: In 2002, the UN established the UN Criminal Court to try those who have committed war
crimes, genocide, and other atrocities.
Failures of the UN
• The UN has been seen as unrepresentative, particularly of the Global South.
• In 1994, the UN failed to stop the Rwandan genocide.
• In 2005, UN peacekeeping missions were accused of sexual misconduct in the Republic of Congo,
Cambodia & Haiti.
• In 2011, the UN peacekeeping mission in South Sudan was unsuccessful in eliminating the bloodshed
caused by the civil war that broke out in 2013.
• The World Bank and the IMF have been criticised for furthering neoliberal ideas , such as championing
free markets and reducing the role of governments. This has been linked to deepening inequalities
within countries.
Reform of the UN
• In recent years, there have been demands for reform of the UN. It includes:
❖ Reform of the organisation’s structures and processes
❖ Review the issues that fall within the jurisdiction of the organisation.
Reform of the organisation’s structures and processes

• Increase the UN Security Council’s permanent and non-permanent membership so that the realities of
contemporary world politics are better reflected.
• The US and other Western countries want improvements in the UN’s budgetary procedures and
administration.
• In 1992, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution.
• The resolution reflected three main complaints:
❖ The Security Council no longer represents contemporary political realities.
❖ Its decisions reflect only Western values and interests and are dominated by a few powers.
• It lacks equitable representation.
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• In recent years, some criteria have been proposed for new permanent and non-permanent members
of the Security Council. A new member should be:
❖ A major economic power PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
❖ A major military power
❖ A substantial contributor to the UN budget
❖ A big nation in terms of its population
❖ A nation that respects democracy and human rights
❖ A country that would make the Council more representative of the world’s diversity in terms of
geography, economic systems, and culture
Review the issues that fall within the jurisdiction of the organisation.
• Some countries want the UN to play a greater role in peace and security missions.
• Others want its role confined to development and humanitarian work (health, education, environment,
population control, human rights, gender, and social justice).
India and UN reform

• India has supported the restructuring of the UN.
• India supports an increase in the number of both permanent and non-permanent members.
• India argued that the Security Council should have more developing countries.
• India itself wishes to be a permanent member of a restructured UN.
Arguments in favour of India becoming a permanent member of the UN

• India is the second most populous country in the world.
• India is the world’s largest democracy.
• India has participated in virtually all the initiatives of the UN.
• India’s role in the UN’s peacekeeping efforts is long and substantial.
• India's economic emergence on the world stage.
• India's growing importance in world affairs.
• India has made regular financial contributions to the UN and never faltered on its payments.
{International Organisations} 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting
• India is hosting the 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM 46) in Kochi. In Kochi, India
announced a successor to its 35-year-old Maitri research base, Maitri II.
• Organised by: The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
India last hosted the ATCM in New Delhi in 2007.
• All-inclusive governance: India stressed that geopolitics from the mainland must not deter
Antarctica's governance issue.
• India also stressed that the treaty cannot remain as an ‘exclusive club’ of select nations.
• The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia became the latest entrant to the Club of Antarctic Treaty Parties.
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About the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting
• The original twelve Parties to the Treaty and those Parties that demonstrate their interest in Antarctica
by conducting substantial research activity are together called the Consultative Parties.
• From 1961 to 1994, the ATCM met every two years. Since 1994, the meetings are annual.
• They meet to exchange information, consult on common interests in Antarctica, and formulate and
recommend measures to their governments.
• The meetings are hosted by Consultative Parties in alphabetical order of their English names.
• Only Consultative Parties participate in decision-making.
• Consultative status is open to any country that can demonstrate its commitment to Antarctica by
conducting significant research.
• ATCM approval is required for new construction or initiatives in Antarctica.
Discussion Topics at ATCM

• Sustainable management of Antarctica and its resources.
• Biodiversity prospecting.
• Inspections and exchange of information and data.
• Research, collaboration, capacity building, and cooperation.
• Climate change impacts on Antarctica and beyond.
Tourism in Antarctica
• Operated mostly by private tour operators of select countries, Antarctica has been seeing an
exponential rise in the number of visitors.
• India first raised concerns at the New Delhi ATCM meet in 2007.
• A resolution and an annexe covering the environmental liability aspect of activities in Antarctica were
nearly worked out.
The Antarctic Treaty

