2018 Minerals Yearbook

NICKEL [ADVANCE RELEASE]

U.S. Department of the Interior August 2023

U.S. Geological Survey
 Nickel
By Michele E. McRae
Domestic survey data and tables were prepared by Kristi J. Simmons, statistical assistant.

Reported nickel consumption (primary plus secondary) in availability from domestic producers (Trump, 2018; U.S.
the United States in 2018 decreased by 3% to 230,000 metric Department of Commerce, 2018).
tons (t) compared with 238,000 t (revised) in 2017 (table 1). Throughout the year, modifications and changes were made
U.S. apparent consumption of primary nickel was 136,000 t to the list of countries subject to the tariff. For some countries,
or about 6% of the 2.33 million metric tons (Mt) of world quotas were established in place of the additional duties and
consumption reported by the International Nickel Study exemptions for certain products were granted. Many countries
Group (INSG). Stainless-steel production accounted for 40% responded to the increased import duties by increasing the duties
of U.S. reported primary consumption of nickel compared for imports of aluminum and steel articles of United States
to 66% globally, including the United States. This difference origin, including European Union countries, Canada, China,
was likely a reflection of the large number of specialty metal India, Japan, Mexico, Russia, and Turkey. As of December 2018,
companies and a readily available supply of stainless-steel scrap the additional import duty for steel articles imported into the
in the United States (table 4). In 2018, U.S. industry melted United States remained at 25% for most countries of origin and
123,000 t of nickel contained in scrap, a 7% decrease from was 50% for Turkey. The only countries that did not have the
133,000 t (revised) in 2017 (table 2) (Nickel Institute, 2016, increased import duty for steel were Argentina, Brazil, and the
p. 14; International Nickel Study Group, 2020b, p. A–1). Republic of Korea, all of which had import quotas in place, and
In this chapter, primary nickel refers to a nickel product Australia (U.S. Geological Survey, 2019, p. 7).
produced from the beneficiation and processing of mined ore In March, Allegheny & Tsingshan Stainless was formed as
that is ready for use in a downstream consuming industry. The a joint venture between Allegheny Technologies Inc. (ATI)
form and composition of the primary product are typically (Pittsburgh, PA) and Shanghai STAL Precision Stainless Steel
a function of the mineralogy of the ore deposit and types of Company Ltd. (China) to produce 60-inch-wide stainless-steel
processing used. Unwrought nickel metal in all forms (for sheets from stainless-steel slab imported from Indonesia. ATI
example, briquet, cathode or electrolytic, flake, pellet, powder, entered into the agreement with the intent of improving capacity
rondelles) in this chapter has a purity of greater than 99% and utilization, specifically by reopening its previously idled Direct
generally conforms to the INSG’s definition of Class I nickel. Roll Anneal and Pickle operation in Midland, PA. Because
Nickel oxide sinter and iron- and nickel-containing products, imports from Indonesia were subject to the section 232 tariffs,
such as ferronickel and nickel pig iron (NPI), generally conform ATI filed for an exclusion and still was awaiting a decision at
to the INSG’s definition of Class II nickel (International yearend 2018 (Allegheny Technologies Inc., 2019, p. 26).
Nickel Study Group, 2020b, p. iii). Specifications for nickel
traded on the London Metal Exchange Ltd. (LME) require a Production
purity of 99.8% (American Society for Testing and Materials
The United States had one active nickel mine, the
International standards) or 99.9% (Chinese National Standards)
underground Eagle Mine in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan,
(London Metal Exchange Ltd., undated). Nickel chemicals and
which began operation in 2014. In 2018, the Eagle Mine
salts often are produced at nickel refineries but in this chapter
produced 17,600 t of nickel in concentrate, a 20% decrease
are differentiated from production of metal whenever feasible.
compared with 22,100 t in 2017, although 2018 production
Legislation and Government Programs exceeded the company’s production guidance for the year
(Lundin Mining Corp., 2019b, p. 2).
U.S. coinage in the form of nickels, dimes, quarters, half Limited quantities of byproduct nickel were recovered at
dollars, and one-dollar coins contain nickel in the form of Sibanye Gold Ltd.’s (South Africa) base-metal refinery in
cupronickel or manganese-brass alloy. Total nickel consumption Columbus, MT. Leading processors of recycled nickel included
for coin production was 2,872 t in 2018, an 11% decrease International Metals Reclamation Co. Inc.’s (INMETCO’s)
compared with 2017 (U.S. Mint, undated a, b). [owned by American Zinc Recycling LLC (Pittsburgh, PA)]
In March, in response to the U.S. Department of Commerce’s secondary smelter in Ellwood City, PA, and Gladieux Metals
(DOC’s) investigation into the effect of aluminum and steel Recycling’s (Freeport, TX) facility in Freeport, TX. The
imports on the national security of the United States, using refinery and secondary recovery data from these operations
authority granted under section 232 of the Trade Expansion were included with scrap statistics to avoid disclosing company
Act of 1962, the President ordered that a 25% ad valorem proprietary data (tables 1–5).
tariff be placed on steel imports, including stainless steel, from No ferronickel was produced from ores in the United States in
all countries except Canada and Mexico. As directed by the 2018. Any U.S. ferronickel exports were likely either reexports
proclamation, the DOC subsequently established a process or material upgraded for special purposes.
for companies to apply for an exclusion to the tariff if certain Michigan.—Lundin Mining Corp. (Canada) mined the Eagle
conditions were met, such as a particular product’s lack of deposit—a chalcopyrite-pentlandite-rich peridotite intrusion,
nickel—2018 [ADVANCE RELEASE] 51.1
historically known as the Yellow Dog peridotite, in the Upper for ferrochromium and ferronickel. INMETCO was capable of
Peninsula of Michigan. The ore was processed at the associated processing a wide range of nickel-bearing wastes including flue
Humboldt mill, which produced separate concentrates of dust, grinding swarf, mill scale, and shot blast generated during
copper and nickel sulfides. The two sulfide concentrates were the manufacturing of stainless steel. The complex also accepted
transported on a dedicated rail spur from Humboldt Township filter cakes, plating solutions, spent pickle liquor, sludges,
to the Canadian National Railway line and then to smelters and all types of spent nickel-containing batteries (Horsehead
in Canada or to ports for shipment overseas. In 2018, trade Holding Corp., 2015, p. 8–10).
statistics from the U.S. Census Bureau indicated that 51% of Gladieux Metals Recycling processed spent catalysts from
total United States nickel concentrate exports went to Canada petroleum refineries. The Freeport, TX, facility (formerly
and 47% to Finland. owned by Gulf Chemical & Metallurgical Corp.) treated nickel-
In 2018, Lundin continued development of an access ramp molybdenum and cobalt-molybdenum hydrotreating catalysts
to the Eagle East mine extension. The Eagle East project is that had been contaminated by nickel and vanadium in crude oil.
located approximately 2 kilometers (km) east and 600 meters Gladieux first roasted and leached the spent catalysts to recover
deeper than the Eagle deposit and is part of the same intrusive the molybdenum and vanadium. The nickel-and-alumina residue
complex. The Eagle East project was to be developed using then was converted to a marketable nickel-cobalt-molybdenum
existing infrastructure and mining methods similar to those used alloy in a direct-current electric arc furnace (Stephan, 2013).
at the Eagle Mine and the company was able to amend the Eagle
Mine permit to include development of Eagle East. The project Consumption
was expected to begin contributing mill feed in 2020 and would
Reported primary nickel consumption in the United States
extend the Eagle Mine life to at least 2023. According to the
was 107,000 t in 2018, a slight increase compared with
company’s 2018 resource and reserve statement, the average
105,000 t (revised) in 2017 (table 1). The estimated value of
nickel grade of Eagle East’s probable reserves was 3.7%,
reported primary nickel consumption was $1.40 billion, a 29%
approximately 57% higher than that of the original Eagle Mine.
increase compared with that in 2017, which was primarily the
Total proven and probable reserves for the project, including
result of a 26% increase in the annual average LME cash price.
the Eagle Mine and Eagle East, totaled 108,000 t of nickel, with
U.S. industry consumed 13,500 t of ferronickel in 2018, of
Eagle East contributing 57,000 t (Lundin Mining Corp., 2019a,
which more than 99% was used in stainless, heat-resisting, or
p. 32–39, 89; 2019b, p. 17).
specialty alloy steels (table 4).
Minnesota.—In June, PolyMet Mining Corp. (Canada)
Stainless Steel and Low-Alloy Steels.—In 2018, stainless-
completed a land exchange with the U.S. Forest Service that
steel producers accounted for 40% of reported primary nickel
gave the company control over both surface and mineral rights
consumption, 69% of total nickel consumption, and 95% of
in and around the NorthMet copper, nickel, and platinum-
nickel-containing scrap consumption in the United States. Alloy
group-metal (PGM) deposit. By yearend 2018, the company
steels—other than stainless steel—accounted for 8% of U.S.
had received all necessary permits from the Minnesota
primary nickel use (table 4). Production of raw stainless steel
Department of Natural Resources and the Minnesota Pollution
and heat-resisting steel in the United States increased slightly
Control Agency but was still awaiting the Record of Decision
to 2.81 Mt. Production of nickel-bearing grades increased by
and wetlands permit, which was the last permit needed to
14% to 2.08 Mt compared with that in 2017 and accounted
begin development, from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
for 74% of total stainless-steel production (American Iron and
The project is located 10 km south of the town of Babbitt in
Steel Institute, 2018, 2019). Leading domestic stainless-steel
St. Louis County. Ore mined from a proposed open pit would
producers included AK Steel Holding Corp. (West Chester
be shipped to the reconditioned Erie mill near Hoyt Lakes, MN,
Township, OH), ATI, North American Stainless (Ghent, KY),
for processing by flotation to produce a marketable concentrate.
and Outokumpu Stainless USA, Llc (Calvert, AL).
In phase 2 of the project, the concentrate would be processed
Superalloys and Related Nickel-Base Alloys.—Of the
in a new hydrometallurgical plant to be built at the Erie site
primary nickel consumed in the United States in 2018,
(PolyMet Mining Corp., 2019, p. 4).
approximately 39% was used to make high-performance
Byproduct Smelter and Refinery Production.—Sibanye Gold
superalloys and related nickel-base alloys, primarily for the
Ltd., trading as Sibanye-Stillwater, mined PGMs from the J-M
aerospace, electric power, and petrochemical industries (table 4).
Reef in Montana’s Beartooth Mountains. Concentrates from
Leading domestic producers of these products included ATI,
the company’s two mills (East Boulder and Nye) were trucked
Carpenter Technology Corp. (Philadelphia, PA), Haynes
to the smelting and refining complex at Columbus, MT, where
International Inc. (Kokomo, IN), Precision Castparts Corp.
a PGM filter cake and byproduct crystalline nickel sulfate
(Portland, OR), and Special Metals Corp. (New Hartford, NY).
containing minor amounts of cobalt were produced (Sibanye
Typical applications for nickel-base alloys and superalloys in
Gold Ltd., 2017; Stillwater Mining Co., 2017, p. 7–8, 21).
the aerospace industry included jet engine blades, casings, discs,
Secondary Production.—INMETCO operated the only
rings, and vanes. ATI expected that increased fuel efficiency
secondary smelter in North America dedicated to recovering
requirements in the commercial aerospace sector would result
chromium- and nickel-containing waste and scrap. The
in increased demand for specialty alloys and metal powders
smelter at Ellwood City, PA, produced an iron-base remelt
that could withstand higher temperatures. In 2018, the company
alloy that typically averaged 13% chromium and 12% nickel.
reported that sales of jet engine products increased by nearly
Stainless-steel producers used the remelt alloy as a substitute

