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The parameters affecting seam quality: a comprehensive review

Article in Research Journal of Textile and Apparel · October 2021

DOI: 10.1108/RJTA-05-2020-0044

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Parameters
The parameters affecting seam affecting seam
quality: a comprehensive review quality
Esra Zeynep Yıldız
Emel Akin Vocational Training School, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey, and
Oktay Pamuk
Department of Textile Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey Received 22 June 2020
Revised 4 October 2020
Accepted 29 October 2020

Abstract
Purpose – The conversion of fabric into a garment involves many interactions such as the selection of
suitable sewing thread, optimization of sewing parameters, ease of conversion of fabric into the garment and
actual performance of the sewn fabric during wear of the garment. The adjustment of all sewing parameters is
necessary to ensure quality. The purpose of this paper is to define the parameters that affect seam quality
comprehensively.
Design/methodology/approach – This study primarily focuses on the studies dealing with the effect of
various parameters on-seam quality in detail. A systematic literature review was conducted.
Findings – The interactions between parameters may lead to different results than the effect of a single
parameter. In addition, changing some parameters may have a positive effect on one element of seam quality
while having a negative effect on another. For this reason, it is very important to properly select the
parameters according to the specific end use of the garment products and also to consider the interactions.
Originality/value – The knowledge of various factors that affect seam quality will be helpful for
manufacturers to improve production performance and to be able to produce high-quality seam.
Keywords Fabric, Seam quality, Sewing machine, Thread sewing
Paper type Research paper

1. Seam quality
The apparel industry is facing an era in which the quality, cost and compliance of the
production are received paramount importance. Present trends point to the reduction of the
order sizes and to greater demands on shorter delivery times and higher quality. Better
quality and lower cost are the most basic factors for the success of this business wherever it
is operated (Khanna et al., 2015; Fernando and Jayawardena, 2014).
Clothing manufacture is defined as a process by which two-dimensional fabric is
converted into three-dimensional garments by assembling different pattern pieces. This
transformation mainly accomplishes with the sewing process and it is one of the critical
processes in the determination of productivity and the quality of the finished garment in the
apparel industry. So that, for any apparel product, it is necessary to clearly understand the
seam, as it is the basic element of clothing (Hunter and Cawood, 1979; Hui et al., 2007; Al
Sarhan, 2011; Khanna et al., 2015; Bharani and Mahendra Gowda, 2012).
At the center of the sewing process, is the sewing machine and an experienced operator is
required to set up the sewing machine to properly sew each fabric type. Good sewing
performance depends on the setting of sewing parameters and the skill of operators when
handling the sewing materials (Hui et al., 2007). Nowadays, sewing machine settings are Research Journal of Textile and
Apparel
adjusted by “trial and error” for a new style as the parameters are different from the © Emerald Publishing Limited
1560-6074
previous, to optimize seam quality (Fernando and Jayawardena, 2014; Khanna et al., 2015). DOI 10.1108/RJTA-05-2020-0044
RJTA Good overall seam quality is essential for the longevity of an apparel product, which
together with consumer satisfaction affects its saleability (Bharani and Mahendra Gowda,
2012). Seam quality problems such as skip stitches, thread breakage, fabric damage, faulty
seam appearance, needle damage, etc., can be time-consuming and frustrating. They may
spoil the appearance of a garment and be the cause of ultimate failure and rejection that
reduce productivity and seam quality (Hayes and Mcloughlin, 2013; Gribaa et al., 2006;
Mandal and Abraham, 2010).
As a result, a good quality seam must have flexibility and strength with no seaming
defects; and the overall appearance of the seam must meet the design requirements of the
apparel products (Bharani and Mahendra Gowda, 2012).

2. The parameters affecting seam quality

Fabric and sewing thread are the basic raw materials of the apparel industry and the
characteristic of the raw material influences the seam quality of the garment. The apparel
companies are especially concerned about the properties of fabrics because it is the prime
raw material in the apparel industry. However, fabric quality alone does not fulfill all the
criteria to produce a high-quality garment (Mandal and Abraham, 2010). Sewing thread is
usually less than 1/1,000th of the weight of apparel, but the appearance and performance of
the seam are dependent upon the quality of sewing threads and their dynamic behavior
(Gurarda, 2008).
Many previous studies have shown that seam performance of a particular fabric depends
on the interrelationship of fabrics, threads, stitch type, seam type, sewing conditions (needle
size, needle shape and surface, stitch density, sewing speed, appropriate operation and
maintenance of the sewing machines) and others (human factors, environmental factors)
(Hunter and Cawood, 1979; Germanova-Krateva and Petrov, 2008; Hui and Ng, 2009;
Bharani et al., 2012; Choudhary and Goel, 2013).
Due to the mentioned information, seam quality is a difficult research object because
many factors have an influence on it. For better seam quality, it is important to consider the
complete harmony of the parameters used. Nevertheless, a poor choice can make the best
fabric and related materials perform poorly or during the sewing process, the fabric is
damaged or the machine stops at unanticipated time intervals (Chowdhary and Poynor,
2006; Jahidul Kabir et al., 2018).
The parameters that affect seam quality can be divided into five categories as shown in
Figure 1. In the study, the effects of the parameters in the first three headings were
examined in detail.

2.1 Sewing machine parameters

2.1.1 Stitch density. Stitch density is the number of stitches per unit length in one row
of stitching in the seam. It is the only attribute, which can vary at different seam
locations and has a direct impact on the quality level of apparel products. High
stitches per inch or cm means short stitches and low stitches per inch or cm means
long stitches. Longer stitch lengths create a needle to flex and increase tension
changes, whereas shorter stitches produce a more stable line of stitches, which means
greater seam strength. However, very high stitch densities may bring the damage risk
to the structure and the puckered seam (Gribaa et al., 2006; Al Sarhan, 2013; Nassif,
2013b; Gurarda, 2019).
Many researchers investigated the effect of stitch density on the seam tensile properties.
They observed that, the seam strength and efficiency increase when the stitch density
increases (Hunter and Cawood, 1979; Wang et al., 2001; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2004; Gurarda,
 Sewing Machine Parameters Parameters
• Stitch density
• The size and point of sewing needle
affecting seam
• The surface finishes of sewing needles quality
• Sewing direction
• Feed mechanism
• Sewing speed
• Load on the presser foot
• Sewing thread tension
• Throat plate and the size of needle's plate hole
• Seam allowance

Sewing Thread Parameters

• Sewing thread type
• Thread finishes
• Sewing thread size
• Ply number
• Twist and tensile strength
• Extensibility
• Shrinkage
• Bending rigidity

Fabric Parameters
• Fiber content
• Construction
• Cover factor
• Weight
• Thickness
• Extensibility
• Bending rigidity
• Shear rigidity
• Formability
• Compressibility
• Number of layers
• Fabric finishes