• Signed by 12 countries on December 1, 1959.Came into force in 1961.
• 56 countries have joined, including India in 1983.
• Of the 56 nations in the Antarctic Treaty, 29 have consultative party status.
• India has been a consultative party to the Antarctic Treaty since 1983.
• In 2022, India enacted the Antarctic Act, reaffirming its commitment to the Antarctic Treaty.
• Original signatories to the Antarctic: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New
Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the USSR, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
• India is not among the Original signatories.
Key Features of the Treaty
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• Antarctica is designated for peaceful purposes only.
• No militarisation or fortification is allowed.
• Signatories can carry out scientific investigations freely. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Scientific data and plans should be shared and cooperation extended.
• Nuclear testing and radioactive waste disposal are prohibited in Antarctica.
Issues concerning Antarctica

• India has expressed concerns regarding tourism-related activities in Antarctica since 2016. Increasing
numbers of tourists and research stations in the region could lead to more microplastics and “gray
water”
• Steps taken: India would introduce a new working group for regulating tourism on the continent.
• Bioprospecting has emerged as a challenge.
• The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), an interdisciplinary body of the
International Science Council, has seen microorganism collections in Antarctica for pharmaceutical
use.
• There is no mechanism in place under the Antarctic Treaty to regulate such commercial activity.
• Biodiversity prospecting or bioprospecting is the systematic search for biochemical and genetic
information in nature in order to develop commercially valuable products for pharmaceutical,
agricultural, cosmetic and other applications.
Indian Research Stations in Antarctica

Dakshin Gangotri
• Established in 1983 in Queen Maud Land.Operated till 1990.Located 2,500 km from South Pole.
Maitri
• Set up in 1989 in the Schirmacher Oasis. Still operational.Located 5 km from Russia’s
Novolazarevskaya Station and 90 km from Dakshin Gangotri.
Bharati
• Inaugurated in 2012 on the Prydz Bay coast. Focuses on oceanographic and geological studies.
• ISRO uses it for receiving Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) data.
Maitri II
• Planned to open by 2029. Located a few kilometres from the current Maitri station.
{International Organisations} Reforming Multilateral Institutions
Importance of multilateral institutions

• Global challenges and crisis such as conflicts, climate change, migration, macroeconomic instability,
and cybersecurity can indeed only be solved collectively.
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• Ensures Stable world order: Achievements of UN Peacekeeping forces, non-proliferation of nuclear
weapons etc.
• Forum to cooperate on Global challenges: Climate change, food security, terrorism, Pandemic, cyber
security, fake news, etc No nation has the capacity to combat the present challenges alone.
• Mobilize resources for innovations: Creation of innovation funds (e.g., UNICEF Innovation Fund,
UNDP Innovation Facility), provide unlimited networks of experts at the global, regional and local
country level.
Need for reforming multilateral institutions