51.2 [ADVANCE RELEASE] U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2018

50% compared with sales in 2017 and began production at its Prices
newly completed nickel and superalloy powder manufacturing
facility in North Carolina (Allegheny Technologies Inc., 2019, According to Platts Metals Week, the LME average annual
p. 22–23). cash price for nickel was $13,114 per metric ton, a 26% increase
Batteries.—Nickel began to be more widely used as a battery compared with $10,403 per metric ton in 2017 (table 1).
material in the 1980s beginning with nickel-cadmium batteries. However, the December 2018 average monthly price was 5%
This trend was accelerated in the 1990s when Toyota Motor lower than the December 2017 average monthly price. The 2018
Corp. adopted nickel-metal-hydride batteries for use in the average monthly price peaked in June at $15,107 per metric ton
hybrid Prius (Nickel Institute, undated). However, batteries but declined throughout the second half of the year.
accounted for only a small percentage of nickel consumption in
World Review
2018, both globally and domestically. Both the Nickel Institute
and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) end-use nickel statistics In 2018, global nickel mine production increased by 10% to
included battery consumption with “other miscellaneous uses” 2.40 Mt (table 10). Production from laterite deposits increased
of nickel. Globally, the Nickel Institute estimated that “other by 20% and accounted for 62% of total mine production
uses” accounted for 4% of global consumption (Nickel Institute, compared with 56% in 2017. Most of the increase was attributed
2016, p. 14). Domestically, “other uses” of nickel accounted for to Indonesia, owing to an easing of its export ban on direct
7% of primary nickel consumption (table 4). shipping ore and rampup of NPI operations. Production from
Nickel is used increasingly in the cathodes of many lithium- sulfide and other deposit types decreased by 3%. Global primary
ion batteries. Two of the most common cathode formulations production increased slightly to 2.04 Mt compared with 1.99 Mt
are lithium-nickel-cobalt-aluminum and lithium-nickel-cobalt- (revised) in 2017 (table 12). Production of nickel chemicals
manganese (NCM). The Nickel Institute estimated that in 2016, and ferronickel, including NPI, each increased by 9%. In 2018,
39% of lithium-ion batteries contained nickel, but expected that production of ferronickel and NPI exceeded production of nickel
number to increase to 58% by 2025 owing to increased demand metal and other unspecified refinery products.
from electric vehicle batteries and utility-scale energy storage. According to the INSG, world consumption of primary nickel
The primary advantage of nickel-containing cathodes is higher increased by 7% to 2.33 Mt (International Nickel Study Group,
energy density compared with most non-nickel-containing 2020b, p. A–1). Stainless steel accounted for 66% of global
alternatives. Initially, NCM cathodes contained approximately primary nickel (nickel produced from mined material rather
equal amounts of cobalt, nickel, and manganese. In efforts than that recovered from recycled scrap) consumption. World
to increase energy density, cathode manufacturers have been production of stainless steel and heat-resistant steel was 50.7 Mt
increasing the proportion of nickel in the cathode. This had the in 2018, a 6% increase compared with 2017. China was the
additional benefit of reducing the reliance on cobalt because as leading producer of stainless steel, accounting for 53% of world
the proportion of nickel increases, the amount of cobalt used output, as well as the leading nickel consumer (International
decreases. This helps reduce cost and risks associated with Stainless Steel Forum, 2020, p. 7, 12). On a global basis,
cobalt availability (Nickel Institute, 2018; Vale S.A., undated). nonferrous alloys accounted for 10% of primary nickel use;
The USGS annual nickel consumption survey was sent to electroplating and other surface finishing, 9%; alloy steels other
domestic consumers of primary nickel products. Although the than stainless, 8%; batteries, catalysts, and specialty chemicals,
United States was among the leading producers of lithium-ion 4%; and foundry products, 3% (Nickel Institute, 2016, p. 14).
batteries globally, the country lacked the capacity to produce the Australia.—Australia was the sixth-ranked nickel-producing
cathode components for these batteries. Manufacturing of those country or locality in the world in terms of mine output and was
materials was concentrated in Asia, primarily in China, Japan, one of the few countries or localities that mined both sulfide
and the Republic of Korea (Mayyas and others, 2018, p. 4–5). and laterite ores. Mine production decreased for the fourth
Consequently, USGS nickel end-use statistics are unlikely to consecutive year, to 170,312 t, as several mines and processing
capture expected increased demand from the battery sector. facilities remained on care-and-maintenance status (table 10).
However, exploration expenditures continued to be high and
Stocks
increased mine production was expected in coming years
Global stocks of nickel metal held in LME-approved from new or reactivated mining operations. Australia ranked
warehouses decreased by 44% to 206,400 t at yearend 2018 fifth in primary nickel output in 2018 and during the previous
compared with stocks at yearend 2017. Most of the decrease 2 years produced only refined metal. Primary metal production
(78%) was in the form of bagged briquets. All stocks in LME- increased by 5% to 113,500 t (table 12). All of Australia’s
approved warehouses were Class I material (refined products active mines and processing facilities were located in Western
with a nickel content of 99% or greater) (London Metal Australia (Department of Industry, Innovation, and Science,
Exchange Ltd., 2017, 2018). 2018, p. 85–88).
Data collected by the INSG indicated that in December 2018 BHP Billiton Ltd.’s Nickel West Kwinana refinery, which
world nickel producers held 86,200 t of primary nickel produced high-purity nickel briquets and powder with a nickel
stocks, a 5% increase compared with stocks at yearend 2017 content of 99.8%, continued to increase the percentage of sales
(International Nickel Study Group, 2020b, p. A–1). At yearend to battery precursor manufacturers. The company attributed
2018, U.S. consumer stocks of primary nickel totaled 6,780 t, a demand for its product to a trend in lithium-ion battery cathodes
4% increase compared with yearend 2017 (tables 1, 5). containing a higher proportion of nickel and the suitability of