Personnel and Machine

• Qualification
• Motivation
• State of the machine
• Tuning of the machine
Figure 1.
External Factors The parameters
• Time of the day affecting seam
• Environment temperature
• Noise level quality

2008; Ünal, 2012; Barbulov-Popov et al., 2012; Nassif, 2013b, Frydrych and Greszta, 2016;
Datta et al., 2017; Bhavesh et al., 2018; Ates et al., 2019). This situation can be explained by
the increase of the number of contact points between the sewing thread and the fabric yarns,
which results in a stronger gripping of the seam line, thus the tensile stress will be
distributed on several points (Jebali et al., 2016). Also, a higher number of stitches per unit
length provides more thread into the seam, leading to higher seam strength. Moreover, at
higher stitch density, fabric feed is reduced, and therefore the fabric is securely held and
controlled during stitch insertion (Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013).
Although seam strength increases with increasing stitch density, there is an upper limit
for this. Higher stitch densities beyond a certain limit can cause the needle to puncture the
fabric a greater number of times. So, the fabric tensile strength is reduced due to the cutting
of the yarns and damaging the structure (Carvalho et al., 2013; Mukhopadhyay and Midha,
2013).
RJTA When different parameters are evaluated together, the interactions between the
parameters can create different results. Ali et al. (2014) pointed out that different seams
impact in different ways the strength under different stitch densities and stitch types. In a
detailed study conducted by Wang et al. (2001), it is found that when stitching density
increases, the tensile strength at break of stitch type 301 gradually reduces; type 504
increases; type 514 increases and reduces. From the above findings, it can be inferred that
for every stitch and seam type, the optimum level of stitch density is different, which is also
inherently linked with a substrate, sewing machine parameters and sewing thread
characteristics (Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013).
Stitch density has a positive effect on seam elongation too. As stated by Nassif (2013b)
and Ates et al. (2019), as the stitch density increases, the seam elongation reacts in the same
manner. However, Wang et al. (2001) found that when stitch density increases, the
extensibility at the break of type 301 increases for crosswise fabric samples and decreases
for lengthwise samples; type 504 increases for both sewing directions and type 514 increases
and then decreases. Similarly, Phebe Aaron and Chandrasekaran (2014) observed that seam
elongation increased with an increase in the stitch density and then decreased.
Stitch density also has a profound impact on seam pucker. The researchers found that as
the stitch density increases, the seam pucker reacts in the same manner (Nassif, 2013a; Al
Sarhan, 2013; Nashwa and Nesreen, 2015; Jebali et al., 2016). This is attributed to the
deformation of fabric yarns caused by the penetration of the thread and the needle during
the sewing operation (Jebali et al., 2016).
The seam slippage tends to decrease when the stitch density increases because the
number of contact points between fabric yarns and sewing thread increases, which results in
stronger gripping of fabric yarns providing high frictional resistance during the tensile
loading of the seam (Pasayev et al., 2012; Carvalho et al., 2013; Jebali et al., 2016).
2.1.2 The size and point of sewing needle. The sewing needle is one of the basic elements
that directly contribute to seam formation. Its role is to penetrate through the textile material
with the point, push away the threads and transmit the sewing thread under the throat plate.
The selection of the right needle was proved to be one of the most important parameters in
the production of garments’ joints (Stjepanovic and Strah, 1998; Gribaa et al., 2006).
Many researchers studied the effects of needle sizes and points on the seam quality.
Nassif (2013b) found that as the needle size increases, the seam strength, seam efficiency and
seam elongation decrease. In the study, increasing needle size from 12 to 16 leads to a
reduction of seam tensile strength by approximately 5%. This situation can be explained by
the possibility of breaking the fabric yarn when using a needle with a greater diameter. Vice
versa, Germanova-Krateva and Petrov (2008) approached the best seam quality by using a
needle with the largest size. The reason for this effect is the stability of the thicker needles
against deformation during the sewing process.
As the needle size increases, the seam pucker increases due to the inherent pucker that
can be visible even after sewing without a sewing thread (Galuszynski, 1986; Nassif, 2013a).
The result of Seif’s (2014) study confirmed that needle size has a significant influence on
the seam slippage. It is found that the smaller the size of the needle, the higher the required
force for seam slippage.
Needle size has also a decisive role in the appearance of material damage. The most
important sewing mistakes are heat-related and mechanical damage caused by the sewing
needle. During the process of sewing, an oversized needle can cause bursting of threads or
tension around the stitch area, which results in too large holes. Also, the frictional resistance
between the sewing needle and fabric causes heat to be released and the needle to overheat
during high-speed sewing. The heated needle may punch holes in the fabric by melting the
thermoplastic threads in the fabric and result in a weak stitch (Stjepanovic and Strah, 1998; Parameters
Dal et al., 2014). affecting seam
The effect of needle geometry on the sewability of knitted fabrics has also been
investigated by Braun, who found that the optimum needle could reduce sewing damage by
quality
as much as 35% (Hunter and Cawood, 1979). Stjepanovic and Strah (1998) found that
knitwear damages were hardly seen on samples, sewn using the fine needle size Nm 65.
They also observed samples, sewn with sewing needles of the same size but with different
point shapes. There was less visible damage on samples, sewn with the sewing needle with
a medium ball point (SUK). On the other hand, too fine a needle, although reducing needle
damage, can lead to excessive needle breakages in the case of a greater number of plies or
heavier fabrics (Hunter and Cawood, 1979).
Moreover, short-point needles interact with the fabrics more violently than long-point
needles and tend to produce more yarn breakages. The use of bulged-eye needles, in which
the diameter of the needle at the eye is enlarged with respect to the diameter of the shaft, can
contribute to reducing the sewing temperature effectively (about 15–30°C). At the same time,
the number of yarn breakages is relatively reduced. Therefore, finer needle size and bulged-
eye needles can reduce sewing damage (Kar et al., 2011).
2.1.3 The surface finishes of sewing needles. When sewing the fabrics, the fabric resists
the penetration of the needle. Friction between the sewing needle and textile material that
acts at high sewing speeds causes heating of the needle. The needle temperature can exceed
the fiber’s melting point, which results in material damage (Stjepanovic and Strah, 1998).
Therefore, needle surface finish was found to be the most significant needle variable. In the
manufacture of garments, to protect against a reduction in thread strength and/or thread
breakage during sewing due to heating of the needle, various types of finishes may be used
depending on the specific end use of apparel products. Finishing treatments reduce needle
heat by reducing friction, making the fibers more slippery while the needle penetrates the
fabric (Murugesan et al., 2018). Hereby, they are one of the crucial factors which influence
not only the lifetime of the sewing needles but even the quality of the sewing process and
then a lifetime of the sewn products (airbag, seat, upholstery car’s) (Zouharova, 2007).
Many efforts have been taken to analyze the needle heating problems, to understand the
mechanism of needle heating, correlating the factors of needle characteristics, operation
conditions and fabric properties to the peak temperature (Murugesan et al., 2018).
2.1.4 Sewing direction. The effect of sewing direction on the seam properties was
previously studied by many researchers. It is reported that sewing direction has a
significant effect on the seam strength and it is higher for warp-wise seams than the weft-
wise (Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013; Nassif, 2013b; Cheng and Poon, 2014; Namiranian
et al., 2014; Islam et al., 2019). Vice versa, as stated by Barbulov-Popov et al. (2012), weft-wise
seams have higher breaking force comparing to the warp-wise, which can be explained by
the structure of the woven fabric and higher breaking force in the warp direction. Also,
Citog
lu et al. (2011) found that the highest seam strength and elongation values were
obtained in the diagonal way of fabric, more than the warp direction. Oztas  and Gurarda
(2019) compared the sewing angles and claimed that seams prepared with 0°, 45° and 90°
bias angles gave the highest seam strength while seams prepared with 30° and 60° bias
angles gave the lowest.
Sewing direction has a positive impact on seam elongation too. An increasing trend is
detected by Nassif (2013b) confirming that as the sewing direction from 0 to 90 degrees
increases the seam elongation follows the same manner. Oztas  and Gurarda (2019) found
that 30°, 45° and 60° bias angles gave the highest seam-breaking elongation values while
seams prepared with 0° and 90° bias angles gave the lowest values all over the samples.
RJTA The sewing direction is of great importance since, in most cases, the surface roughness of
the fabric differs in the warp and weft, which causes friction between the plies (Hunter and
Cawood, 1979). Researchers found that pucker is higher for warp direction (Nassif, 2013a;
Midha and Kumar, 2015; Jebali et al., 2016). Midha and Kumar (2015) made angled seams at
0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75° and 90° to weft direction and observed that the seam puckering is
the highest in warp-wise seams. Seam puckering reduces when the seams are produced
along the weft direction or at an angle to the weft direction.
Seam slippage is also dependent on the sewing direction. Seam slippage in the weft
direction is higher and with the increase of the angle between the weft yarn and the sewing
direction, seam slippage decreases (Pasayev et al., 2012; Ozdemir and Yavuzkasap, 2012;
Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013; Namiranian et al., 2014; Chen and Cheng, 2019). This
probably results from the fact the warp density is higher than the weft density. Vice versa,
Seif (2014) found that most slippage occurs in the warp-wise seams. It referred to the high
tension of the warp yarns because of the weaving process and finishing. Sewing in bias
direction (45°) records the best results of all.
Hunter and Cawood (1979) stated that damage is more severe when the seam is on the
bias than when it follows either the courses or wales in knitted fabrics.
2.1.5 Feed mechanism. The role of the feed mechanism is to feed the fabrics to the zone of
stitch formation and then take up the sewn fabrics. The advance of the fabrics is achieved
through frictional forces produced between the feed dog and the bottom fabric and between
the fabrics. There is also some force opposing fabric movement created by the pressure of
the presser foot. This opposing force causes some elongation of the top fabric, and thus some
displacement between the top and bottom fabrics may occur. This means that two different
lengths of fabric try to conform to the same length along the seam, thus producing a
puckered seam (Galuszynski, 1986).
Generally, the following factors have a major effect on the degree of seam pucker caused
by the feed mechanism (Galuszynski, 1986):
 pressure of presser foot; the greater the pressure the greater the pucker;
 frictional force between the fabric layers; the smaller the force the greater the
pucker;
 sewing speed; the lower the speed the smaller the pucker.