• Inclusive representation: For eg., lack of representation of far East & rising economies in UNSC.
• Hijacking of multilateral institutions by developed countries: Chequebook diplomacy of China,
misuse of Veto rights by P5 members, etc.
• Rising hyper-nationalism, anti-immigration politics fuelled by political opportunism, diminish the
appeal of international cooperation. For e.g., America's first policy manifested in the form of withdrawal
from the Iran Nuclear deal, etc.
• Disillusionment with globalization: Failure of global governance in the post-Bretton Woods system
to resolve issues of slow growth, rising inequality, falling labor force participation, migration, social
fragmentation and job insecurity associated with globalization and automation.
• Failure of institutions to deliver their mandate: For e.g. WTO’s failure to handle the US-China trade
war, UNSC's failure in Chinese unchecked belligerence in the South China Sea, Inadequate response of
WHO in handling the pandemic, etc.
Way Forward
• Set focussed narrative as currently the multilateralism reform narrative lives only in elite circles and
some national capitals, particularly the emerging powers.
• Encouraging Mini-lateral groupings as a new form of multilateralism and transforming them into
multi-stakeholder partnerships.
• Creating new models of multilateralism to overcome the trust, legitimacy & utility crises of
multilateralism.
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Miscellaneous Topics
{Issues} Anti-Zionism | Anti-Semitism
• The U.S. House of Representatives voted in favour of a Republican-sponsored resolution which, among
other things, declared that “anti-Zionism is antisemitism”.
• The resolution was framed as an effort to reject the “drastic rise of anti-Semitism in the United States
and around the world”.
What is Zionism?
• Zion is the name of the hill on which the Temple of Jerusalem was located. Zionism is a nationalist
ideology that describes the late 19th-century Jewish political movement.
• The movement aimed to unite the Jewish diaspora worldwide and settle them in Palestine.
• The ideology contends that the Jewish people have a right to self-determination in historic Palestine,
which Zionists view as their ancestral homeland.
• Donations from wealthy Jews were sought, which helped the Holocaust survivors to migrate to Palestine
and surrounding regions. This movement led to the establishment of Israel in 1948.
• Anti-Zionism is opposition to Jews having a Jewish state in their ancestral homeland and denies the
Jewish people’s right to self-determination.
Balfour Declaration
• The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the
First World War.
• It announced its support for establishing a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then
an Ottoman region with a small minority Jewish population.
UN Resolution 181(II) of 1947
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• The question of Palestine was first brought before the General Assembly in 1947.
• By resolution 181 (II), the Assembly decided to partition Palestine into two states, one Arab and one PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
Jewish, with Jerusalem placed under a special international regime.
What is Anti-Semitism?
• Semitic means a language group, not a race.
• Anti-Semitism can linguistically be used to describe prejudice against speakers of the Semitic
languages (including Arabs and Ethiopians), but it is commonly used specifically to pertain to Jews.
• Antisemitism is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews.
• This sentiment is a form of racism, and a person who practices it is called an antisemite.
History of anti-Semitism
• Modern anti-Semitism exists within the context of a historical prejudice against Jews by Christians.
• According to Christian doctrine, Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus & thus deserved to be
punished.
• During the 1870s, this political and religious anti-Semitism was compounded by racial anti-Semitism,
largely due to the works of Charles Darwin.
• Darwin’s theory of evolution was interpreted to mean that race was inherent and unchangeable, anti-
Semites argued that Jews were genetically inferior on an evolutionary scale.
• This argument was also used to justify discrimination against colonial subjects and blacks in America.
{Laws} Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)
• Russia might revoke its Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) ratification to achieve parity
with the US, which has not yet ratified CTBT.
• The CTBT bans ALL nuclear explosions for military or peaceful purposes. It was signed by 187
countries and ratified by 178.
• The UNGA adopted CTBT in 1996, but it has not entered into force, as eight Annex 2 nations (China,
India, Pakistan, North Korea, Israel, Iran, Egypt, and the US) have not ratified the treaty.
• Annex 2 to the Treaty lists the 44 States (nuclear technology holder states) that must ratify the treaty
for it to enter into force.
• The CTBT establishes the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), which ensures
treaty implementation.
Signatories of CTBT
• Signed and ratified: France, the UK, Russia
• Signed but not ratified: China, the US, Israel
• Non-signatory: India, Pakistan, North Korea
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Did the CTBT stop nuclear testing?
• Since the CTBT, ten nuclear tests have taken place. According to the UN: PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
❖ India conducted two in 1998.
❖ Pakistan also had two in 1998.
• North Korea conducted tests in 2006, 2009, 2013, 2016 (twice) and 2017.
• The United States last tested in 1992, China and France in 1996, and the Soviet Union in 1990.
• Russia, which inherited most of the Soviet nuclear arsenal, has never conducted a nuclear test.
History of CTBT
• The US conducted the world’s first successful nuclear weapons test in July 1945. Four years later, the
Soviet Union tested their first nuclear weapon.
• These tests triggered an arms race between the two superpowers. Between 1945 and 1996, more than
2,000 nuclear tests were carried out.
• The radioactive fallout from those tests drew criticism from around the globe. As a result, several
attempts were made to curb the explosive tests.
Limited Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (LTBT) (1963)