nickel—2018 [ADVANCE RELEASE] 51.3

nickel sulfate production from nickel briquets and powders In 2018, China’s total primary production was 716,000 t,
because of better dissolvability compared with other forms of an increase of 9% compared with that in 2017, and which
nickel such as cathodes. Streamlining projects underway were accounted for 35% of world primary nickel production
expected to increase Kwinana’s capacity to 90,000 metric tons (table 12). Production of chemicals and NPI increased, by
per year (t/yr). The company began production of nickel sulfate 13% and 16%, respectively, and production of metal decreased
from a pilot plant in Perth and received all regulatory approvals by 5%. Imports of nickel ore and concentrate were 47.0 Mt
to begin construction of a full-scale nickel sulfate plant at (gross weight) in 2018, an increase of 34% compared with those
the Kwinana refinery with a stage 1 capacity of 100,000 t/yr in 2017. Imports from the Philippines accounted for 64% of ore
of nickel sulfate (BHP Billiton Ltd., 2018, p. 58; Haegel, and concentrate imports in 2018 compared with 83% in 2017
2018a, p. 6–11; 2018b, p. 14–16). and imports from Indonesia nearly quadrupled, accounting for
Brazil.—In 2018, Brazil’s mine production decreased by 3% 32% of imports in 2018 (International Nickel Study Group,
to 74,400 t (table 10) and total plant production was 65,200 t, a 2020b, p. B–13).
5% decrease from that in 2017 (table 12). Because Votorantim According to INSG data (International Nickel Study
S.A.’s nickel-cobalt laterite mining operation in Niquelandia, Group, 2020b, p. A–6, B–14—B–15), China was the world’s
Goias State, and refined nickel and cobalt production at Sao leading consumer of nickel. Consumption was 1.20 Mt of
Miguel Paulista, Sao Paulo State, remained on care-and- primary nickel, a slight increase compared with that in 2017,
maintenance status in 2018, all plant production was in the form accounting for 52% of world consumption in 2018. China’s
of ferronickel. Ferronickel was produced at Anglo American imports of unwrought, unalloyed nickel (Harmonized Schedule
plc’s Barro Alto and Codemin operations in Goias State and number 7502.10) were 212,000 t, a decrease of 10% compared
Vale S.A.’s Onça Puma operation in Para State (Anglo American with those in 2017. Imports from Russia accounted for 39%
plc, 2015; Vale S.A., 2019, p. 52). of China’s imports of unwrought, unalloyed nickel; Australia,
Vale’s Onça Puma mining operation remained idled in 2018. 33%; and Canada, 11%. Ferronickel imports (gross weight),
In 2017, a Federal court ordered mining operations stopped which likely included NPI and which had increased in each of
until reparations were made to the indigenous community the previous 4 years, decreased by 32%. Indonesia accounted for
after determining that the company was responsible for metal 64% of China’s ferronickel imports.
contamination of the Catete River near the operation. Vale Finland.—Terrafame Ltd. [Finnish Minerals Group Ltd.
appealed the ruling, asserting that the metals were naturally (formerly Terrafame Group Ltd., Government of Finland),
occurring and that there was no evidence of harm to human Trafigura Ventures V B.V., Galena Private Equity Resources
health. Operations at the smelter apparently were unaffected Investment 2 L.P., Galena Private Equity Resources Investment
by the court order as Vale reported ferronickel production of 3 L.P. funds, and Sampo plc] stabilized operations at the
22,900 t in 2018, a 7% decrease compared with that in 2017 polymetallic Sotkamo Mine and bioheap-leaching operation
(Vale S.A., 2019, p. 52–54, 157). in central Finland. The operation produced 27,377 t of nickel
Canada.—Globally, Canada ranked fifth in nickel mine in MSP, which was close to the initial design capacity of
production and fourth in plant production. Mine production 30,000 t/yr. More than one-half of the production was sold
was 175,761 t, a 15% decrease compared with 206,354 t for the manufacture of battery materials through an offtake
(revised) in 2017 (table 10). Plant production decreased by agreement with Trafigura. In October, the company approved
14% to 133,200 t (table 12). Four Provinces had active nickel plans to construct a plant to produce separate nickel and cobalt
mines in 2018—Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, sulfates for use in the manufacture of battery cathode precursors.
Ontario, and Quebec. The company continued development of detailed engineering
Owing to increased capital costs associated with increasingly designs and nearly completed earthwork construction by
stringent sulfur dioxide emissions standards, Vale Canada Ltd. yearend 2018 (Terrafame Ltd., 2019, p. 3, 10–11, 14–15, 68).
permanently ended smelting and refining operations when PJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel’s (Nornickel’s) Harjavalta
it shut down the second furnace at its Thompson, Manitoba, refinery used sulfuric-acid leaching to produce nickel metal
refinery. The company was expected to continue to produce in the form of briquets, cathodes, nickel salts, and powder.
concentrate from sulfide ores extracted from the Birchtree Mine Harjavalta’s production of nickel was 60,765 t, a slight increase
and the Thompson Mine, which would be shipped to Sudbury compared with that in 2017. Of that total, 50% of the nickel
for processing (Vale S.A., 2019, p. 50). was produced in briquets, 27% in cathode, 17% in nickel salts,
China.—China was the leading producer of primary nickel and 6% in powder. Nornickel continued to reduce processing
but ranked seventh in mine production (tables 10, 12) and relied of third-party feed material and, in 2018, 98% of the feed was
on large quantities of imported nickel ore, concentrate, and supplied by its mines in Russia. In October, Nornickel and
intermediate products such as matte, nickel-cobalt hydroxide BASF SE finalized an agreement under which Norilsk would
(often called mixed hydroxide product or MHP), and nickel- supply cobalt and nickel from Harjavalta to BASF for the
cobalt sulfide (often called mixed sulfide product or MSP) to production of lithium-ion battery cathode materials at a plant to
supply its primary production. According to INSG data, most be built adjacent to the Harjavalta refinery (PJSC MMC Norilsk
of China’s nickel mines were sulfide mines, with reserve grades Nickel, 2019, p. 86–87, 92, 275).
typically averaging less than 1% nickel (International Nickel Indonesia.—In 2018, Indonesia again became the leading
Study Group, 2020a, p. B–23—B–29). global producer of mined nickel. The country’s production

51.4 [ADVANCE RELEASE] U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2018

had been reduced since 2014 owing to its enforcement of a to between 50 and 100 hectares depending on mine capacity.
ban on direct shipping ore which was intended to stimulate Operations with processing plants would be allowed a maximum
development of domestic processing facilities. Mine production of 162 hectares (Serapio and dela Cruz, 2018).
in 2018 was 606,000 t, a 71% increase compared with that Because of a shortage of processing facilities, the country
in 2017 (table 10), but still less than the 834,000 t produced exported most of its production as direct shipping ore. However,
in 2013. Increased production was primarily a result of the two companies—Coral Bay Nickel Corp. (a joint venture among
development and commissioning of NPI smelters in the country Sumitomo, Mitsui & Co., Ltd., Sojitz Corp., and Rio Tuba
and the easing of export restrictions on unprocessed ore Nickel Mining Corp., listed in order of share) and Taganito
beginning in January 2017. To be eligible for a permit to export HPAL Nickel Corp. (Sumitomo, Mitsui, and Nickel Asia Corp.,
unprocessed ore, a company had to demonstrate that 30% of its listed in order of share)—operated HPAL plants that produced
nickel mine production was used as feed at its own processing MSP that was shipped to Japan for refining (table 11).
plant in Indonesia and that any ore to be exported had a nickel Russia.—Russia ranked third in nickel mine and primary
content of 1.7% or less (Home, 2017). production in 2018. Mine production was 272,000 t, a 3%
Primary production was 98,200 t, a slight increase compared decrease compared with 266,000 t (revised) in 2017 (table 10).
with that in 2017 (table 12). Perusahaan Perseroan (Persero) PT Ufaleynikel’s (Koks Industrial Metallurgical Holding Co.)
Aneka Tambang Tbk (Antam) produced 24,868 t of ferronickel. mines in the Sverlosvskaya Oblast halted production in 2017, so
The balance of primary production was from NPI smelters. PT the country’s mine production was primarily from Nornickel’s
Vale Indonesia Tbk’s smelter produced matte that was exported sulfide mines in the Kola Peninsula and the Taymyr Peninsula.
primarily to Japan for further refining (table 11). A number Nornickel’s primary production was 158,005 t of carbonyl and
of companies were exploring the possibility of building high- electrolytic nickel, essentially unchanged compared with that
pressure acid-leaching (HPAL) plants to produce nickel-cobalt in 2017. In 2018, Nornickel continued to implement upgrades
intermediates and (or) battery-grade nickel and cobalt salts to improve ore throughput and nickel recovery at the Polar
from laterite ores. PT Halmahera Persada Lygend’s project Division’s Norilsk and Talnakh concentrators and to increase
on Obi Island began construction in early 2018. The project tankhouse capacity at the Kola Division’s Severonickel plant
was expected to produce 240,000 t/yr (gross weight) of MHP, with the goal of increasing refined nickel capacity from
equivalent to approximately 37,000 t/yr of nickel and 5,000 t/yr 120,000 t/yr to 145,000 t/yr. Nornickel also was implementing
of cobalt. Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., Ltd. (Japan) and Vale chlorine-leaching to attain higher purity electrolytic nickel
were working on a feasibility study to build an HPAL plant in (PJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel, 2019, p. 33–35).
southeast Sulawesi with a capacity to produce 40,000 t/yr of Turkey.—Meta Nikel Kobalt Madencilik Sanayi ve Ticaret
MSP. Other projects were reportedly being evaluated in central A.Ş. (Vestel Elektronik Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş. and Zorlu
Sulawesi and Weda Bay (Ferro-alloys.com, 2018; Shah, 2018; Holding A.Ş.) continued to ramp up production, optimize
Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., Ltd., 2019, p. 46). operations, and increase capacity at its mine and processing
Japan.—Japan ranked second in terms of primary nickel plant in Gordes, Manisa Province. The operation used HPAL
production but all feed material was imported owing to a lack to produce MHP from laterite ores. In 2018, the operation
of nickel mines. Primary production in 2018 was essentially produced 5,001 t of nickel in MHP, a 25% increase compared
unchanged at 187,000 t compared with that in 2017 (table 12). with that in 2017 (table 11). In February, Zorlu Holding signed
Japan produced 68,200 t of ferronickel, 57,517 t of metal, an agreement with GSR Capital (China). GSR Capital would
45,438 t of oxide sinter, and 15,624 t of nickel chemicals. contribute $4.5 billion to build fully integrated lithium-ion
New Caledonia.—New Caledonia ranked fourth in nickel battery operations in the country in exchange for 50% interest
mine production and sixth in primary production. Mine in Meta Nikel Kobalt and Vestel. According to the agreement,
production was 216,225 t, essentially unchanged compared with Meta Nikel Kobalt would quadruple existing MHP capacity to
that in 2017 (table 10). Total primary production was 107,914 t, 40,000 t/yr, establish a sulfuric acid production plant at Gordes,
an increase of 4% compared with that in 2017, of which 82,114 t and construct a plant to produce battery-grade nickel sulfate and
was in the form of ferronickel and 25,800 t was nickel oxide cobalt sulfate at the company’s site in Eskişehir. Vestel would
sinter (table 12). New Caledonia also produced MHP, which was construct a 25-gigawatthour-per-year plant to manufacture
exported for further processing (table 11). batteries for the electric vehicle and stationary energy storage
Philippines.—The Philippines ranked second in mine markets using materials produced by Meta Nikel Kobalt
production, with 344,915 t, a slight increase compared with (Zorlu Holding A.Ş., 2018, 2019, p. 152–153).
that in 2017 (table 10). Operations at 10 mines remained idled
throughout 2018 owing to the Department of Environment and Outlook
Natural Resources’ ongoing audit to determine the adequacy of
From 2008 to 2018, global nickel consumption had a
each operation’s environmental protection measures (Mines and
compound annual growth rate of 6% (International Nickel Study
Geosciences Bureau, 2019).
Group, 2020b, p. A–1). Stainless steel is expected to continue
In 2018, the Government drafted rules limiting the area that
to be the leading end use of primary nickel. World stainless
an operation could actively mine at any given time. The intent
melt shop production (gross weight) has had a long-term
of the new regulations was to compel mining companies to
compound annual growth rate of 6%, climbing from 1 Mt in
continuously reclaim and reforest previously mined areas.
1950 to 50.7 Mt in 2018. Chromium-nickel grades (300 series)
Mining operations without processing plants would be limited