Other factors such as type and depth of feed dog teeth, geometry and type of presser foot
contribute to the magnitude of seam pucker, but the amount of contribution depends on the
fabric and the setting of the sewing machine (Galuszynski, 1986).
2.1.6 Sewing speed. To save time sewing machine workers operate sewing machines at
high speed. In sewing, the generation of heat is a natural phenomenon due to the friction of
the sewing machine needle, the sewing thread and the fabric being sewn. During high-speed
sewing heat and dynamic loading are mainly responsible for the reduction of strength in
sewing thread, which, in turn, causes the early breakdown of seams. In high-speed sewing,
the sewing thread has to pass through a needle’s eye, the fabric and the bobbin case
mechanism 50–80 times before becoming part of the seam. Literature review gives us strong
evidence that the strength of sewing thread decreases after sewing. The strength of sewing
thread decreases by 60% after sewing but other researchers found that the strength of the
sewing thread decreases by 30-40% after sewing in cotton threads, and argued that
structural damage, thermal and dynamic stresses are responsible for this decrease in the
sewing thread. It is clear that the seam strength decreases with the increase in sewing speed.
The effect is much dominant at a speed higher than 3,000 r/min, which might be due to the
reason that the needle heat is above 220°C at 3,000 r/min and rises linearly after this speed Parameters
(Naeem et al., 2014). affecting seam
Some scholars emphasized that the seam pucker grade slightly increases with increasing
sewing speed (Galuszynski, 1986; Kim and Kim, 2011). Experimental findings showed that
quality
an increase in sewing speed increases the differential feed between fabrics resulting in a
higher degree of seam pucker. It is claimed that an increase in sewing speed requires an
increase in the pressure of the presser foot to control the feed and prevent the presser foot
from bouncing under the impact of the feed dog movement. The bouncing of the presser foot
disturbs the fabric feed leading to puckered seam and uncontrolled sewing conditions. This,
in turn, results in a greater retarding force between the presser foot and the top fabric
producing further displacement between the fabrics, leading to greater seam pucker
(Galuszynski, 1986).
Stylios and Sotomi (1995) mentioned that generally seam quality is reduced with
increasing sewing machine speed.
2.1.7 Load on the presser foot. A presser foot is a device that presses the sewing material
to the throat plate to prevent distortion of material direction during the movement of the
sewing needle and the feed dog. Excessive presser foot pressures can inhibit the yarn
movement and can aggravate needle damage although insufficient presser-foot pressures
can lead to erratic feeding of the fabric causing non-uniform stitch lengths and abraded
areas in the fabric where the feed-dog has rubbed against the fabric instead of moving it
forward (Hunter and Cawood, 1979).
It was found that as the load on the presser foot increases, seam strength and seam
elongation increase. This is due to the better gripping of the fabric assembly, reducing
variations in stitch density, which allows uniform stress transfer during tensile loading
(Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013).
Seam pucker also increases with increasing presser foot pressure. The pressure exerted
by the presser foot against the needle plate causes the fabric to spread. Thus, the seam is
made on a fabric of which dimension has been momentarily altered. When the fabric returns
to its normal dimension the waviness occurs (Galuszynski, 1986).
Based on the mentioned explanations, as the load on the presser foot increases, seam
strength and seam elongation increase but also seam pucker increases. For this reason, it is
important to set the presser foot pressure correctly according to the specific end-use of
apparel products.
2.1.8 Sewing thread tension. The tensions generated by the needle and bobbin threads
are key factors in determining the quality of a seam. Improper tension can cause various
problems such as puckered seams, broken thread and unbalanced seams (Koncer et al.,
2014).
Stylios and Sotomi (1995) stated that seam quality is reduced with an increase of sewing
thread tension. They found a relationship between presser foot pressure and sewing thread
tension, seam quality was reduced with high foot pressure and high thread tension, while
seam quality improved with increasing foot pressure and low thread tension.
As the strain on the needle thread increases, the seam strength and seam elongation
increase up to an optimum level and then decrease (Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013).
Sewing thread tension, extensibility and relaxation are some of the most common causes of
seam pucker and they have been subject to many publications. Some researchers investigated
the relationship between the sewing thread tension and seam pucker and found that the
greater the tension, the greater the pucker (Galuszynski, 1986; Nassif, 2013a). Stylios (2013)
stated that the higher the thread tension either of the needle and/or the bobbin, the higher the
thread elongation, which will tend to compress the fabric if the fabric has low bending stiffness
RJTA and will deform the fabric in the stitch during relaxation and especially after laundering. Also,
seam pucker due to sewing thread tension occurs mainly in sewing lightweight fabrics
(Galuszynski, 1986).
It is noticed that the sewing thread tension has a negative effect on seam efficiency. The
higher sewing thread tension is associated with the lower seam efficiency and vice versa
(Nassif, 2013b).
2.1.9 Throat plate and size of needle’s plate hole. The feed system is made up of the
throat plate, presser foot and feed dog. They are often called fittings because they fit
together. The throat plate is designed to support the material being stitched and allow
the easy passage of the material over its surface. The throat plate is manufactured with
a needle hole to allow the needle to penetrate the fabric. The needle hole must be large
enough for the needle and the sewing thread and there are slots in the throat plate that
allow the feeder to rise and feed the material. The slots should match the width of the
rows of teeth on the feed dog without allowing contact (Hayes and Mcloughlin, 2013). In
one publication, it was stated that a large throat plate hole allows greater freedom of the
yarns to slip over the sewing needle and so tends to reduce damage. It was mentioned
that the throat-plate hole diameter should be double the diameter of the needle (Hunter
and Cawood, 1979). Also, according to Stylios and Zhu (1998), sewing damage will be
reduced with an increase in the throat-plate hole size and/or the loop size of the fabric
structure. Galuszynski (1986) stated that the diameter of the needle hole in the throat
plate should be generally greater than the needle diameter by 0.3–0.6 mm, to give
adequate clearance.
The needle/throat-plate assembly can cause seam pucker if the difference between the
diameter of the needle hole in the throat plate and the needle diameter is too large. In such a
case the fabric is forced down into the needle hole causing fabric elongation and additional
fabric feed, producing a puckered seam (Galuszynski, 1986).
2.1.10 Seam allowance. Seam allowance is the area between the edge and the stitching
line on two or more pieces of material being stitched together. It can range from ¼” wide to
as much as several inches (Gurarda, 2019). Yarn in the fabric can pull out of the seam from
the edge. The fabric has more tendency to slippage if the margin is narrow. The adjustment
of this parameter is necessary to minimize seam slippage. However, the fabric properties, the
sewing thread and the stitch parameters should also be taken into account (Gribaa et al.,
2006; Carvalho et al., 2013).