• It prohibited nuclear testing in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater, but underground tests
were still permitted.
Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT) (1974)
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• It was signed between the US and the Soviet Union.
• It established a nuclear threshold and prohibited them from conducting tests that exceed 150 kilotons.
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
• Geopolitical tensions eased after the end of the Cold War and the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
• The UN took advantage of the situation and adopted the CTBT in 1996.
{Laws} Genocide Convention
• South Africa had moved the ICJ, invoking the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide, 1948, against Israel.
• South Africa has accused Israel of committing genocide in its ongoing military campaign in Gaza.
• ICJ will decide:
❖ Whether it has jurisdiction on this matter,
❖ Whether the alleged acts fall under the 1948 Convention.
❖ South Africa has sought the indication of provisional measures to stop the genocide.
❖ Israel rejected any genocidal intent and anchored its arguments on its right to self-defence.
ICJ’s Jurisdiction and Provisional Measures

• The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of UN.
• The ICJ-created statute clarifies that only states may be parties in cases before the Court.
• Both South Africa and Israel are signatories to the Genocide Convention of 1948.
• Article 94 of the UN Charter provides that “Each Member of the UN undertakes to comply with the
decision of ICJ in any case to which it is a party”.
• Provisional measures are interim rulings of the ICJ aimed at preventing either party from harming
the main case irreparably.
• ICJ cannot enforce its orders and depends on the UNSC to take measures.
• UNSC is also subject to the veto power of permanent members.
• The US has vetoed 34 out of 36 UNSC resolutions related to the Israel-Palestine conflict since 1945.
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1948

• In 1948, the Convention was adopted by the UNGA and came into force in 1951.
• It is an international convention that defines genocide and obligates State Parties to prevent and
punish the crime of genocide.
• The Genocide Convention was the first human rights treaty adopted by the UNGA.
• An instrument of international law leading to codification of genocide, for the first time, as a crime.
• There are about 153 member states that are engaged with the Genocide Convention.
• Zambia is the most recent country to sign the convention in 2022.
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• India actively participated in the formulation of the Genocide Convention and ratified it in 1959.
Despite the ratification, India is yet to define genocide by law.
Definition of Genocide PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Genocide, as defined under Article II of the Convention, refers to the acts that are committed with the
intent to destroy, in whole or partly, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group.
• These acts include:
❖ Killing members of the group
❖ Causing severe bodily or mental harm to members of the group.
❖ Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical
destruction in whole or in part.
❖ Imposing measures to prevent births within the group.
❖ Forcibly transfer the children of the group to another group.
• Article I recognises genocide, committed in times of peace or in times of war, as a crime under
international law.
States' obligations under the Genocide Convention

Article I
• Obligation not to commit genocide.

• Obligation to prevent genocide, which, according to the ICJ, has an extra-territorial scope;
• Obligation to punish genocide.
Article V
• Obligation to enact the necessary legislation to give effect to the provisions of the Conventions.
• Obligation to ensure effective penalties are provided for persons found guilty of criminal conduct.
Article VI
• Obligation to try persons charged with genocide-
• In a competent tribunal of the State in the territory of which the act was committed or
• By an international penal tribunal with accepted jurisdiction.
Article VII
• Obligation to grant extradition when genocide charges are involved according to the laws and
treaties.
{Laws} Issues in Regulation of White Phosphorous
• Global human rights organisations Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have accused the
Israel Defense Forces (IDF) of using white phosphorus munitions in Gaza and Lebanon.
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White Phosphorous
• White phosphorus is a waxy, yellowish-to-clear chemical with a pungent, garlic-like odour.
• It does not occur naturally as it is manufactured using phosphate rocks.
• It is pyrophoric that ignites, producing thick smoke and intense 815°C heat.
 Pyrophoric substances ignite spontaneously (under five minutes) when in contact with oxygen.
White Phosphorous Munitions