nickel—2018 [ADVANCE RELEASE] 51.5

constitute more than 50% of stainless-steel production Department of Industry, Innovation, and Science [Australia], 2018, Resources
(International Stainless Steel Forum, 2020, p. 3, 7, 14). and energy quarterly—December 2018: Canberra, Australian Capital
Territory, Australia, Department of Industry, Innovation, and Science,
Increased demand for more-fuel-efficient engines is 128 p. (Accessed February 23, 2021, at https://publications.industry.gov.
expected to increase demand for nickel in the transportation au/publications/resourcesandenergyquarterlydecember2018/documents/
manufacturing sector. In the aerospace market, the use of Resources-and-Energy-Quarterly-December-2018.pdf.)
nickel alloys allows for more-fuel-efficient jet aircraft engines Ferro-alloys.com, 2018, Ningbo Lygend will invest 6 billion yuan to build
smelting plant in Obi Island in Indonesia: Ferro-alloys.com, November 26.
by reducing weight while allowing for more thrust and higher (Accessed February 26, 2021, at http://www.ferro-alloys.com/en/News/
operating temperatures. In the automotive sector, austenitic Details/264637.)
stainless steels have been shown to reduce the weight of Haegel, Eduard, 2018a, Nickel West—Energizing our future: Battery Materials
individual frame components by 20% compared with carbon Conference, Shanghai, China, presentation, April 18, 17 p. (Accessed
February 23, 2021, at https://www.bhp.com/-/media/documents/media/
steels, leading to improved fuel efficiency (Nickel Institute, reports-and-presentations/2018/180418_ehaegel_shanghaiconference_final.
2006, p. 13; 2008, p. 6). pdf?.)
The electric power industry is expected to remain an Haegel, Eduard, 2018b, Nickel West—Think big a view to the future: Diggers
important consumer of austenitic stainless steel and various and Dealers Mining Forum, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, Australia,
August 6, 17 p. (Accessed February 23, 2021, at https://www.bhp.com/-/
nickel-base superalloys, for both new construction and media/documents/media/reports-and-presentations/2018/20180608eduard-
renovation. Global demand for electricity continues to increase haegeldd2018final-ppt.pdf?la=en.)
and is accelerating as the population of the world increases. Home, Andy, 2017, Indonesia rocks the nickel market (again): Reuters,
Even the most conservative projections of the emerging January 13. (Accessed August 17, 2020, at https://www.reuters.com/article/
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demand for nickel-containing batteries in stationary energy idUSKBN14Y00Z.)
storage and electric vehicles anticipate a significant disruption Horsehead Holding Corp., 2015, Form 10–K—2015: U.S. Securities and
to nickel supply in coming years. Wood Mackenzie Ltd. (2017) Exchange Commission, 76 p. plus exhibits. (Accessed August 3, 2020, at
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more than fivefold by 2025 to 275,000 t. Tesla, Inc., for example, International Nickel Study Group, 2020a, World directory of nickel production:
which primarily manufactures high-nickel-content batteries, Lisbon, Portugal, International Nickel Study Group, 5 sections (A–E).
has deployed several utility-scale energy storage systems in International Nickel Study Group, 2020b, World nickel statistics—Yearbook:
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4 sections (A–D).
of electric vehicle adoption has been accelerating owing to International Stainless Steel Forum, 2020, Stainless steel in figures 2020:
increased regulation of vehicle emissions. Nornickel estimated Brussels, Belgium, International Stainless Steel Forum, 22 p. (Accessed
that electric vehicles use 30 to 110 kilograms of nickel, more February 12, 2021, at https://www.worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-
than twice as much nickel as hybrid vehicles, and 10 to 30 times files/PDF/ISSF_Stainless_Steel_in_Figures_2020_English_public_version.
pdf.)
more than diesel- and gasoline-powered vehicles (PJSC MMC London Metal Exchange Ltd., 2017, Nickel stocks: London, United Kingdom,
Norilsk Nickel, 2018, p. 33). Nickel sulfate, the primary nickel- London Metal Exchange Ltd., December 29.
containing material used in the production of cathode precursors, London Metal Exchange Ltd., 2018, Nickel stocks: London, United Kingdom,
is typically produced from high-purity metal, preferably in the London Metal Exchange Ltd., December 31.
London Metal Exchange Ltd., [undated], Physical contract specifications—LME
form of briquets, pellets, or powder (Wood Mackenzie Ltd., nickel: London, United Kingdom, London Metal Exchange Ltd. (Accessed
2017). Most primary nickel production growth in recent years February 25, 2021, at https://www.lme.com/en-GB/Metals/Non-ferrous/
has been in ferronickel and NPI, which are typically not suitable Nickel/Physical.)
for battery production. Conversely, production of nickel metal Lundin Mining Corp., 2019a, Annual information form for the year ended
December 31, 2018: Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Lundin Mining Corp.,
has been decreasing since 2015 (table 12). March 29, 97 p. (Accessed February 16, 2021, at https://www.lundinmining.
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References Cited Lundin Mining Corp., 2019b, Management’s discussion and analysis for
the year ended December 31, 2018: Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Lundin
Allegheny Technologies Inc., 2019, Form 10–K: U.S. Securities and Mining Corp., February 14, 51 p. (Accessed February 16, 2021, at
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at https://otp.tools.investis.com/clients/us/ati1/SEC/sec-show.aspx?FilingId=1 ye.pdf.)
3261859&Cik=0001018963&Type=PDF&hasPdf=1.) Mayyas, Ahmad, Steward, Darlene, and Mann, Maggie, 2018, Impact of Li-ion
American Iron and Steel Institute, 2018, Quarterly production of stainless and battery recycling on the supply chain: Las Vegas, NV, Cobalt Institute
heat resisting raw steel (AIS 104) —Fourth quarter [2017]: Washington, DC, Conference, National Renewable Energy Laboratory conference presentation,
American Iron and Steel Institute, 2 p. NREL/PR-6A20-71610, May, 31 p. (Accessed February 19, 2021, at
American Iron and Steel Institute, 2019, Quarterly production of stainless and https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy20osti/71610.pdf.)
heat resisting raw steel (AIS 104)—Fourth quarter [2018]: Washington, DC, Mines and Geosciences Bureau [Philippines], 2019, Metal output up by
American Iron and Steel Institute, 2 p. 10.42% in 2018: Quezon City, Philippines, Mines and Geosciences Bureau,
Anglo American plc, 2015, Mine profile—Barro Alto: London, United February 28, 6 p. (Accessed February 25, 2021, at https://mgb.gov.ph/
Kingdom, Anglo American plc, October 6. (Accessed February 24, 2021, at attachments/article/689/YearEndReview2018Asof02282019.pdf.)
http://www.angloamerican.com/media/our-stories/mine-profile-barro-alto.) Nickel Institute, 2006, Farther, faster, and safer—Making air travel cleaner,
Ayre, James, 2017, Tesla batteries 101—Production capacity, uses, chemistry, quieter, and more fuel efficient: Nickel, v. 21, no. 3, May, p. 12–13.
& future plans: CleanTechnia, December 2. (Accessed August 26, 2020, Nickel Institute, 2008, Stainless steel car frames—The next generation:
at https://cleantechnica.com/2017/12/02/tesla-batteries-101-production- Nickel, v. 24, no. 1, December, p. 6–7. (Accessed December 18, 2020,
capacity-uses-chemistry-future-plans/.) at https://issuu.com/sdunn/docs/nickel_magazine_volume_24_1_
BHP Billiton Ltd., 2018, Annual report 2018: Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, december_2008.)
BHP Billiton Ltd., 296 p. (Accessed February 23, 2021, at https://www.bhp. Nickel Institute, 2016, The life of Ni: Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Nickel Institute,
com/-/media/documents/investors/annual-reports/2018/bhpannualreport2018. 18 p. (Accessed February 12, 2021, at https://www.nickelinstitute.org/
pdf.) media/1190/thelifeofni.pdf.)