2.2 Sewing thread parameters

2.2.1 Sewing thread type. Most of the sewing threads used by the clothing industry are
made from cotton and polyester fibers. Threads made from natural fibers such as linen, silk
and certain manmade fibers such as nylon, acrylic and viscose are also used in the clothing
industry. These sewing threads are made from spun, continuous filament or core-spun
yarns. Each type of sewing thread has distinct properties, which are the prime contributory
factor for seam quality. Hence, the selection of an appropriate and fit-for-purpose sewing
thread is of significant importance for product performance (Hayes and Mcloughlin, 2013).
Behera and Chand (1997) compared polyester, cotton and core-spun polyester threads.
They found that core-spun threads show the highest values of breaking strength and
extension, followed by polyester and cotton threads. The high strength of core-spun and
polyester threads is attributed to the presence of stronger filaments in the core and stronger
polyester fibers, respectively. This result is in parallel with the results of the studies
conducted by Ünal (2012) and Sular et al. (2015). Meric and Durmaz (2005) compared the
multifilament and staple sewing threads. The multifilament thread structure has higher Parameters
seam strength values while the staple thread structure has the minimum. affecting seam
The sewing thread type also affects the seam pucker. Seam pucker is higher for the
fabrics stitched with core-spun as compared with the ones stitched with cotton and staple
quality
spun threads due to the higher diameter and reversible strain properties of the core-spun
thread. The higher diameter of core-spun can cause more mechanical restraint and
deformation of the yarns in the fabric when inserted by a needle (Dobilaite and Juciene, 2006;
Sular et al., 2015). Also after the relaxation of tension with time, core-spun polyester sewing
threads tend to shrink more, due to its high reversible strain (Mukhopadhyay and Midha,
2013).
After manufacturing, all the garments should be subjected to washing. When a sewing
thread absorbs water, they change in dimension and swelling occurred in transversely and
axially. The amounts of swelling depend on the raw material of the sewing thread. Research
showed that swelling is generally less in synthetic fiber. Thus, a sewing thread made from
nylon or polyester exhibits higher dimensional stability during wetting. Vice versa, sewing
thread made from natural fibers has high transverse swelling because of less dimensional
stability (Mandal and Abraham, 2010). Dobilaite and Juciene (2006) mentioned that after
washing and drying, the highest pucker was observed in garments sewn with cotton sewing
threads. Due to yarn swelling, sewing thread diameter increases and shrinkage occurs in
length. Also, Kamali et al. (2020) observed that the subjective seam pucker grade of fabrics
sewn with various sewing threads reduced after washing due to the ease and fast stress
relaxation of the yarns and fabrics. Therefore, more seam pucker appears on the fabric.
As it is mentioned before, the interactions between parameters are so important.
Incompatible fabric-thread combinations such as sewing low-weight fabrics with coarse
threads or low-extensible fabrics sewn with high-extensible core-spun threads, cause more
seam slippage. Fabrics sewn with cotton threads generally give comparatively lower seam
slippage due to the minimum difference of extensibility between the fabric and the threads
(Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013). Similarly, Behera and Chand (1997) mentioned that the
high extensibility of core-spun threads resulted in more seam slippage. Meric and Durmaz
(2005) observed the maximum resistance against the seam opening in the core-spun threads.
Sewing thread type has also a profound influence on the seam efficiency. The cotton
fabrics sewn with core-spun polyester have higher seam efficiency in comparison to those
stitched with cotton thread. This may be because of the higher extensibility and breaking
strength properties of core-spun which are improving the seam efficiency (Sular et al., 2015).
The damage is comparatively higher with cotton and core-spun threads than 100%
polyester threads. It can attribute to higher thread diameter and more surface friction of
core-spun yarns (Behera and Chand, 1997).
To summarize, core-spun threads are found to be most suitable from a seam efficiency
point of view, whereas cotton threads are found to be most suitable for sewing denim from a
seam puckering point of view (Ünal, 2012). Behera and Chand (1997) suggested sewing
lightweight denim fabric with either fine polyester thread or coarser cotton threads;
heavyweight denim fabric either with coarse core-spun threads or coarse polyester threads.
2.2.2 Thread finishes. The presence of lubricant on the sewing thread is also an
important variable and lubrication imparts certain desirable properties to the sewing threads,
in particular improving the sewability. A few colleagues researched the effect of thread finishes
on the seam quality. They stated that the lubrication finish is used on a sewing thread to assure
better seam quality due to its protective nature from needle heat in the course of garment
manufacturing. There are various types of finishes; however, in general, the clothing industry
tends to use standard lubrication finish for better seam performance in apparel. Increased
RJTA strength, durability and abrasion resistance help to get greater seam efficiency, seam strength
and seam slippage (Eryuruk and Kalaog
lu, 2010; Bharani and Mahendra Gowda, 2012).
During the sewing process, the repeated tensile stresses created in the thread have a
negative effect on the functional properties of the thread, resulting in a reduction in the
strength of the thread after sewing. Eryuruk and Kalaog
lu (2010) found that as a general
trend for all types of threads, when the lubrication amount is increased from 0.5 to 1.9, the
seam breaking strength and yarn breaking strength of stitched and unstitched sewing
threads also increased.
The lubricants on the sewing threads affect the sewing thread stiffness, greatly. Gurarda
et al. (2011) found that lubricant type is very important on the stiffness of sewing thread.
The bending length and stiffness of the sewing thread decreased after the application of
lubricant. This situation is expected to affect the seam puckering.
Mazari et al. (2015) found that the lubricant causes the reduction in yarn to metal friction.
This reduction in friction causes needle temperature to decrease. Needle temperature
decreases linearly with the increase of lubricant amount; there is nearly a 30% reduction in
needle temperature when lubricant amount is 7% as compared to needle temperature of
sewing thread without lubricant. This reduction of needle temperature is very important for
