INSTRUMENTATION – BASIC CONTROL LOOPS

Introduction
Main international standard
ISA 51 Instrumentation terms and definitions
ISA 5.1 Instrument Symbols and Identification
API RP 551 Process Measurement Instrumentation

Company general specification

GS EP INS 197 Process Standard Functions

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 BASIC CONTROL LOOPS

Session Objectives

Describe the relative response speeds of the control loops for

different process parameters (flow, pressure,
level, temperature etc.)

Describe the three main control actions (Proportional, Integral &

Derivative)

Apply single and multiple control loops on a P&ID

Identify some benefits of using multiple control loops

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 BASIC CONTROL LOOPS

Session Outline
Duty of controllers
Single Control loops
Multiple Control loops
- Master/Slave Control (Cascade)
– Ratio Control
– Split Range Control
– Override (Selective) Control

4
 INTRODUCTION
Objectives of Process Control
 Increase Productivity
 Reduce Operating Costs
 Maintain Quality

Duty of a Controller:
 Keep the Process running smoothly (at certain (desired) conditions)
 Compensate for external changes (disturbances, weather, etc.)

Control is
1. Measure the process variable (Input Measurement)
2. Compare this input to a desired operating point (Set-Point)
3. Correct for any error between the input and the desired operating
point(Output)

CONTROL is the Steering Wheel – it keeps the Plant running smoothly

by Measuring the Input, Comparing this to the Set-Point and correcting
any error via the controller’s Output.SAFEGUARDING on the other hand
is the brakes – it keeps the Plant safe
 BASIC CONTROL LOOPS

Open Loop
Control action independent of output
e.g. toaster, brewing coffee, etc.

TC in Manual mode, Control action is independent of Process Output.

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 BASIC CONTROL LOOPS

Closed Loop
Control action dependent on output
e.g. furnace or steam generator, etc.

TC in Automatic mode, Control action is dependent on Process Output.

i.e. feedback from the Process

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 INTRODUCTION

Safety system

Process
furnace
Oil TT HH

air
TT
fuel

TC

Set point

Control system e.g DCS

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 TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEM

There is a definable loop:

 From the process measurement (PV)
 To the Level Controller (LC)
 and back to the process via the controllers output (MV).

Here again, we - Measure the Process. - Compare it against the Set Value. -
Correct for any deviation between PV & SV via the MV
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A FEEDBACK
CONTROL LOOP

Qi

Sensor

Final control Qo
Transmitter Element

Controller Y
PV
e
P+I+D
SP

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 FEEDBACK CONTROL ACTION
Feedback Control Action is a control action in which a measured (process)
variable is compared to its set value to produce an error signal which is acted
upon in such a way as to reduce the magnitude of the error.

 Fluid flows through a number of tubes and is heated by burning fuel oil or
fuel gas inside the combustion chamber.

 It is required that the outlet temperature of the process fluid be kept at a

certain value, the so-called set value (SV) or desired value.

 The outlet temperature (T2) is the object of control; it is therefore the

process variable (PV). It should first be measured.

 The fuel flow is the most practical means of influencing the outlet Temp
12
 THE CONTROLLER

(P+I+D )

FAIL
ALM
PV PV:
67.0
Cascade
SP SV:
C
67.2
Auto
MV:
A
Out 75.0
Manu
M
SP increase

Increase
 SP decrease
the
variation Key programmable
velocity of
PF
the output Key page
C O
Output increase Output decrease
< <<SHIFT> >
>
YOKOGAWA

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 CONTROL ACTIONS (P-I-D)

Proportional action
Control action where the output of the controller is proportional to the
magnitude (size) of the deviation.

Integral (Reset) action

Control action where the output of the controller is proportional to the
Length of time (duration) a deviation has existed.

Derivative (Rate) action

Control action where the output of the controller is proportional to the
rate of change of the deviation.