51.6 [ADVANCE RELEASE] U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2018

Nickel Institute, 2018, Nickel energizing batteries: Toronto, Ontario, Canada, U.S. Geological Survey, 2019, Mineral commodity summaries 2019:
Nickel Institute. (Accessed February 19, 2021, at https://www.nickelinstitute. U.S. Geological Survey, 200 p.
org/media/2318/nickel_battery_infographic-finalen2.pdf.) U.S. Mint, [undated]a, Circulating coin production: Washington, DC, U.S. Mint.
Nickel Institute, [undated], Nickel in batteries: Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Nickel (Accessed February 12, 2021, via https://www.usmint.gov/about/production-
Institute. (Accessed February 19, 2021, at https://www.nickelinstitute.org/ sales-figures/circulating-coins-production.)
about-nickel/nickel-in-batteries.) U.S. Mint, [undated]b, Coin specifications: Washington, DC, U.S. Mint.
PJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel, 2018, Annual report 2017—Investing in sustainable (Accessed February 12, 2021, at https://www.usmint.gov/learn/coin-and-
development: Moscow, Russia, PJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel, 295 p. (Accessed medal-programs/coin-specifications.)
September 26, 2018, at https://www.nornickel.com/upload/iblock/f36/ Vale S.A., 2019, Form 20–F—2018: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission,
Annual_Report_2017.pdf.) 195 p. plus financial statements. (Accessed February 24, 2021, via
PJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel, 2019, Annual report 2018—Advancing on http://www.vale.com/EN/investors/information-market/annual-reports/20f/
sustainable growth: Moscow, Russia, PJSC MMC Norilsk Nickel, 280 p. Pages/default.aspx.)
(Accessed February 26, 2021, at https://www.nornickel.com/upload/ Vale S.A., [undated], Electric vehicle revolution and implications for the
iblock/431/Annual_Report_2018.pdf.) nickel market: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Vale S.A. presentation. (Accessed
PolyMet Mining Corp., 2019, Annual information form for the year ended May 13, 2022, at http://www.fullertreacymoney.com/system/data/
December 31, 2018 of PolyMet Mining Corp.: Toronto, Ontario, Canada, files/PDFs/2017/October/20th/Vale_EV%20and%20Nickel%20-%20
PolyMet Mining Corp., March 28, 56 p. (Accessed February 16, 2021, at Conference%20Oct%202017v3.pdf.)
https://polymetmining.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/SEDAR1-2018-12- Wood Mackenzie Ltd., 2017, A demanding supply problem for nickel:
31-AIF-FINAL.pdf.) Edinburgh, United Kingdom, Wood Mackenzie Ltd., November. (Accessed
Serapio, Manolo, Jr., and dela Cruz, Eduardo, 2018, Exclusive—After August 26, 2020, via https://www.woodmac.com/news/editorial/how-will-
crackdown, Philippines plans fresh mining curbs: Reuters, April 23. electric-vehicles-affect-nickel/.)
(Accessed February 25, 2021, at https://www.reuters.com/article/us- Zorlu Holding A.Ş., 2018, Zorlu Holding signed a partnership deal with
philippines-mining-exclusive/exclusive-after-crackdown-philippines-plans- GSR Capital: Istanbul, Turkey, Zorlu Holding A.Ş., February. (Accessed
fresh-mining-curbs-idUSKBN1HU0KI.) February 26, 2021, via http://en.zorlu.com.tr/en/media-center/latest-
Shah, Nikhil, 2018, Indonesia sets sights on increased nickel capacity to meet news/2018/.)
battery sector demand: London, United Kingdom, CRU Group, October 22. Zorlu Holding A.Ş., 2019, 2018 annual report: Istanbul, Turkey, Zorlu Holding
(Accessed February 26, 2021, at https://www.crugroup.com/knowledge-and- A.Ş., 280 p. (Accessed February 26, 2021, at https://www.zorlu.com.tr/assets/
insights/insights/2018/indonesia-sets-sights-on-increased-nickel-capacity-to- files/faaliyet-raporlari/faaliyet-raporu-en-2018.pdf.)
meet-battery-sector-demand/.)
Sibanye Gold Ltd., 2017, Sibanye successfully concludes the acquisition GENERAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION
of Stillwater: Westonaria, South Africa, Sibanye Gold Ltd. press release,
May 4. (Accessed February 16, 2021, at https://thevault.exchange/?get_ U.S. Geological Survey Publications
group_doc=245/1493909905-sgl-sibanye-successfully-concludes-stillwater-
acquisition-04may2017.pdf.)
Stephan, B.J., 2013, Refining refiners spent catalysts: Craven Arms, United
Historical Statistics for Mineral and Material Commodities in
Kingdom, Digitalrefining.com, Crambeth Allen Publishing Ltd., March, the United States. Data Series 140.
4 p. (Accessed August 3, 2020, via https://www.digitalrefining.com/ Nickel. Ch. in Mineral Commodity Summaries, annual.
article/1000782/refining-refiners-spent-catalysts#.XyiIHp5KhPY.) Nickel. Ch. in United States Mineral Resources, Professional
Stillwater Mining Co., 2017, Form 10–K—2016: U.S. Securities and Exchange
Commission, 108 p. (Accessed February 16, 2021, at https://www.sec.gov/
Paper 820, 1973.
Archives/edgar/data/931948/000093194817000012/swc-12312016x10k.htm.) Nickel. International Strategic Minerals Inventory Summary
Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., Ltd., 2019, Integrated report 2019: Tokyo, Japan, Report, Circular 930–D, 1985.
Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., Ltd., 258 p. (Accessed February 26, 2021, at Nickel. Mineral Industry Surveys, monthly.
https://www.smm.co.jp/E/ir/library/annual/2019/pdf/2019_All_EN.pdf.)
Terrafame Ltd., 2019, Annual and responsibility report 2018: Tuhkakyla,
Nickel (Ni). Ch. in Metal Prices in the United States Through
Finland, Terrafame Ltd., 136 p. (Accessed February 26, 2021, at 2010, Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5188, 2013.
https://www.terrafame.com/media/vuosikertomukset/terrafame-annual-
report-2018.pdf.) Other
Trump, D.J., 2018, Adjusting imports of steel into the United States—
Proclamation 9705 of March 8, 2018: Federal Register, v. 83, International Nickel Study Group (Lisbon, Portugal).
no. 51, March 15, p. 11625–11630. (Accessed February 24, 2021, at
Nickel. Ch. in Mineral Facts and Problems, U.S. Bureau of
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2018-03-15/pdf/2018-05478.pdf.)
U.S. Department of Commerce, 2018, U.S. Department of Commerce Mines Bulletin 675, 1985.
announces steel and aluminum tariff exclusion process: Washington, DC, U.S. Nickel Institute (Toronto).
Department of Commerce press release, March 18. (Accessed May 13, 2022, Roskill Information Services Ltd.
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commerce-announces-steel-and-aluminum-tariff-exclusion.)

nickel—2018 [ADVANCE RELEASE] 51.7

 TABLE 1
SALIENT NICKEL STATISTICS1

(Metric tons, nickel content, unless otherwise specified)

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

United States:
Production, concentrate 4,300 27,200 24,100 22,100 17,600
Secondary recovery from purchased scrap:
r r r r
From ferrous scrap 118,000 110,000 125,000 127,000 117,000
r r r
From nonferrous scrap 9,010 5,590 5,790 5,740 5,690
Shipments of purchased scrap2 144,000 r
141,000 r
162,000 r
146,000 r
145,000
Exports:
Ores and concentrates3 3,320 25,400 22,400 20,000 18,000
r
Primary 10,400 9,600 10,300 11,000 9,780
Secondary 56,300 51,900 63,700 51,500 67,200
Imports for consumption:
Ores and concentrates3 92 24 (4) 64 3
Primary 156,000 130,000 111,000 150,000 144,000
Secondary 39,000 27,100 32,300 38,100 45,100
Consumption:
Reported:
r r r r
Primary 112,000 107,000 97,800 105,000 107,000
r r r r
Secondary, purchased scrap 127,000 116,000 131,000 133,000 123,000
r r r r
Total 239,000 223,000 229,000 238,000 230,000
Apparent, primary 149,000 118,000 104,000 140,000 136,000
r r r r
Apparent primary plus reported secondary 276,000 234,000 235,000 273,000 259,000
Stocks, yearend:
London Metal Exchange Ltd., U.S. warehouses 1,560 4,210 5,230 3,780 2,270
r r
Consumer, primary 10,800 10,600 6,370 6,550 6,780
r
Consumer, secondary 12,100 8,570 8,690 8,040 9,570
r r
Total 24,500 23,400 20,300 18,400 18,600
Price, cash, London Metal Exchange:
Average annual dollars per metric ton 16,865 11,831 9,594 10,403 13,114
Average annual dollars per pound 7.650 5.367 4.352 4.719 5.948
Price, Type 304 stainless-steel scrap, gross weight:5
Average annual dollars per metric ton 1,714 1,240 1,075 1,304 1,403
Average annual dollars per long ton 1,742 1,260 1,092 1,325 1,426
World, mine production 2,130,000 r 2,110,000 r 2,010,000 r 2,190,000 r 2,400,000
r
Revised.
1
Table includes data available through May 13, 2021. Data are rounded to no more than three significant digits, except prices; may not add to totals shown.
2
Defined as scrap receipts less shipments by consumers plus exports minus imports plus adjustments for consumer stock changes.
3
Nickel ores and concentrates (Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States code 2604.00.0040). Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
4
Less than ½ unit.
5
Derived from the monthly averages of the consumer buying price in Pittsburgh, PA, as published in American Metal Market. The price represents Type 304
solids and clips containing 18% to 20% chromium and 8% to 12% nickel.

