Number theory - Diophantine equations

January 2020

1 General tricks
1.1 Simon’s Favorite Facotring Trick
Simon’s factoring trick comes from the identity
(x + a)(y + b) = xy + ax + by + ab.
When presented with an expression such as xy + x + 3y = 15, we can add a constant to both sides to factor
the left hand side. For instance, the previous equation becomes (x + 3)(y + 1) = 18. This trick actually came
up on a recent Putnam.

Example 1

Find all positive integer solutions to

2020 1 1 1 1 1 1
− − − + + + = 1.
xyz xy xz yz x y z

Solution. Multiplying through by xyz, we see the given equation is equivalent to

xyz − xy − yz − xz + x + y + z = 2020.

Using the factoring trick, we obtain

(x − 1)(y − 1)(z − 1) = 2019.

WLOG, suppose x ≥ y ≥ z. Since 2019 = 3 × 673 is the prime factorization of 2019, we find the
solutions (2020, 2, 2), (674, 4, 2). The rest of the solutions are obtain by permuting the entries of these
solutions.

1.2 Problems

1. Let m and n be integers such that m2 + 3m2 n2 = 30n2 + 517. Fin 3m2 n2 .

2. (Putnam 2018/A1) Find all pairs (a, b) of positive integers for which
1 1 3
+ = .
a b 2018

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 3. Let p and q be prime numbers. Find all positive integers x and y for which
1 1 1
+ = .
x y pq

4. Find all nonnegative integer solutions to

x + y + z + xyz = xy + yz + xz + 2.

5. Let N be a positive integer. There are exactly 2005 ordered pairs (x, y) of positive integers satisfying
1 1 1
+ = .
x y N
Show that N is a perfect square.

1.3 Modular Arithmetic

If an equation can be solved in the integers, then it can be solved modulo any number. So often times,
information can be gained by reducing an equation modulo some (convenient) number. For instance, reducing
mod a prime dividing a coefficient can eliminate a term and give information about the remaining terms.

One of the little miracles of life is that squares behave very nicely mod 4, 8, and 16. When dealing with
equations involving squares, it is sometimes beneficial to look at the equation mod one of these powers of 2.

Example 2

Show the equation 14x2 + 15y 2 = 71990 has no solutions in nonnegative integers x and y.
Solution. Reduce mod 8 to have

6x2 + 7y 2 ≡ 1 (mod 8).

Note a2 ≡ 0, 1, 4 (mod 8) - that is a square must be either 0, 1 or 4 modulo 8. Testing all 8 possible
pairs for x2 and y 2 in the above equation shows the equation cannot be solved mod 8 hence the
original equation cannot be solved in the integers.

1.4 Problems

6. Determine all nonnegative integral solutions (n1 , n2 , . . . , n14 ) if any, apart from permutations, of the
Diophantine equation n41 + n42 + . . . + n414 = 1599.

7. Prove that the equation

(x + 1)2 + (x + 2)2 + (x + 3)2 + . . . + (x + 99)2 = y z
is not solvable in integers x, y, z when z > 1.

8. Find all pairs of integers such that x3 − 4xy + y 3 = −1.

9. (Putnam 2001/A5) Prove that there are unique positive integers a and n such that an+1 −(a+1)n =
2001.

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1.5 Fermat’s Infinite Descent
The method of infinite descent is an argument by contradiction. If an equation has a solution in the positive
integers, then it has a solution with a ”minimal” value. The infinite descent shows that if there is a solution,
then there must be a ”smaller” one and so there cannot be any nontrivial solution to the equation.

Example 3

Show x3 + 5y 3 = 25z 3 has no nontrivial solutions in the positive integers.

Solution. Notice that if z = 0 then we must have x = y = 0. Suppose we have a solution (x, y, z)
with z 6= 0. Suppose, moreover, that this is the solution with the smallest z value. Looking mod 5
shows x is divisible 5, hence x = 5x0 . The equation then becomes

25x30 + y 3 = 5z 3 .

This equation shows y is divisible by 5 hence y = 5y0 and

5x30 + 25y03 = z 3 .

This gives z is divisible by 5, hence z = 5z0 and

x30 + 5y03 = 25z03 ,

so (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is a solution to the original equation with z0 < z a contradiction.

1.6 Problems

10. Find all triples (x, y, z) of positive integers satisfying x3 + 3y 3 + 9z 3 − 3xyz = 0.

11. Find all integer solutions to the equation x4 + y 4 + z 4 = 9u2 .

12. Solve in the nonnegative integers the equation 2x − 1 = xy.

2 Linear Diophantine Equations

Theorem 1
Let a, b, c be integers. The equation
ax + by = c
has integer solutions if and only if gcd(a, b) divides.