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 CONTROL ACTIONS (P-I-D)

Controller action vs Process characteristics

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 COMMON CONTROL LOOPS
FLOW CONTROL (LIQUID OR GAS)

Output
SV
FC

MV

 Here FLOW is the controlled condition as well as the correcting condition,

 By opening the valve, flow increases and vice versa

 The range of the flow transmitter will in most cases (approximately) match
the range of the control valve i.e. a fully closed valve gives minimum
transmitter signal (zero flow) and a fully open valve about maximum
transmitter signal (maximum flow)
Flow is the “fastest” process parameter
 COMMON CONTROL LOOPS
PRESSURE CONTROL(LIQUID)

Output
SV
PC
MV

 Liquid is supplied to a number of users and the task of the pressure

controller is to maintain a constant supply pressure irrespective of
load changes.

 If the open-loop response is considered the pressure is directly

related to the flow in the line and the dynamic behaviour is similar to
that of a flow process.

 The actions and settings of a liquid pressure controller are therefore

similar to those of flow controller.
Similar response as Flow Control
 COMMON CONTROL LOOPS
PRESSURE CONTROL(GAS)

 Speed of response (System Gain) is dependent upon the Vessel Geometry,

Valve Size and Transmitter Range/Span.

 The vessel volume is used as a buffer capacity and its pressure is

controlled by throttling the control valve in the inlet line.

 This process has a (first-order) lag equal to the vessel volume divided by
the volumetric flow rate. The remaining lags in the process and control
equipment are small and can be regarded as small.
 Response time: SLOWER than Flow and Liquid Pressure
(Gas is Compressible).
 COMMON CONTROL LOOPS

GAS PRESSURE CONTROL

 The vessel pressure here is also affected by the Liquid Level

 It’s response is dependant upon the geometry of the Vessel and the flow
into the vessel. Valve, line size etc
 COMMON CONTROL LOOPS
LEVEL CONTROL

 Controller is calibrated such that the discharge valve is fully closed when
the vessel level is 10% and fully open when 90%..

 With the controller in manual, a change in the outlet flow will cause the
level to ramp or ‘integrate’. If there is no control action the vessel will either
overflow or empty completely.

 CRITICAL LEVEL CONTROL - Boiler drum level, interfacial level and stirred-
tank reactor levels-are examples where the level is a critical variable and
has to be controlled closely

 BUFFER CAPACITY - When the vessel is used as a buffer volume, the level
does not need to stay-close to the set value, in other words, offset is
allowable
Response time:“Slower than Flow or Liquid Pressure
 COMMON CONTROL LOOPS
TEMPERATURE CONTROL

 A VERY slow process – time to first heat the Furnace Tubes (Mass of metal)
then finally heat the process fluid.

 TEMPERATURE CONTROL - Temperature processes are actually heat

transfer processes, irrespective of whether the mechanism is conduction,
radiation or convection.

 There is no such thing as a "typical" temperature process (each is unique

to it’s particular design), although in general they can be characterised as
‘slow’.

 The detecting element is mostly a bulb or a thermocouple in a protecting

device or “thermowell”,which introduces large measurement lags in the
controllers response to process variations.

“ Very Slow compared to Flow or Liquid Pressure”

 COMMON CONTROL LOOPS
VAPOUR PRESSURE CONTROL

 The liquid is at its boiling point - a temperature of -160ºC and the corresponding
vapour pressure then being fractionally above one atmosphere absolute.

 Some heat will inevitably penetrate the walls of the LNG cargo tanker and
increase the temperature of the liquid. In order to maintain the equilibrium
condition, liquid will evaporate and thus vapour pressure will increase.

 The action of the pressure controller is such that an increasing pressure opens
the control valve.