heavy industry sewing where sewing speed is higher than 3,000 r/min. The use of lubricant
decreases the needle temperature and can increase the productivity of the apparel industry.
2.2.3 Sewing thread size. The size of the sewing thread is the most crucial for seam
quality as the improper selection of sewing thread size directly affects the seam quality of
apparel products (Bharani et al., 2012).
Generally, the researchers found that higher sewing thread size leads to greater seam
strength for any apparel (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2004; Gribaa et al., 2006; Gurarda, 2008;
Bharani et al., 2012; Hayes and Mcloughlin, 2013; Datta et al., 2017; Bhavesh et al., 2018).
Mukhopadhyay et al. (2004) and Bhavesh et al. (2018) attributed it to higher breaking load
and more tenacity of coarser yarn than finer yarn. On the other hand, Gribaa et al. (2006)
mentioned that the thicker thread requires the use of a thicker needle which may damage the
fabric. Based on this statement, Al Sarhan (2013) noted that higher sewing thread size was
subjected to greater friction during sewing, which ultimately reduced its strength. This
consequently led to poor seam strength. In conclusion, the lower sewing thread sizes are
suitable for lightweight fabrics, whereas coarser sewing threads suit the heavyweight
fabrics (Al Sarhan, 2013; Choudhary and Goel, 2013).
According to the findings of Al Sarhan (2013), as the sewing thread thickness increased
from 18 tex to 24 tex, the seam elongation increased, which then decreased as the sewing
thread thickness increased to 30 tex. This means that finer sewing threads yield good seam
elongation.
Sewing thread size has a significant impact on seam pucker. An increase in sewing
thread size increases the probability of occurrence of seam pucker (Galuszynski, 1986; Al
Sarhan, 2013; Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013; Choudhary and Goel, 2013). This is
understandable as the thinner the thread, the less puckering resulting from having to
accommodate it in an already tightly woven fabric that is prone to seam pucker (Fan and
Leeuwner, 1998). Also, higher sewing thread size was subjected to greater friction during
sewing operation, which causes greater seam puckering (Choudhary and Goel, 2013).
Gurarda (2008) stated that there was no significant effect of ticket number in both the
warp and weft direction seam slippage strength of the fabrics. Vice versa, according to the
experimental results of Chen and Cheng (2019), the larger the sewing thread linear density of
polyester material is, the smaller the seam slippage.
 Behera and Chand (1997) stated that the seam efficiency of the lightest fabric invariably Parameters
increases with the increase in the ticket number of the sewing threads irrespective of their affecting seam
composition. Contrary to this, the seam efficiency of the heaviest denim significantly
quality
decreases with the increase in ticket number. Also, they observed that the damage
invariably decreases with the increase in ticket number. The reason is attributed to the
lower diameter of the thread.
Mukhopadhyay et al. (2004) and Datta et al. (2017) stated that the seam efficiency of the
fabric stitched with coarser yarn is higher than the fabric stitched with finer yarn. They
explained that lower sewing thread size represents lesser strength, as compared to coarser
sewing threads and coarser yarn with high breaking strength contributed to higher seam
efficiency.
2.2.4 Ply number. Ply number affects the level of strength loss, which occurs during the
sewing process. Meric and Durmaz (2005) stated that when the ply number increases,
the strength loss decreases. So, a greater number of ply in a sewing thread helps to
increase the strength of a sewing thread and leads to higher seam strength and/or seam
efficiency with less chance of seam slippage. However, the diameter becomes high with
a greater number of plies causing the structural jamming along the seam line, which, in
turn, leads to seam puckering and change in draping behavior of apparel products due
to increased stiffness (Choudhary and Goel, 2013).
2.2.5 Twist and tensile strength. The twist of a thread refers to the number of turns per
unit length required to hold the fibers/plies together to give the thread substance the
required strength and flexibility (coats). As the yarn is twisted, its length contracts, a
process that can be partially recovered by subjecting the resulting yarn to tension. As twist
increases, extensibility first increases and then decreases beyond an optimum point. The same
is true for yarn strength, which first increases and then decreases until breakage occurs. It is
important to be aware of twist accumulation during sewing which may cause jamming at the
eye of the needle during sewing. This results in a varying twist level of the thread and
consequent varying tensile behavior of the stitch. This potentially affects thread strength,
extensibility and appearance (Hayes and Mcloughlin, 2013).
Also, the tensile strength of sewing thread has an important effect on seam quality. In lap
seam, when needle thread is changed to a weaker thread, seam strength is reduced by
12.8%. Loss in needle thread strength during sewing leads to a decrease in seam strength
(Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013).
The seam efficiency increases when the values of twist and breaking strength (in single-
strand and the loop) both increase (Gribaa et al., 2006). Choudhary and Goel (2013) and Jebali
et al. (2016) reported that the high strength of sewing thread always gives better seam
functional performance.
2.2.6 Extensibility, shrinkage, bending rigidity. Extensibility, shrinkage and bending
rigidity properties of sewing threads affect the seam pucker occurrence.
Extensibility is important for threads used to join highly extensible fabrics. All sewing
threads are extensible to some degree. Silk and several synthetic continuous filaments can
extend up to 20%, whereas a typical spun-thread extends only to approximately 10% before
breaking (Hayes and Mcloughlin, 2013). The higher the extension of the sewing threads
during sewing, the higher is their contraction after sewing, hence there is a higher
probability of their causing seam pucker (Fan and Leeuwner, 1998).
When the shrinkage of a sewing thread, due to steaming, laundering, wetting, dry
cleaning, etc., is higher than that of the fabric, the new seam length is smaller than the fabric
length which has to be accommodated in the seam length. This situation leads to fabric
RJTA gathering resulting in seam pucker (Galuszynski, 1986). So, threads with higher shrinkage
than the fabric can cause thread shrinkage pucker (Hunter and Cawood, 1979).
High bending rigidity is one of the reasons for seam puckering that leads to poor seam
appearance. The soft thread whose bending rigidity is low is the cause of low seam
puckering (Mandal and Abraham, 2010; Choudhary and Goel, 2013).