51.8 [ADVANCE RELEASE] U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2018

 TABLE 2
NICKEL RECOVERED FROM PURCHASED SCRAP
IN THE UNITED STATES,
BY KIND OF SCRAP AND FORM OF RECOVERY1

(Metric tons, nickel content)

2017 2018
Kind of scrap:
Aluminum-base 1,840 1,900
Copper-base 1,270 1,260
Ferrous-base2 127,000 r
117,000
r
Nickel-base 2,630 2,530
r
Total 133,000 123,000
Form of recovery:
Aluminum-base alloys 1,840 1,900
Copper-base alloys 2,080 r 2,100
Ferrous-base alloys 128,000 r 118,000
Nickel-base alloys 1,020 902
Total 133,000 r 123,000
r
Revised.
1
Table includes data available through May 13, 2021. Data are rounded
to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.
2
Primarily stainless- and alloy steel scrap consumed at steel mills and
foundries.

TABLE 3
REPORTED U.S. CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL, BY FORM1

(Metric tons, nickel content)

Form 2017 2018

Primary:
Metal 87,500 r 89,600
Ferronickel 13,600 r 13,500
Oxide and oxide sinter2 190 r 202
Chemicals W W
Other3 3,310 r 3,440
Total 105,000 r 107,000
4
Secondary, scrap 133,000 r 123,000
Grand total 238,000 r 230,000
r
Revised. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data;
included with “Other.”
1
Table includes data available through May 13, 2021. Data are rounded
to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.
2
Includes chemical-grade oxide.
3
Includes base master alloys and withheld data not included elsewhere.
4
Based on gross weight of purchased scrap consumed and estimated
average nickel content.

nickel—2018 [ADVANCE RELEASE] 51.9

 TABLE 4
REPORTED U.S. CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL, BY USE1

(Metric tons, nickel content)

2018 Grand
Oxide and Other Total Secondary Grand total in
Use Metal Ferronickel oxide sinter Chemicals forms primary (scrap) total 2017
Chemicals and chemical uses W -- -- W -- W -- W W
Electroplating, sales to platers 7,240 -- -- W -- 7,240 -- 7,240 7,350
r
Other nickel and nickel alloys 14,000 W W -- 84 14,100 2,640 16,700 16,500
Steel:
r
Stainless and heat resistant 29,000 13,500 W -- 131 42,600 117,000 159,000 169,000
Alloys, excludes stainless 8,480 32 -- -- W 8,510 W 8,510 6,810
r
Superalloys 27,300 W -- -- W 27,300 W 27,300 27,300
Other2 3,620 W 202 W 2,500 7,040 3 3,840 10,900 10,600 r

Total 89,600 13,500 202 W 2,720 107,000 3 123,000 230,000 238,000 r

r
Revised. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. -- Zero.
1
Table includes data available through May 13, 2021. Data are rounded to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.
2
Includes batteries, catalysts, ceramics, coinage, other alloys containing nickel, and withheld data.
3
Includes withheld data not included elsewhere.

TABLE 5
NICKEL IN CONSUMER STOCKS IN THE UNITED STATES,
BY FORM, DECEMBER 311

(Metric tons, nickel content)

Form 2017 2018

Primary:
Metal 5,860 6,010
Ferronickel W W
Oxide and oxide sinter 42 43
Chemicals W W
Other 645 733
Total 6,550 r 6,780
Secondary, scrap 8,040 r 9,570
Grand total 14,600 r 16,300
r
Revised. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data;
included with “Other.”
1
Table includes data available through May 13, 2021. Data are rounded to
no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.

51.10 [ADVANCE RELEASE] U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2018

 TABLE 6
U.S. EXPORTS OF NICKEL PRODUCTS, BY CLASS1

2017 2018
Quantity Quantity
(metric tons, Value (metric tons, Value
Class nickel content) (thousands) nickel content) (thousands)
Primary:
Unwrought:
r r
Cathodes, pellets, briquets, shot 1,220 $15,200 1,460 $21,300
Ferronickel 15 435 14 437
Powder and flakes 1,460 52,500 1,570 62,100
Metallurgical-grade oxide2 3,170 22,700 956 16,000
Chemicals:
Catalysts3 4,050 349,000 4,700 362,000
Salts4 1,040 13,000 1,090 17,300
Total 11,000 453,000 9,780 479,000
Secondary:5
Stainless-steel scrap 36,500 r 424,000 r 49,000 323,000
r
Waste and scrap 15,000 121,000 r 18,300 157,000
Total 51,500 544,000 r 67,200 481,000
Grand total 62,400 r 997,000 r 77,000 960,000
Wrought, not alloyed:
Bars, rods, profiles, wire 609 14,100 922 26,200
Sheets, strip, foil 300 8,860 392 14,200
Tubes and pipes 54 1,280 37 1,850
Total 963 24,300 1,350 42,300
Alloyed, gross weight:
Unwrought alloyed ingot 5,550 157,000 5,570 193,000
Bars, rods, profiles, wire 23,300 688,000 27,100 853,000
Sheets, strip, foil 12,800 330,000 15,400 413,000
Tubes and pipes 1,720 r 130,000 2,750 247,000
Other alloyed articles 2,200 339,000 2,730 604,000
Total 45,600 1,640,000 53,500 2,310,000
r
Revised.
1
Table includes data available through May 13, 2021. Data are rounded to no more than three significant digits;
may not add to totals shown.
2
Nickel content is assumed to be 77%.
3
Typical catalyst is assumed to have a nickel content of 22%.
4
Nickel contents are as follows: chemical-grade oxide, sesquioxide, and hydroxide, 65%; chlorides, 25%;
sulfates, 22%; and other salts, assumed to be 22%.
5
Waste and scrap content is assumed to be 50% nickel; stainless-steel scrap, 7.5%.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

nickel—2018 [ADVANCE RELEASE] 51.11

 TABLE 7
U.S. EXPORTS OF NICKEL PRODUCTS, BY COUNTRY OR LOCALITY1

(Metric tons, nickel content)2

2018
Cathodes,
pellets, and Powder Wrought
briquets and Metallurgical- Waste Stainless- Total Total nickel
Country or locality3 (unwrought) flakes Ferronickel grade oxide4 and scrap steel scrap Chemicals in 2018 in 2017 in 20185
Australia 21 7 -- -- 718 3 16 766 285 6
Austria -- -- -- -- -- 143 6 149 124 --
Bangladesh -- (6) -- -- -- 151 -- 151 24 --
Belgium 10 10 -- 4 48 560 432 1,060 262 5
Brazil 83 55 -- (6) -- 502 86 727 182 3
r
Canada 137 189 -- 566 14,200 19,600 1,180 35,900 24,500 38
China 27 202 -- 2 -- 3,290 647 4,160 7,560 114
Colombia 18 11 -- 1 -- -- 98 128 50 1
Denmark -- 18 -- -- -- 3 159 179 112 (6)
Finland -- -- -- -- -- 71 47 118 131 --
France (6) 4 -- 3 -- 2 113 122 269 16
Germany (6) 321 -- 5 9 64 93 492 462 57
Hong Kong -- 3 -- (6) 52 239 6 300 1,270 15
r
India (6) 21 10 (6) 550 6,400 470 7,450 4,320 23
Indonesia -- 16 -- 49 -- 324 9 398 290 --
Japan 133 109 -- 4 838 615 32 1,730 1,360 2
Korea, Republic of -- 84 (6) 2 33 603 168 890 882 78
Kuwait -- -- -- -- -- -- 259 259 671 --
Malaysia -- -- -- (6) -- 497 44 541 183 8
Mexico 930 57 3 13 14 3,180 82 4,280 2,640 813
r
Netherlands -- 7 -- (6) 290 286 245 828 678 2
Pakistan -- 2 -- -- -- 2,790 11 2,800 4,530 --
Saudi Arabia -- 4 -- -- -- -- 132 136 45 1
Serbia -- -- -- -- -- -- 148 148 (6) --
Singapore 1 199 (6) (6) 8 8 74 292 310 21
Spain -- 1 -- -- 86 25 1 113 58 (6)
Sweden -- 11 -- (6) 748 136 3 899 923 18
Taiwan 8 17 (6) -- 19 7,490 249 7,790 7,560 11
Thailand -- 90 (6) -- -- 211 90 392 127 7
United Kingdom 83 39 -- 278 517 88 16 1,020 1,010 44
Vietnam -- 5 -- -- -- 1,600 159 1,760 121 13
Other7 5 85 -- 29 84 123 709 1,030 1,510r
53
r
Total 1,460 1,570 14 956 18,300 49,000 5,790 77,000 62,400 1,350
r
Revised. -- Zero.
1
Table includes data available through May 13, 2021. Data are rounded to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.
2
The nickel contents are assumed to be as follows: metallurgical-grade oxide, 77%; waste and scrap, 50%; and stainless-steel scrap, 7.5%. The “Chemicals”
category contains the following: chemical-grade oxide, sesquioxide, and hydroxide, 65% nickel; chlorides, 25% nickel; and sulfates, 22% nickel. Other salts and
various catalysts are assumed to be 22% nickel.
3
Countries and (or) localities listed were the leading export recipients in 2018 in terms of quantity (nickel content).
4
Chemical-grade oxide is included in the “Chemicals” category.
5
Not included in “Total in 2018.”
6
Less than ½ unit.
7
Includes 75 countries and (or) localities with less than 100 metric tons each in 2018.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

51.12 [ADVANCE RELEASE] U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2018

 TABLE 8
U.S. IMPORTS FOR CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL PRODUCTS, BY CLASS1