• White phosphorous is used in incendiary weapons by militaries around the world.
• It is also used by the militaries worldwide as a smoke agent.
• It also messes with infrared optics and weapons tracking systems.
Other Uses of White Phosphorous

• Fertilisers, pesticides, fireworks, food additives, and cleaning compounds.
Incendiary Weapons
• Incendiary weapons are designed to cause fires or inflict burns and respiratory injuries on people
through flames, heat, or both.
• They use chemical reactions of a flammable substance such as napalm or white phosphorus.
• They are regulated by Protocol III of the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW).
Concerns with White Phosphorous Munitions

• Severe burns: White phosphorus that remains lodged in the body can reignite if in contact with air.
• Destruction and displacement
• Toxic: If ingested or inhaled, it can cause respiratory problems and even death.
• Indiscriminate weapons: Effects are difficult to control and can quickly spread to civilian areas.
Legal Status of White Phosphorus Munitions and its Loopholes
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• White phosphorus munitions use is regulated under the International Humanitarian Law (IHL).
• They are not classified as a chemical weapons since their main use is for creating heat and smoke,
not for its toxic effects. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• Thus, its use is governed by the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW), specifically Protocol
III, which deals with incendiary weapons.
Protocol III of Convention on the Prohibition of Use of Certain Conventional Weapons

• White phosphorous weapons are considered incendiary weapons under Protocol III of the UN
Convention on the Prohibition of Use of Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW).
• Protocol III of the CCW (or Incendiary Weapons Protocol) prohibits:
• Use of incendiary weapon against civilian population.
• Use of air-delivered incendiary weapons against military targets within a concentration of civilians.
• Use incendiary weapons to attack forests or plant cover unless it conceals combatants.
Drawbacks of Protocol III of the CCW (or Incendiary Weapons Protocol)

• No blanket ban on incendiary weapons often leads to misuse and targeting of civilians.
• The prohibitions apply only to weapons “primarily designed” to set fires or cause burns. It excludes
multipurpose munitions (like white phosphorous).
 Multipurpose munitions: They are primarily designed for other uses (such as marking, obscuring, or
signalling) and have incidental incendiary effects.
• The distinction between air-dropped and ground-launched incendiary weapons is arbitrary, as both
cause similar harm and have been used in recent conflicts.
Convention on the Prohibition of Use of Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW)

• CCW is an international treaty that aims to ban or restrict weapons that cause unjustifiable suffering
to combatants or affect civilians indiscriminately.
• Adopted in 1980 and entered into force in 1983. As of 2023, 126 states have ratified the Convention.
Palestine and Lebanon are signatories. India, Pakistan, the US, and Israel are non-signatories.
• The CCW has five protocols, each of which deals with a specific type of weapon:
❖ Protocol I: Prohibits the use of any weapon, the primary effect of which is to injure by fragments
that are not detectable in the human body by X-rays
❖ Protocol II: Prohibits or restricts the use of landmines, booby-traps and other devices
❖ Protocol III: Prohibits the use of certain incendiary weapons
❖ Protocol IV: Prohibits or restricts the use of blinding laser weapons
❖ Protocol V: Prohibits or restricts the use of explosive remnants of war
Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of

Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (CWC)
• Convention on Chemical Weapons (CWC) is an international treaty that prohibits the development,
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production, stockpiling, transfer, and use of chemical weapons.
• It also requires the destruction of all existing chemical weapons and production facilities.
• Adopted in 1993 and entered into force in 1997. As of 2023, 193 states have ratified the Convention.
• Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (The Hague, Netherlands) implements it.
• It has not listed white phosphorus in any of the three Schedules of Chemical Weapons.
International Humanitarian Law (IHL)