2.3 Fabric parameters

2.3.1 Fiber content. The role of fiber types and their percentage is significant for sewing
performances and characteristics due to their effect on made-up fabric mechanical properties
(Choudhary and Goel, 2013). Polyester fabric has higher seam strength and extension
characteristics and also shows high seam pucker results as compared to cotton fabrics
(Seetharam and Nagarajan, 2014; Sular et al., 2015). Pasayev et al. (2012) found that due to
the smoother structure of polyester yarns, seam slippage is higher in polyester weft yarn
fabrics than in fabrics that have cotton weft yarns. Nayak et al. (2010) studied the sewing
performance of stretch denim. It can be concluded that the seam efficiency increased with
lycra percentage and the seam pucker and needle damage were affected by the weight of the
fabric rather than the lycra percentage. Badr and Ashraf (2013) studied the sewability
properties of 100% bamboo, 100% modal, 100% cotton and 50/50% modal/cotton fabrics
knitted with different fabric structures. The seam pucker defect of the bamboo and modal
samples had the highest values than cotton fiber. Seam stiffness of cotton and cotton/modal
samples had the highest values than modal and bamboo fiber, due to the high coefficient of
friction of cotton fiber. Seam strength was decreasing from 100% cotton, 50/50% modal/
cotton, 100% modal to 100% bamboo, respectively, while the seam elongation was
increased.
2.3.2 Construction (weave and density). Fabric weave has a significant effect on seam
strength. The plain weave fabrics exhibit the highest seam strength in both directions,
followed by twill fabric. As plain weave has the highest number of interlacements per unit
area, it does not permit easy movement of yarns when a seam is subjected to loading. On the
contrary, twill weave has longer floats allowing more free space for yarn movement
(Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013).
Also, Al Sarhan (2011) stated that weft density has a positive effect on seam strength. As
the weft density increases, seam strength increases for all seam types.
The results of Cheng and Poon’s study demonstrated that there is a significant
correlation between weave structure and seam pucker. By stitching, threads snap the fiber
material into a new position, inserting it into the material structure and tending to change it.
This phenomenon is more obvious when the fabric is made of fine, dense and low resistance
to compression yarns (Brad et al., 2014). As puckering is a distortion of the fabric yarns, a
closely woven fabric will be more susceptible to puckering than a loosely constructed one.
Compared to twill weave, the plain weave fabrics are more prone to seam puckering, due to
the higher density of warp and weft yarns, the plain weave has higher interlacing and less
space for yarn movement which cause higher values of shear properties. On the contrary,
twill weave with longer floats will allow more free spaces for yarn movement and resulting
in less seam pucker (Pavlinic et al., 2006; Cheng and Poon, 2014).
Seam opening is related to the fabric structure. Malciauskiene et al. emphasized that
warp density has little influence on the seam slippage and is mainly affected by weft density
(Chen and Cheng, 2019). Gurarda (2008) and Pasayev et al. (2012) showed that with the
increase of the weft density of the fabric, seam slippage decreases. This may be due to the
increment of volume filling degree of the fabric with the increase in weft density. Therefore,
the free movement of the weft yarns decreases that leads to an increase in resistance against
seam slippage (Pasayev et al., 2012). Gurarda (2008) also mentioned that elastane in the weft Parameters
direction of the fabrics promoted seam performance and prevented seam slippage. Snjezana affecting seam
et al. (2016) stated that if the warp density (higher weft density) is lower, the thread slippage
quality
in the weft direction is greater and the slippage in the warp direction is smaller. If the warp
density (lower weft density) is higher, the thread slippage in the weft direction is smaller and
slippage in the warp direction is greater.
Snjezana et al. (2016) compared the effect of different weave types on the seam slippage
and found that plain weave is the most resistant to slippage. Panama is more sensitive to
slippage in the weft direction and in the case of different fabric densities, greater differences
in slippage are observed. Satin weave acts identical to Panama weave, but the values of
slippage and the areas of holes are considerably lower. In the case of weft rib with opener
warp (denser weft), the values of slippage and the areas of holes are the highest, due to
tensile stress in the warp direction. In the case of twill 2/2, values of seam slippage is much
lower comparing to warp and weft rep weaves and Panama. Similarly, the findings of
Gurarda’s (2008) research revealed that twill fabrics had more of a tendency for seam
slippage than plain fabrics due to the more flexible structure of twill fabric.
2.3.3 Cover factor. The cover factor shows the tightness of the fabric structure. The high
cover factor refers to a tighter structure in fabric than a low cover factor. Some scholars
prove that fabric tightness has a direct impact on the behavior of seams.
Mandal (2008), Bharani et al. (2012) and Jebali et al. (2016) emphasized that the fabric
cover factor has a considerable effect on seam strength and seam efficiency. Their studies
revealed that fabrics with a high cover factor have an increased tendency to break the fabric
yarns at the time of sewing. The breakage of fabric yarns ultimately reduces the seam
strength and seam efficiency.
Fabric cover factor also has an impact on seam pucker. Generally, a high fabric sett
leaves little or no room in the fabric to accommodate the needle or sewing thread. Therefore,
to accommodate the needle or sewing thread, some of the fabric yarns should move aside
along the seam line. This leads to some fabric elongation and compression resulting in a
puckered seam (Galuszynski, 1986). The problem is worse when the stitch density and
thread thickness increase or in lightweight fabrics with dense structures (Hui et al., 2007;
Carvalho et al., 2013).
Fabrics with a high cover factor are less inclined to seam slippage. Fabrics having a
much higher warp cover factor than the weft cover factor exhibit lower slippage of the weft
against the warp, as there is a higher number of contact points between them and the
adjacent warp yarns are highly crimped. On the other hand, warp slippage through the weft
yarns is easy when there are few contact points and the weft crimp is lower (Fan and Hunter,
2009).
Miguel et al. (2005) emphasized that fabrics with a high warp cover factor generally show
a lower weft cover factor, for the overall factor to be balanced. Thus, the decrease of the weft
cover factor probably indicates an increase of the warp cover factor and a consequent increase
of friction between the warp and weft yarns, this making seam slippage difficult. For the same
reasons and for the fabrics having these characteristics, the weft seam slippage increases (warp
yarn slippage becomes easier).
Fabrics with dense structures usually create more resistance and more friction between
the fabric and needle in the sewing operation, which may lead to needle damage on the
fabrics sewn (Hui et al., 2007).
2.3.4 Weight. Seam strength increases with the increase in fabric weight due to greater
fabric strength and higher resistance during yarn slippage (Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013).
RJTA Al Sarhan (2013) claimed that the heavyweight wool fabrics are associated with higher seam
strength, whereas the low weight one yields lower seam tensile strength.
The studies proved that fabric weight has a profound effect on seam puckering, as the
fabric weight increases the seam puckering decreases (Behera and Sharma, 1998; Al Sarhan,
2013). Similarly, some scholars stated that lightweight fabrics are more prone to seam
puckering than heavyweight ones. Lightweight fabrics display less stability, have handling
problems in the course of garment manufacturing and reduce the aesthetic performance of
the seam in terms of seam puckering (Al Sarhan 2013). Whereas, Behera and Chand (1997)
stated that when the sewing thread penetrates a heavyweight fabric, it introduces very high
contractive force. Therefore, high puckering occurs in heavyweight fabrics.
Behera and Sharma (1998) and Chen and Cheng (2019) stated that resistance of yarn
slippage increases with the increase in fabric weight, cover and thickness of the fabric. This
may be due to better interloping of sewing thread with fabric and higher contact area due to
bulkier mass.