2017 2018
Quantity Quantity
(metric tons, Value (metric tons, Value
Class nickel content) (thousands) nickel content) (thousands)
Primary:
Unwrought:
Cathodes, pellets, briquets, shot 118,000 $1,240,000 112,000 $1,490,000
Ferronickel 22,700 243,000 21,700 299,000
Powder and flakes 5,430 92,100 6,800 140,000
Metallurgical-grade oxide2 225 5,900 319 8,010
Chemicals:
Catalysts3 1,590 82,900 1,780 102,000
Salts4 1,660 24,100 1,280 22,100
Total 150,000 1,690,000 144,000 2,060,000
Secondary:5
Stainless-steel scrap 21,200 280,000 24,800 345,000
Waste and scrap 16,900 214,000 20,300 318,000
Total 38,100 494,000 45,100 663,000
Grand total 188,000 2,180,000 189,000 2,720,000
Wrought, not alloyed:
Bars, rods, profiles, wire 311 10,100 264 6,290
Sheets, strip, foil 562 11,200 508 10,700
Tubes and pipes 103 2,570 65 1,800
Total 977 23,800 837 18,800
Alloyed, gross weight:
Unwrought alloyed ingot 7,480 66,500 6,640 70,300
Bars, rods, profiles, wire 14,300 306,000 r 14,400 365,000
Sheets, strip, foil 3,980 78,800 4,340 91,000
Tubes and pipes 2,320 r 104,000 r 2,520 118,000
Other alloyed articles 4,150 232,000 6,420 309,000
Total 32,300 r 787,000 r 34,300 954,000
r
Revised.
1
Table includes data available through May 13, 2021. Data are rounded to no more than three significant digits;
may not add to totals shown.
2
Nickel content from Australia, 90%; elsewhere, 77%.
3
Typical catalyst is assumed to have a nickel content of 22%.
4
Nickel contents are as follows: chemical-grade oxide, sesquioxide, and hydroxide, 65%; chlorides, 25%;
sulfates, 22%; and other salts, assumed to be 22%. Excludes nickel carbonate.
5
Waste and scrap is assumed to have 50% nickel; stainless-steel scrap, 7.5%.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

nickel—2018 [ADVANCE RELEASE] 51.13

 TABLE 9
U.S. IMPORTS FOR CONSUMPTION OF NICKEL PRODUCTS, BY COUNTRY OR LOCALITY1

(Metric tons, nickel content)2

2018
Cathodes,
pellets, and Powder Wrought
briquets and Metallurgical- Waste Stainless- Total Total nickel
Country or locality3 (unwrought) flakes Ferronickel grade oxide and scrap steel scrap Chemicals in 2018 in 2017 in 20184
Australia 18,200 378 73 22 260 2 -- 19,000 9,160 (5)
Belgium -- 226 -- -- 22 2 347 596 431 --
Brazil 115 -- 6,800 -- 267 143 5 7,330 6,790 --
Canada 48,400 4,090 -- -- 4,680 9,560 155 66,900 72,700 1
r
China 300 125 450 252 1,310 8 106 2,550 2,220 31
Colombia -- -- 775 -- 12 29 -- 816 935 --
Denmark -- -- -- -- -- -- 155 155 311 3
Dominican Republic -- -- 5,640 -- -- 4 -- 5,640 4,220 --
Finland 10,300 529 -- -- 8 225 177 11,300 14,300 --
France -- 13 101 -- 1,070 4 361 1,550 1,400 160
Germany (5) 84 -- -- 1,090 1 324 1,500 1,840 478
Guatemala -- -- 3,110 -- -- 9 -- 3,120 5,510 --
India -- 17 -- -- 93 9 404 523 588 38
Indonesia -- -- -- -- 8 266 -- 274 11 --
Italy -- 1 26 -- 458 2 4 492 241 5
r
Japan 3,610 66 -- -- 1,150 60 337 5,220 5,360 10
Korea, Republic of -- (5) -- 9 318 5 32 365 357 (5)
Kuwait -- -- -- -- -- -- 108 108 -- --
Madagascar 1,860 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1,860 3,420 --
Malaysia 703 -- -- -- -- 15 -- 718 10 1
Mexico -- -- -- 18 1,720 10,600 1 12,300 10,800 1
Netherlands 112 -- -- -- 40 2,960 192 3,310 507 3
New Caledonia -- -- 3,720 -- -- -- -- 3,720 5,700 --
North Macedonia -- -- 892 -- -- -- -- 892 -- --
Norway 13,800 -- -- 16 10 -- -- 13,800 18,300 --
Philippines -- -- -- -- 17 -- 117 134 241 --
Poland -- -- -- -- 74 -- 30 103 83 --
Russia 9,280 53 -- -- 1,070 596 -- 11,000 12,700 --
Saudi Arabia -- -- -- -- 611 3 25 640 31 --
Singapore -- 1 -- -- 608 -- -- 609 455 --
South Africa 4,820 455 57 -- 196 -- 10 5,540 3,050 --
Spain -- 2 -- -- 407 2 -- 410 414 --
Switzerland -- 1 -- -- 110 (5) -- 111 224 (5)
Taiwan -- 1 -- -- 214 61 39 316 331 (5)
Turkey -- -- -- -- 236 -- -- 236 252 --
United Kingdom 461 746 31 3 3,930 16 126 5,320 4,270 60
Other6 91 8 -- -- 280 255 1 635 649 r
46
Total 112,000 6,800 21,700 319 20,300 24,800 3,050 189,000 188,000 837
r
Revised. -- Zero.
1
Table includes data available through May 13, 2021. Data are rounded to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.
2
The nickel contents are assumed to be as follows: metallurgical-grade oxide from Australia, 90%; elsewhere, 77%. The “Chemicals” category contains the following:
chemical-grade oxide, sesquioxide, and hydroxide, 65% nickel; chlorides, 25% nickel; sulfates, 22% nickel. Other salts and various catalysts are assumed to be 22%
nickel. Waste and scrap is assumed to be 50% nickel; stainless-steel scrap, 7.5% nickel.
3
Countries and (or) localities listed were the leading import sources in 2018 in terms of quantity (nickel content).
4
Not included in “Total in 2018.”
5
Less than ½ unit.
6
Includes 43 countries and (or) localities with less than 100 metric tons each in 2018.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

51.14 [ADVANCE RELEASE] U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2018

 TABLE 10
NICKEL: WORLD MINE PRODUCTION, BY COUNTRY OR LOCALITY1, 2

(Metric tons, nickel content)

Country or locality3 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

e r r
Albania, laterite ore 4,900 6,500 3,950 2,320 1,800
Australia, undifferentiated or other 266,181 225,227 203,135 178,853 170,312
Botswana, sulfide ore, matte produced 14,958 16,789 14,273 -- --
r
Brazil, undifferentiated or other 102,000 94,800 86,400 76,800 74,400
r r r
Burma, laterite ore 21,000 23,000 20,000 20,000 21,000
r r
Canada, sulfide ore, concentrate 218,233 225,351 230,210 206,354 175,761
r r, e e
China, undifferentiated or other 101,100 101,400 100,200 105,000 110,000
Colombia, laterite ore:4
Calculated 62,200 NA NA NA NA
Dry NA 40,513 41,082 45,510 47,700
Cuba, laterite ore 51,600 53,800 51,600 52,800 51,000
e e e e
Dominican Republic, laterite ore -- 4,000 19,900 28,300 34,700
Finland, undifferentiated or other 18,730 9,383 20,654 34,641 43,572
Greece, laterite ore 21,405 19,610 19,431 19,073 17,925
Guatemala, laterite ore 46,800 56,400 45,900 53,700 39,600
r r
Indonesia, laterite ore 177,100 129,600 204,000 355,000 606,000
Kosovo, laterite oree 6,720 7,420 4,270 7,120 6,550
Madagascar, laterite ore, nickel-cobalt sulfidee, 5 43,000 55,000 49,000 42,000 r
39,000
r e
Morocco, undifferentiated or other, nickel hydroxide 220 203 188 196 200
New Caledonia, laterite ore 175,174 193,199 204,207 215,382 216,225
Norway, undifferentiated or other 400 285 220 206 210
Papua New Guinea, laterite ore, nickel-cobalt hydroxide6 20,987 25,582 22,269 34,666 35,355
r r r r
Philippines, laterite ore 393,262 415,021 300,506 339,377 344,915
Russia:
Laterite ore 11,200 e 7,400 7,000 e 1,800 e --
Sulfide ore, concentratee 272,000 r 269,000 r 252,000 r 266,000 r 272,000
South Africa, sulfide ore, concentrate 54,956 56,689 48,994 48,383 43,236
Spain, sulfide ore, concentrate 8,631 7,213 -- -- --
Turkey, laterite ore 3,500 9,900 10,680 r 17,000 r 17,000
United States, sulfide ore, concentrate 4,300 27,200 24,100 22,100 17,600
Venezuela, laterite ore 5,000 4,800 -- -- --
Vietnam, sulfide ore, concentrate 6,854 8,607 4,272 -- --
Zimbabwe, sulfide ore, concentrate 16,633 16,109 17,743 16,617 17,844
Total 2,130,000 r 2,110,000 r 2,010,000 r 2,190,000 r 2,400,000
Of which:
Laterite ore 1,040,000 r 1,050,000 r 1,000,000 r 1,230,000 r 1,480,000
r r r
Sulfide ore 597,000 627,000 591,000 559,000 r 527,000
Undifferentiated or other 489,000 431,000 411,000 r 396,000 399,000
e
Estimated. rRevised. NA Not available. -- Zero.
1
Table includes data available through September 12, 2019. All data are reported unless otherwise noted. Totals, U.S. data, and estimated data are
rounded to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.
2
Insofar as possible, this table represents recoverable mine production of nickel. Where actual mine output is not available, reported data represent a
more highly processed form to provide an indication of the magnitude of mine output.
3
In addition to the countries and (or) localities listed, North Korea may have produced nickel, but available information was inadequate to make reliable
estimates of output.
4
Prior to 2013, mine production was as reported by the International Nickel Study Group. From 2015 onward, mine production data were calculated
using data from South 32 Company.
5
Often called mixed sulfide product or MSP.
6
Often called mixed hydroxide product or MHP.