• IHL (also called Law of War or Law of Armed Conflict) is a set of rules that seek to limit the effects
of armed conflict.
• Primary objectives of IHL are to:
❖ Protection of civilians, prisoners of war, wounded, and sick.
❖ Prohibition of certain weapons and methods of warfare, that cause excessive harm or are
indiscriminate in their effects.
❖ Rules of engagement for military forces.
❖ Responsibilities of neutral states.
• It is part of international law (the body of rules governing relations between States).
• A major part of IHL is contained in the Geneva Conventions of 1949.
• Other agreements that prohibit the use of certain weapons and military tactics and protect certain
categories of people and goods
❖ 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict
❖ 1972 Biological Weapons Convention
❖ 1980 Conventional Weapons Convention
❖ 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention
❖ 1997 Ottawa Convention on Anti-personnel Mines
❖ 2000 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Child on the involvement of children
in armed conflict
{Laws} Vienna Convention
• Recently, India requested 'parity' with Canada, asking for a reduction in Canadian diplomats in India to
match the number of Indian diplomats in Canada, which is around 20.
• India conveyed its plan to unilaterally remove diplomatic immunities for all but 21 Canadian
diplomats and dependents in Delhi.
• Following this, the Canadian government announced it had recalled 41 diplomats posted in India
and their family members.
• India invoked Article 11 of the Vienna Convention, which allows the host country to limit the size of the
diplomatic mission based on what it considers reasonable and necessary.
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Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961)
• It is a UN treaty that outlines how countries should treat each other's diplomats. Currently, 193
countries have ratified the convention, making it legally binding. PMF IAS CA (International Relations)
• India ratified it through the Diplomatic Relations (Vienna Convention) Act 1972.
Diplomatic Immunity
• Diplomatic immunity gives diplomats protection from certain laws and taxes in their host country,
ensuring they can work without fear or intimidation.
• According to the Convention, diplomats cannot be arrested or detained.
• The host country must treat the diplomatic agent with respect and prevent any harm to their person,
freedom, or dignity.
Recalling diplomats under the Vienna Convention
• The convention allows the host country to declare a diplomat unwelcome without explanation.
• If a diplomat is declared unwelcome, the sending country must either recall them or terminate their
duties at the mission.
• If the sending country doesn't comply within a reasonable time, the host country can refuse to
recognize the diplomat as a mission member.
{EU} EU Pact on Migration and Asylum
• European Parliament and EU government representatives agreed on a New Pact on Migration and
Asylum. Approval of the European Council and the European Parliament is still due.
Key Features of the New EU Pact

• Pre-entry screening will include examining an asylum seeker’s profile and collecting basic information.
• Individuals with low-success asylum applications may be barred from entering the EU based on
perceived security threats.
• Countries need to follow “mandatory solidarity” by accepting a certain number of asylum seekers or
paying a contribution for each refused claimant.
• In crises like COVID-19, national authorities can take stricter norms and more extended detention.
• It is in line with the principle of non-refoulement.
• The principle of non-refoulement guarantees that no one should be returned to a country where they
would face protection or irreparable harm.
EU’s Governance Structure

European Council
• It defines the European Union's overall political direction and priorities.
• It comprises the heads of state or government of the EU member states, along with the President of
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the European Council and the President of the European Commission.
• It was formalised as an institution in 2009 upon the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon.
• The decisions of its summits are adopted by consensus.
European Parliament
• It is directly elected by EU citizens aged 18 years+.
• The European Parliament and Council of the European Union form the legislative organ of the EU.
Council of the European Union

• It represents the EU's member states' executives (Ministers).
• Ministers have the authority to commit on behalf of their governments to legislation and actions.
European Commission (EC)
• It is an executive body responsible for implementations and general administration.
• The Commission operates as a cabinet government with 27 members.
• There is one member per member state, proposed by member countries and approved by the European
Parliament.
Asylum seeker v/s Refugee v/s Migrant

• Asylum seeker: An asylum seeker is seeking protection from persecution and serious human rights
violations in the country of origin.
• Refugee: Acceptance from the host country turns an asylum seeker into a refugee.
• Migrant: They have a free choice to relocate, not forced by prosecution or such grave factors.
{IOR} Maritime Piracy in the Indian Ocean Region
• INS Chennai successfully averted hijacking a merchant vessel near the Somalian coast. Somalia, with
a history of civil war & poor territorial protection, remains a hotspot for maritime piracy.
172
Maritime Piracy
• The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defines maritime piracy as kidnapping,
violence, or robbery on a private boat or ship for personal gain.
• UNCLOS, an international treaty, was adopted and signed in 1982 in Jamaica. It governs law,
order, and ocean resource appropriation in the world's oceans.
Impacts of maritime piracy

