Part I

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 Basically, the main principles in process control are;

 Manual Control

 Automatic Control

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 Q in

Q out

Figure 4.1 Tank

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 Q in

Sight Tube
h

Q out
V-1
Figure 4.2 Manual Control Mode

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  To regulate the level of tank to maintain, h, ‘sight tube’ apply
as indicator.

 Can measure the level through site view directly.

1. Level of fluid is PV (Controlled Variable)

2. Q out is (Manipulated Variable)

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  Personnel will measure the height in the sight tube and
compare with set point.

 If the measured value is larger:

should open the valve to let flow out increased, thus the
level can achieve the set point.

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 Q in

sensor
LC

Q out
Figure 4.3 Automatic Control System V-1

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  On-off Control
 Feedback Control
 Feed-forward Control
 Ratio Control
 Cascade Control
 Inferential Control
 Selector/Override Control
 Adaptive Control

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 Simplest control form, e.g. thermostat in iron and domestic
refrigerator.

 Less widely used - not as versatile and as effective as PID.

 Sometimes referred as “two-position” or “bang-bang” control.

 When temperature (PV) goes below SP, heater will switch on

 Advantages - cheaper and effective

 Disadvantages - results in continual cycling of controlled variable

and produces excessive wear on control valve or other FE

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Thermostat

Figure 4.4 ON - OFF Control Loop

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 p(t) = controller output
pmax = 100% (20 mA)
pmin = 0% (4 mA)

Figure 4.5 On-off Controller Output (Two Possible Values)

 FEEDBACK
SYSTEM

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 FEEDBACK SYSTEM
 Also known as closed loop control system

 The feedback is used to make decisions about changes to the

control signal that drives the plant.

 Widely use in industry

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 FEEDBACK SYSTEM

Figure 4.5 Standard Block Diagram of a Feedback Control System

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 FEEDBACK SYSTEM
 In Fig 4.5, the signal path from E to Y is referred to as the forward path
while from Y to comparator is called feedback path.
 During the process;
1. Disturbance (D) will occur during the process (input that cannot be
manipulated)
2. Current PV (Yu) and D are combined and acted as process output (Y)
3. Sensor will measure the PV + D (Y)
4. Transmitter convert to input signal /measured variable (Ym)
5. Controller will evaluate the measurement (compare Y and SP), if any error
exist, controller will take corrective action immediately - by manipulating
control element.
6. 15 Control element will exerts the action, action on MV
 P'(s) 1
= K c (1 + + t D s)
E(s) tI s

P'(s) æ t I s +1ö æ t D s +1 ö
= Kc ç ÷ç ÷
E(s) è t I s ø è at D s +1ø
Figure 4.6 Block Diagram of Parallel and Series Form of PID Controller
Figure 4.7 Key Characteristics of Commercial PID Controllers
Figure 4.7
(Top) Typical Process
Response
(Bottom) Proportional
Controller (P): Effect of
Controller Gain, Kc
Figure 4.8
(a) Proportional-Integral
Controller (PI): effect of
integral time, (b) effect of
controller gain, Kc
(Bottom) PID Control:
effect of derivative time
 Reverse or Direct Acting Controller

Controller output, p(t) for proportional controller:

p(t) - p = Kc[Ysp(t) - Ym(t)]
Controller Gain, Kc Positive (Kc > 0) Negative (Kc < 0)
PID Controller Reverse Acting Direct Acting
Controller Controller
Controller output Controller output
increases, p(t), input increases, p(t), input
signal, ym(t) decrease signal, ym(t) increase

The selection of controller depends also on the types of control valve used.
e.g. Flow control using ATO (air-to-open) valve - should use reverse acting controller
Flow control using ATC (air-to-close) valve - should use direct acting controller
 Reverse or Direct Acting Controller

Air-to-Open Valve Air-to-Close Valve

Process Gain (Direct Acting (Reverse Acting
Actuator) Actuator)
Positive Reverse Acting PID Direct Acting PID
(Kp > 0) Controller Controller

Negative Direct Acting PID Reverse Acting PID

(Kp < 0) Controller Controller

① Note that, ATO or ATC valve should be chosen based on

whether the valve should fail open or fail close when the
instrument air supply is lost

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 FEEDFORWARD
(FF) SYSTEM

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 FEEDFORWARD (FF) SYSTEM
 Function: to measure important disturbance (D) variables & take corrective action
before the process upset.
 In contrast, feedback controller does not take corrective action until the D has upset
the process.
 Advantages:
1. Corrective action occurs as soon as the controlled variable deviates from the set
point.
 Disadvantages:
1. D must be measured on-line – isn’t feasible.
2. NEED to know how the CV responds to change in D & Manipulated V – depending
on the accuracy of the process.
3. Ideal FF controller that is theoretically capable of achieving perfect control may be
not realizable.
 Widely used: boilers, evaporators, solids dryers, direct-fired heaters & waste
neutralization plants.