The Euclidean algorithm gives us a way of solving equations of the form ax + by = c when it is possible.

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 Example 4

Find a solution to the equation 4x + 18y = 32.

Solution. Applying the Euclidean algorithm, we see 2 = gcd(18, 4) = 18 − 4 × 4. Multiplying through
by 16 gives 18(16) + 4(−64) = 32.

Theorem 2: Sylvester’s theorem

If a and b are relatively prime positive integers, then the greatest c for which

ax + by = c

is not solvable in nonnegative integers is given by ab − a − b.

2.1 Problems

13. Let m, n be positive integers. Find a solution to the diophantine equation (21n + 4)x + (14n + 3)y = m.

14. Given a piece of paper, we can cut it into 8 or 12 pieces. Each resulting piece can be cut into 8 or 12
pieces and so on. Can we achieve exactly 60 pieces of paper after some finite number of steps? What
about 2020?

3 Quadratic Diophantine Equations

3.1 Pythagorean Triples
A solution (x0 , y0 , z0 ) to the diophantine equation

x2 + y 2 = z 2

is called a Pythagorean triple. A Pythagorean triple is primitive if x0 , y0 , z0 are pairwise relatively prime.
Looking (mod 4), we see a primitve Pythagorean triple must have exactly one of x and y be even and the
other odd.

Theorem 3

If (x, y, z) is a primitive Pythagorean triple where x is even, there are relatively prime positive integers
r and s for which x = 2rs, y = r2 − s2 and z = r2 + s2 and such that r > s and r + s is odd.

Example 5

Determine if there exists is a primitive Pythagorean triples with one of the legs of length 90.
Solution. We claim no such triangle exists. Indeed, if such a triangle existed, in the above theorem
r and s cannot have the same parity, hence one is even. Therefore in a primitve Pythagorean triple,
4 must divide the even leg length, but 4 6 | 90.

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3.2 Problems

15. Prove that every Pythagorean triangle has a side whose length is divisible by 5.

16. Determine the sidelengths of a right triangle if they are integers and the product of the legs’ length is
three times the perimeter.

17. Prove that the following system is not solvable in positive integers
(
x2 + y 2 = u2
x2 − y 2 = v 2

3.3 Pell’s Equation

We now turn to Pell’s equation
x2 − Dy 2 = 1,
where D positive integer which is not a square. This Diophantine equation can be solved recursively once we
have found a solution. We will call a solution (x1 , y1 ) to Pell’s equation the fundamental solution if y1 > 0
is minimal.

Theorem 4

Pell’s equation has infinitely many nonnegative integer solutions. Moreover, if (x1 , y1 ) is the funda-
mental solution, then the general solution is given by (xn , yn ) where
√ √
xn + Dyn = (x1 + Dy1 )n .

Example 6

Find all all triangles whose side lengths are consecutive integers and whose area is also an integer.
Solution. Suppose the triangle has sides of lengths n − 1, n and n + 1. By Heron’s formula, it’s area
is given by s     p
n 3(n2 − 4)
 
3 1 1 1
A= n n n+1 n−1 = .
2 2 2 2 4
p
We see for the area to be an integer, n must be odd, say n = 2m, then A = m 3(m2 − 1), so we can
write m2 − 1 = 3r2 , or equivalently,
m2 − 3r2 = 1.
This is Pell’s equation and has fundamental solution (2, 1). If follows that the solutions are given by
1h √ √ i
mk = (2 + 3)n + (2 − 3)n
2
1 h √ √ i
rk = √ (2 + 3)n − (2 − 3)n
2 3
for k ≥ 1. That is the required triangles have side lengths 2mk − 1, 2mk and 2mk + 1 for k ≥ 1.

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3.4 Problems

18. Find two nontrivial solutions to x2 − 8y 2 = 1.

19. Let tn = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n denote the nth triangular number. Find all triangular numbers which are
perfect squares.

20. (Putnam 2000/A2) Prove that there exists infinitely many integers n such that n, n + 1, and n + 2
are each the sum of two squares of integers. [For example: 0 = 02 + 02 , 1 = 02 + 12 , 2 = 12 + 12 .]

4 Additional Problems
21. (Putnam 1992/A3) For a given positive integer m, find all triples (n, x, y) of positive integers, with
n relatively prime to m, which satisfy

(x2 + y 2 )m = (xy)n .

22. (Putnam 2005/B2) Find all positive integers n, k1 , . . . , kn such that k1 + k2 + . . . + kn = 5n − 4 and
1 1
+ ... + = 1.
k1 kn