• Physical Harm, Kidnapping and Associated Humanitarian Concerns result in trauma and accidents.
• Delays in consignments and economic losses lead to global effects.
• Targeting fishing vessels affects the livelihoods of fishermen and the availability of seafood.
• Piracy is part of a worldwide organised crime network leading to the financing of illegal activities.
Steps to Counter Maritime Piracy

• The Indian Navy’s Information Management and Analysis Centre (IMAC) and Information
Fusion Centre for the Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) work in maritime security.
• The Maritime Anti-Piracy Act of 2022 was legislated to give effect to arrest and prosecute pirates
and strengthen the fight against piracy.
• The SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) initiative provides a framework for maritime
cooperation in Indian Ocean region.
• Indian Ocean Naval Symposium is an initiative to increase maritime cooperation among the littoral
states of the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
• Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), an intergovernmental organisation, works for maritime
security in the Indian Ocean.
• The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is a specialised agency of the United Nations
developing and adopting international regulations and standards for maritime safety.
173

PMFIAS CA Mains 2024 International Relations

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PMFIAS CA Mains 2024 International Relations

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International Relations Current Affairs Compilation for UPSC CSE

Mains 2024 by PMF IAS®

Geopolitics and India's Interests .......................................................................................................... 1

{Middle East} Iran drone attacks on Israel ..................................................................................................... 1

Arctic and Antarctica ......................................................................................................................... 53

{Antarctica} Maitri II Station in Antarctica ................................................................................................... 53

Regional & Global Groupings............................................................................................................. 57

{Groupings} ASEAN ..................................................................................................................................... 57

India and its Neighborhood Relations ................................................................................................ 87

{India-Bangladesh} Bangladesh Elections .................................................................................................... 87

Foreign Policy.................................................................................................................................. 122

{Diplomacy} Vaccine Diplomacy ................................................................................................................ 122

India’s Bilateral Relations With Major Powers ................................................................................. 127

{India-EU} Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) .................................................................. 127

Important International Institutions ................................................................................................ 143

{International Organisations} World Trade Organisation (WTO) ................................................................. 143

Miscellaneous Topics ....................................................................................................................... 163

{Issues} Anti-Zionism | Anti-Semitism ........................................................................................................ 163

{Middle East} Iran drone attacks on Israel

Pre-1979 Iran-Israel ties

The 1979 revolution

Importance of Red Sea Route

Impact of Red Sea Crisis on International freight movement

Can IMEC address the Red Sea Crisis?

• India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) is a proposed economic corridor to enhance

What has been ailing the IMEC?

How can the IMEC be made viable?

{Africa} Chinese Foreign Affairs Minister visits Africa

{Iran-Pakistan} Evolution of Iran-Pakistan Relations

Evolution of Iran-Pakistan relations

Cold War Era

Divergence and Divide

Ups and downs of Reconciliation efforts

{Iran-Pakistan} Iran-Pakistan Strikes: India's stakes PMF IAS CA (International Relations)

{Iran-Pakistan} Pakistan’s attack on Iran

Baloch Liberation Front (BLF)

Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA)

Militant activities by BLF & BLA

infrastructure projects in Pakistan.

{Africa} Defence Attache (DA) in Africa

Pinaka rocket launcher

Defence Attache (DA)

Recent rationalisation of Defence Attache

Need for reforming the role of DAs

{Israel-Palestine} Israel-Palestine Conflict

Hezbollah (Party of God)

What are Hezbollah’s aims?

Iran-Israel proxy conflict

Genesis of the Conflict Between Isreal and Palestine

Hamas (Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiya)

Arab World vs. Isreal

Second Arab-Israeli War

Six-Day War (Third Arab-Israeli War)

Camp David Accords

Oslo I Accords (1993)

Aftermath of Oslo Accord

UNESCO, US and Israel

India's Enduring Support for the Palestinian Cause

{Israel-Palestine} Three countries recognise Palestinian as a state