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24

FEEDBACK FEEDFORWARD
CONTROLLER CONTROLLER
1

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 LIQUID LEVEL IN BOILER

Feedforward Control

Feedback Control

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 LIQUID LEVEL IN BOILER
 Refer to Fig above (Feedforward), FF scheme can provide BETTER
control of level:
1. Steam flowrate is measured, then FC adjusts the feedwater as to
balance the steam demand.
2. Controlled variable (level, h) is NOT MEASURED.
 Practically, FF is normally used in COMBINATION with FB control.
 FF is used TO REDUCE the effects of D, while FB trim
COMPENSATE the inaccuracies in process, errors & unmeasured D.
FF Control
• Attempts to eliminate the effects of measurable disturbances.
FB Control
• Corrects for unmeasurable disturbances, modeling errors, etc. (FB
trim)
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 LIQUID LEVEL IN BOILER

FF + FB

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Y Gd + GT G f GV GP
=
D 1 + GC GV GP GM
Gd
Gf = - (15 - 21)
Gt GV GP

Figure 4.9 Block diagram for feedforward-feedback control system

HYPOTHETICAL SCHEME;
FF – FB CONTROLLER

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 FEEDFORWARD (FF) SYSTEM
 Non-closed or open loop control system

 The feedback computes its input into a system using only the current

state and its model of the system

 Feed-forward possesses some significant problems.

 Assume the disturbances are known in advanced.

 Need expert personnel – complicated, expensive

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TRAD CONTROL STRUCTURE;
FF – FB CONTROLLER

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Feedforward and
Feedback Control.
Ref: Riggs, J.B., Karim, M.N. (2006). Chemical and Bio-Process Control.

Feedforward Advantages
•Compensates for disturbance before effect is seen.
•Doesn’t introduce instability into a closed loop response.
•Works well for slow processes or processes with a lot of deadtime.

Feedback Advantages
•Can eliminate offset (when used with integral control).
•Not reliant on process models.
•Does not require measurements of disturbances.
•Simple to implement.

Feedforward Disadvantages
•Doesn't completely eliminate offset.
•Dependent on process models.
•Requires disturbance model and extra sensor.
•Does not compensate for unmeasured disturbances.

Feedback Disadvantages
•Disturbances significantly impact systems before control action is initiated.
•When used improperly, can cause instability due to nonlinearity.
•Too slow of a system or a system with high deadtime do not work well.

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 RATIO
CONTROL
SYSTEM
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 RATIO CONTROL SYSTEM
 Special type of FF
 Consists of 2 Methods for control scheme.

 Objective: to MAINTAIN the ratio of two PVs at a specified value:

1. Manipulated V (u)
2. Disturbance V (d)
R = u/d
 Typical applications:
1. Specifying the amounts of components in blending operations
2. Maintaining a stoichiometric ratio of reo a reactants to a reactor
3. Keeping a specified reflux ration for a distillation column
4. Holding the fuel-air ratio to a furnace at the opt value.
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 EXPLANATION:

 Flowrate of D & u are

measured.
Rm = um/dm  Rm = um/dm is calculated.
 Divider’s output sent to RC.
 RC will compare the
calculated ratio, Rm to the
desired Ratio, Rd.
 Adjust u accordingly.
 Typically is a PI controller
with the desired ratio as its
set point.
 ADV: Rm is calculated.
 DADV: Kp vary in nonlinear
fashion. 36
EXPLANATION:

 D is measured & transmitted

to RS - multiplies this signal
with an adjustable gain, KR
 Output signal of RS is used
as set point, usp for the flow
controller which adjust the
flow rate of u.
 ADV: Kp remains constant.

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 RATIO CONTROL SYSTEM
Another example of Ratio control loop.

Figure 3.0 Ratio Control

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 RATIO CONTROL SYSTEM
During the process;

 There are two flow, which is uncontrolled and control.

 Uncontrolled flow, known as wild flow

 Controlled flow is controlled by the loop with a set point.

 It measures wild flow multiplied by some value.

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 RATIO CONTROL SYSTEM
Equation for ratio control:

PVr = Xpv/Ypv

PVr = ratio

Xpv = PV for line X

Ypv = PV for line Y

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RATIO/C

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 In a parallel ratio control strategy, the
master controller controls both loops
simultaneously. The advantage is that the
systems are independent and any electrical
signal noise in one loop will not affect the
other.
In series, the master and leader controllers
comprise the first loop in a two-loop
controller. The follower control loop, which is
the second loop in a two-loop controller, is
controlled by a remote setpoint value from
the leader flow sensor.

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