2.3.5 Thickness. As it is known, the mechanical properties of the fabric have a significant
influence on seam slippage. The increase in fabric thickness results in a decrease in seam
opening (Chen and Cheng, 2019). Dobilaite and Juciene (2006) emphasized that thick and
more rigid fabrics are creaseless. The decrease in the pucker coefficient is attributed to the
increase in thickness and rigidity of sewing.
2.3.6 Extensibility, bending rigidity, shear rigidity. The mechanical properties of fabrics
are crucial to the stresses to which the fabrics are subjected during the making-up process.
They are of critical importance for the forming and sewing of flat pieces of fabric into three-
dimensionally shaped garments.
Extensibility is a measure of the fabric’s ability to be stretched during handling and
assembling that is highly related to the sewing operation. Both excessive and insufficient
extensibility will cause problems in the sewing process. If the extensibility of fabric is too
high, it can easily stretch during the sewing of unsupported seams. Generally, the higher the
extensibility, the more difficulty will be experienced in sewing (Hui et al., 2007).
Bending rigidity is one of the primary fabric mechanical properties and determines the
fabric’s resistance to bending. It is also the main factor influencing the seam pucker (Behera,
2015; Gribaa et al., 2006). Rigid fabrics have greater resistance when bent by an external
force such as that encountered during fabric manipulation in sewing. Fabrics with high
bending rigidity values may lead to sewing and handling problems as they are too stiff to be
manipulated and controlled (Hui et al., 2007). Low bending rigidity is detrimental to the
seam appearance because of the resistance the fabric offers to the bending.
Fabric shear is another essential mechanical property that determines the degree to
which the fabric may be stretched and sheared when it conforms to the intended garment
shape. If the shear rigidity is too low, then the fabric is easily distorted and will skew or bow
during handling and sewing. Fabrics with high shear rigidity tend to be difficult to shape
and mold during sewing operations (Hui et al., 2007).
To go deep into the influence of fabric properties on the seam pucker, it is supposed that
the shear and flexibility are the main factors in respect to pucker, as they determine fabric
deformation during the sewing process (Dobilaite and Juciene, 2007). Park and Kang (1999)
and Ebrahim (2012) mentioned that fabrics with lower bending and shear rigidity and
higher extensibility tend to produce more seam pucker.
Namiranian et al. (2014) found that the increase in fabric extensibility increases the fabric
breaking elongation percentage and decreases the fabric tensile strength. Ates et al. (2019)
stated that as the fabric extensibility increases, it leads to a decrease in seam strength. Also,
Ali et al. (2014) and Ebrahim (2012) mentioned that seam efficiency is higher when fabric Parameters
extensibility is greater. affecting seam
Behera and Sharma (1998) emphasized that an increase in the bending stiffness of fabric
causes an increase in fabric strength, which, in turn, decreases the seam efficiency. Also, as
quality
the bending stiffness increases the contact area between the sewing thread and fabric
threads increases. It may lead to an increase in resistance of seam slippage.
2.3.7 Formability. Fabric formability, which is defined based on fabric extensibility and
rigidity, can be used to predict the limit of overfeeding before the fabric becomes buckled.
Puckering or sleeve-setting problems occur easily in the sewing process if the fabric being
sewn has a very low formability value. The lower the formability, the more likelihood of
seam pucker because a fabric is unable to accommodate the degree of compression applied
by the sewing thread (Behera and Sharma, 1998; Hui et al., 2007; Jebali et al., 2016).
2.3.8 Compressibility. Fabric compression is measured as the degree of compressional
force a fabric can sustain in a specific direction before the fabric buckling occurs. The lower
is the compressibility, the fabric is unable to accommodate the compressional load and the
higher is the chance of seam pucker (Behera, 2015).
2.3.9 Number of layers. As the number of layers of the sewing material increases, the
assembly is expected to be more resistant. Nevertheless, strength reduction in sewing thread
grows with the augmentation of the number of layers of fabric, as the thread suffers a higher
coefficient of friction (Gribaa et al., 2006).
Further, as the number of layers in the sewing assembly increases, the seam pucker
decreases due to an increase in thickness and rigidity of sewn material (Dobilaite and
Juciene, 2006; Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2013).
The findings of Pasayev et al. (2011) research revealed that seam slippage decreases
when the number of sewn layers of a fabric increase.
2.3.10 Fabric finishes. Textile finishing is the final process in converting greige
fabricated textile materials into a condition that allows the formation of garments, home
furnishings and other consumer goods. By finishing processes, desirable physical and
chemical properties of the textile can be enhanced and undesirable properties minimized
(Hauser, 2005). Finishing processes are used to improve the final appearance, handle and
functionality of the fabrics.
Yuksel and Korkmaz (2019) presented an experimental study of the seam performance of
woven fabrics treated with three different water repellent chemicals. Water repellent
finishing on fabrics improved the seam strength and seam efficiency of the fabrics. Gurarda
and Meric (2005) used three fabric types with three different elastane weft yarn draw ratios
as samples for the experiments. As the first step a pre-setting process was applied to all
three types of fabric at two different temperatures and at the finishing process half of the
samples were treated with silicone and the other half were washed only. Seam strength,
seam opening strength, needle penetration forces and “needle damage index” were determined
for these fabric samples. It has been shown that both pre-setting temperature and the finishing
process have significant effects on the seam performance, needle penetration force and elastane
fiber damage during the sewing of cotton/elastane woven fabrics. Mazumder (2010) observed
the effects of enzyme silicon wash with sandblasting on denim apparel characteristics. From
the findings, it is clear that after sandblasting and enzyme wash the tensile strength of denim
fabric, as well as seam strength, has been decreased from the values obtained before washing.
Kordoghli et al. (2009) focused on the effect of stitch density, sewing direction and fabric
treatment on the seam quality by studying the mechanical behavior of seam before and after
each treatment. The behavior of the yield point depends on the treatment applied to the fabric.
Desizing, scouring pre-treatments and sueding have similar yield point loads, but with different
RJTA elongations. The higher yield point level was given after the bleaching treatment. The more the
frequency of treatments increases, the more the seam resistance decreases. That’s because
chemical treatments can attack fiber components other than the cellulose ones; so the inter-fiber
cohesion is reduced. Therefore, the resistance of threads (structure of fabric) decreases.
_
Illeez et al. (2017) investigated the effect of crease-resistant treatment on sewability and
seam properties of cotton shirt fabrics. It was found that crease-resistant treatment
improved the seam efficiency, sewability and appearance of creases, whereas no positive
effect on seam appearance was observed.
Stylios and Zhu (1998) mentioned that the fabric-compression modulus can be reduced or
yarn extensibility in fabrics can be increased through appropriate finishing and by the way
sewing damage can be reduced. Hurt and Tyler established that the finishing processes
applied to the fabrics should modify their frictional properties, and thus have an influence
on needle penetration and sewing damage. First, the needle penetration forces are critically
affected by the use of a lubricant or softener. Second and most important, fabrics exhibiting
higher penetration forces were also the fabrics exhibiting sewing damage (Choudhury,
2017). Hersh et al. studied the impact of finishing operation on needle heating. The results
prove that there is a relationship between the way of finishing and the needle heating. This
variation does not follow regular behavior. Temperature of the needle increases for dyed and
finished fabrics than for only bleached ones. In addition, the types of finishing generate
different behavior of heating (Kordoghli et al., 2009).