 Opening the control valve causes more liquid to evaporate. The heat needed for
evaporation has to be taken from the body of the liquid itself, so the temperature
will decrease. The net result of controlling the vapour pressure is that it indirectly
controls the temperature.
 The LNG vapour is used for the carrier's own fuel needs, for example, firing of
boilers
 MULTILOOP CONTROL CONFIGURATIONS

Cascade (Master-Slave)

Ratio

Split range

Selective
(Overide)
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 CASCADE CONTROL (MASTER/SLAVE)
Consider the response of the single LEVEL CONTROL scheme below to disturbance

 Liquid is pumped from column C-1 to column C-2.

 For a certain control valve opening (and ignoring the line pressure drop) the flow through the
control valve is: F = C. √ DP [l/hr] (C = valve constant).

 Should a pressure disturbances occur in column C-2, the pressure drop over the control valve
will change and for the same valve lift as before.

 Hence a pressure disturbance in column C-2 results in a considerable flow change through the
control valve, which in turn results in a level change in column C-1.

 The slow level controller will eventually restore level and flow to a new equilibrium but in the
meantime flow and level have been disturbed and this disturbance may propagate to other
parts of the process.
 This is a typical situation where a cascade control scheme might be useful.
 CASCADE CONTROL (MASTER/SLAVE)
Master
controller

Slave
controller

The output of the Level controller (LC) is the set value of the Flow controller (FC) hence the
master/slave relationship.

By introducing a slave flow controller (figure above) the effect of pressure disturbances can
be eliminated or, at least, reduced. When pressure changes in column C-2 occur the (fast)
flow controller will immediately restore the disturbed flow to the original value requested by
the level controller LC.

The disturbance to the downstream process is therefore minimised

This Cascade controller only makes sense when the slave control loop is faster than the
master loop. Furthermore, the addition of a slave controller only adds value when it
eliminates or reduces disturbances which affect the process .
 CASCADE CONTROL (MASTER/SLAVE)
Exercise
 Temperature control of the oil is achieved by Temperature controller (TC)
controlling the amount of fuel supply through the valve. Other users of the fuel
sometimes affect the fuel pressure when they start-up/shut-down.
 Introduce a slave controller and complete a cascade control scheme to solve this
problem.

furnace

oil T1 TT

air
T2

fuel

TC
 CASCADE CONTROL (MASTER/SLAVE)

Here the “slave” pressure controller in the fuel oil line corrects for changes in fuel oil
pressure which are, for instance, the result of other fuel oil consumers starting up or
shutting down heaters.

The (fast) pressure controller PC minimises the fuel pressure disturbances before
they enter the process
 RATIO CONTROL
Primary flow (uncontrolled)
mixing coil
QT
FT

x1
ratio relay Ratio control
X
gain = K
K.X1
sv X2
FC
secondary flow
(controlled)

tank
chemical injection
skid

Set-point of the secondary flow controller FC is a pre-determined

ratio of the output of the uncontrolled Primary flow.
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 RATIO CONTROL

Fuel Gas
A/F ratio 14:1

FT

Y1
* 14
SV
MV FC
FT

Combustion Air

Set-point of the combustion air flow controller FC is 14 times the

output of the uncontrolled Fuel Gas flow.

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Split-range control is an example of a control system where the
number of correcting conditions exceeds the number of controlled
conditions

One measurement (or controlled condition) and two correction

devices (valves in the example above 33
As the controller output increases, valve 1 the export valve begins
to open and continues until at 50% it is fully open

During the first 50% of controller output the flare valve (valve 2)
remains closed and will only begin to open once the controller
output passed the 50% mark

Valve 2 saturates fully open with a controller output of 100% 34

Exercise:
Describe the functionality of the scheme above

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Selective control is an example of a control system where the number
of correcting conditions (e.g. valves) is less than the number of
controlled conditions (controllers)

A pressure controller is installed such that whenever the pressure

exceeds the pre-set safe value the pressure controller will override the
flow controller via the Signal Selector (SS) and take control of the
control valve. 36
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This is a typical two stage compressor configuration. Of particular note
here is the inter-stage cooling required to cool the gas following
compression

“ASC” indicates the Anti Surge Control which is required for centrifugal
compressors 40