3. Discussion
The objective of this review is to understand the state of the art and comprehensive knowledge
about the parameters affecting seam quality. At the center of the sewing, the operation is the
sewing machine and an experienced operator is required to set up the sewing machine to
properly sew each fabric type. When joining fabrics together, several factors need to be taken
into accounts such as fabric properties, the properties of the sewing thread, the stitch and seam
selection, sewing conditions, the appropriate operation, operator handling, machine settings
and maintenance of the sewing machines. All of these factors are equally important in
producing a quality seam. If one or more of them are incorrect, a poorly sewn garment can
result. Nowadays sewing machine settings are adjusted by “trial and error” to optimize seam
quality for a new style due to the changes in fabric type or properties. This method is a time-
consuming process and to reduce this loss it is important to know the effects of all parameters
on the seam quality. Therefore, a comprehensive study is required to know more about the
parameters and their effects on the seam quality.
The effects of the sewing machine, sewing thread and fabric parameters on seam
strength, seam puckering, seam slippage, seam elongation, seam efficiency and sewing
damage were discussed in the study. Upon reviewing existing literature, it was observed
that certain topics were mostly addressed by researchers such as the effect of stitch density,
sewing thread type, thread size and needle number. The effect of surface finishes of sewing
needles, feed mechanism, thread finish and thread ply number also need to be examined in
detail. There are studies about surface finishes of sewing needles. However, these studies are
limited by the effect of this feature on the needle temperature. Comprehensive studies should
be conducted to address the seam quality. Moreover, there is no research reported for the ply
of sewing thread and feed mechanism, which should also be studied.
The important results concluded with the study are summarized below:
 The interactions of the parameters can give different results than the effect of only
one parameter. So, when using different parameters together, the interactions
should be taken into account. In the literature, usually the effect of certain
 parameters has been studied, and interactions have been ignored in many studies. Parameters
The interactions between different parameters need to be further investigated. affecting seam
 Based on the above explanations in the study, changing some parameters may have quality
a positive effect on one element of seam quality, while it may have a negative effect
on the other. For this reason, it is very important to properly select the parameters
according to the specific end use of the garment.

In conclusion, to obtain desired quality levels there is not a single solution that is capable of
removing seam problems in fabric. These pieces of knowledge can help garment
manufacturers to produce high-quality products by selecting suitable parameters.

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Further reading
Akter, M. and Khan, M.R. (2015), “The effect of stitch types and sewing thread types on seam strength
for cotton apparel”, International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, Vol. 6 No. 7,
pp. 198-205.
Farhana, K., Syduzzaman, M. and Yaesmin, D. (2015), “Comparison of seam strength between dyed and
un-dyed gabardine apparels: a research on lapped&superimposed seam”, Journal of Textile
Science and Technology, Vol. 01No No. 02, pp. 75-84.
Shi, H., Zhang, L. and Wang, J. (2017), “Influence of seam types on seam quality of outdoor clothing”,
International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, Vol. 29 No. 4, pp. 553-565.

Corresponding author
Esra Zeynep Yıldız can be contacted at: esra.zeynep.yildiz@ege.edu.tr

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