nickel—2018 [ADVANCE RELEASE] 51.15

 TABLE 11
NICKEL: WORLD PRODUCTION OF INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS FOR EXPORT, BY COUNTRY OR LOCALITY1, 2

(Metric tons, nickel content)

Country or locality 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Matte:
Australia 61,541 44,268 38,247 36,812 13,600
Botswana 14,958 16,789 14,273 -- --
Canadae, 3 77,100 88,300 90,800 65,200 57,200
r r, e r, e r
Finland -- 1,700 15,000 25,000 31,000
4
Indonesia 78,726 81,177 77,581 76,807 74,806
New Caledonia 8,241 6,761 4,287 -- --
Russiae, 5 -- 812 16,900 42,700 43,900
South Africa 7,700 400 -- -- --
Zimbabwe6 4,513 r
4,284 r
5,346 r
4,705 r
5,187
r r r r
Total 253,000 245,000 262,000 251,000 226,000
Other:
Cuba:e
r
Ammoniacal liquor precipitate and unspecified 620 690 640 740 700
Nickel-cobalt sulfide7 36,700 36,700 34,800 35,200 34,800
New Caledonia, nickel-cobalt hydroxide8 12,464 9,686 7,269 6,525 6,723
8
Papua New Guinea, nickel-cobalt hydroxide 20,987 25,582 22,269 34,666 35,355
Philippines, nickel-cobalt sulfide7 50,647 51,733 48,371 50,553 48,633
Turkey, nickel-cobalt hydroxide8 -- -- 1,790 4,000 5,001
Total 121,000 124,000 115,000 132,000 131,000
Grand Total 374,000 r 369,000 r 377,000 r 383,000 r 357,000
e
Estimated. rRevised. -- Zero.
1
Table includes data available through September 13, 2019. All data are reported unless otherwise noted. Totals and estimated data are rounded to no
more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.
2
Data represent nickel content of matte and other intermediate materials produced.
3
Includes matte and oxide sinter used as refinery feed.
4
Represents the nickel output of the Soroako smelter. The Soroako matte was shipped to Japan for further processing.
5
Nornickel shipped matte to the Harjavalta refinery in Finland.
6
Zimplats matte shipped to the Impala refinery at Springs, South Africa.
7
Often called mixed sulfide product or MSP.
8
Often called mixed hydroxide product or MHP.

51.16 [ADVANCE RELEASE] U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2018

 TABLE 12
NICKEL: WORLD PRIMARY PRODUCTION, BY COUNTRY OR LOCALITY AND PRODUCT1, 2

(Metric tons, nickel content)

Country or locality3 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Australia:
r
Metal 129,862 132,074 117,920 108,500 113,500
4
Unspecified 7,901 20,904 2,600 -- --
r
Total 137,763 152,978 120,520 108,500 113,500
Austria, ferronickel 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
Brazil:
r
Ferronickel 34,501 54,700 68,600 68,500 65,200
r r
Metal 19,823 22,650 -- -- --
r r
Total 54,324 77,350 68,600 68,500 65,200
5 r, e r, e r r e
Burma, ferronickel 14,900 15,600 16,800 16,200 15,000
r
Canada, unspecified 149,486 149,716 158,299 154,080 133,200
China:6
Chemicals 20,000 18,891 29,100 39,900 45,200
Ferronickel, nickel pig iron7 471,500 385,035 374,745 411,462 476,040
e e
Metal 247,000 236,700 221,700 205,000 195,000
e e
Total 738,500 640,626 625,545 656,000 716,000
Colombia, ferronickel 41,221 36,671 37,092 40,600 43,100
Cuba, oxide sinter, including oxides8 13,252 14,667 15,006 15,751 r
16,000
Dominican Republic, ferronickel -- -- 9,913 15,632 19,214
Finland:
Chemicals 5,964 7,129 8,048 8,358 10,330
Metal 36,639 36,350 45,606 51,342 50,435
Total 42,603 43,479 53,654 59,700 60,765
France, unspecified9 8,404 6,533 4,639 2,329 3,667
Greece, ferronickel 18,481 17,113 17,071 16,781 15,720
Guatemala, ferronickel 5,040 10,826 8,688 12,416 14,688
Indonesia:
Ferronickel 16,851 17,211 20,293 21,762 24,868
Ferronickel, nickel pig iron7 -- 27,200 e
75,900 r, e
74,800 r, e
73,300 e

e e r, e e
Total 16,851 44,400 96,200 96,600 98,200
Japan:
Chemicals 5,673 10,045 11,153 16,773 15,624
Ferronickele 70,100 71,200 70,300 65,300 68,200
Metal 56,129 64,068 63,132 61,377 57,517
e e e r
Oxide sinter 45,900 47,500 46,900 43,558 45,438
e
Total 178,000 193,000 191,000 187,000 187,000
Korea, Republic of, ferronickel10 22,799 39,005 45,600 47,400 44,500
r
Kosovo, ferronickel 7,746 11,301 2,540 7,100 5,700
Macedonia, ferronickel 18,054 17,699 10,603 7,175 10,100
Madagascar, metal 37,053 47,271 42,105 35,474 33,183
e r e
Morocco, chemicals, nickel hydroxide 200 203 188 196 200
New Caledonia:
Ferronickel 54,683 56,486 67,518 73,219 82,114
Oxide sinter 7,366 21,044 28,465 30,875 25,800
Total 62,049 77,530 95,983 104,094 107,914
Norway, metal 90,500 91,220 92,700 86,500 90,800
Russia:
e
Chemicals 2,700 2,900 2,400 -- --
Metal 234,700 231,200 188,700 157,396 158,005
e
Total 237,400 234,100 191,000 157,396 158,005
South Africa:
Chemicals11 3,500 e
5,300 e
4,743 r
4,966 r
5,295
r r r r
Metal 39,356 41,910 42,332 42,362 40,093
r, e r, e r r
Total 42,900 47,200 47,075 47,328 45,388
See footnotes at end of table.

nickel—2018 [ADVANCE RELEASE] 51.17

 TABLE 12—Continued
NICKEL: WORLD PRIMARY PRODUCTION, BY COUNTRY OR LOCALITY AND PRODUCT1, 2

(Metric tons, nickel content)

Country or locality3 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Taiwan (10) (10) (10) (10) (10)
12 e e
Ukraine, ferronickel 18,600 18,000 18,100 15,300 15,807
r
United Kingdom, metal 39,100 38,804 45,194 25,781 25,000
Venezuela, ferronickel 5,000 4,000 -- -- --
Zimbabwe, metal13 2,915 617 -- -- --
r r
Grand total 2,000,000 2,030,000 2,020,000 1,990,000 2,040,000
Of which:
Chemicals 38,000 e 44,500 e 55,600 e 70,200 r 76,600
Ferronickele 800,000 r 783,000 845,000 r 895,000 r 974,000
Metal 933,000 r 943,000 r 859,000 774,000 r 764,000
e e e
Oxide sinter 66,500 83,200 90,300 90,200 r 87,200
Unspecified 166,000 177,000 166,000 156,000 r 137,000
e
Estimated. rRevised. -- Zero.
1
Table includes data available through September 17, 2019. All data are reported unless otherwise noted. Grand totals and estimated data
are rounded to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.
2
Primary nickel refers to a nickel product ready for use by downstream consuming industries and includes nickel chemicals and salts,
ferronickel, nickel metal in various forms, nickel oxide sinter, and nickel pig iron. The U.S. Geological Survey does not use the terms
Class I and Class II nickel as defined by the International Nickel Study Group (INSG). However, nickel metal reported here is generally
equivalent to Class I nickel which is defined by INSG as nickel with a minimum nickel content of 99% in the form of briquets, cathodes
(that is, electrolytic nickel), flakes or powders, granules, pellets, and rondelles. Ferronickel, nickel oxide sinter, and nickel pig iron are
classified by INSG as Class II. Chemicals, although typically produced at refineries, are differentiated from production of metal when
feasible.
3
In addition to the countries and (or) localities listed, North Korea was thought to have produced metallic nickel and (or) ferronickel, but
information was inadequate to make reliable estimates of output levels. Several countries and (or) localities produced nickel-containing
matte, but output of nickel in such materials has been excluded from this table to avoid double counting. Countries and (or) localities that
produced matte for export are listed in table 11.
4
Products with a nickel content of less than 99%. Includes ferronickel, nickel oxides, and oxide sinter and excludes intermediate nickel-
cobalt sulfide matte, regulus, and speiss for further refining.
5
Imports to other countries of ferronickel from Burma, assumed 26% nickel content.
6
Preliminary figures for ferronickel and chemicals were derived from data published by Beijing Antaike Information Development Co.
Ltd. Figures for electrolytic and other Class I nickel are based on data provided by the China Nonferrous Metals Industry Association and
the International Nickel Study Group. China also produced nickel pig iron from laterite ores imported from Indonesia, New Caledonia,
and the Philippines.
7
Nickel pig iron is a primary nickel product containing iron and nickel as primary constituents, but with a nickel content of less than 15%.
8
Includes cobalt content of nickel oxide and oxide sinter.
9
Includes metal and nickel chloride.
10
Utility® Nickel production figures for the Republic of Korea and Taiwan were not included because the production was derived wholly
from imported metallurgical-grade oxides and to include them would result in double counting.
11
Primarily in the form of crystalline nickel sulfate.
12
May include nickel in remelt alloys derived from scrap.
13
Data represent production from matte imported from Botswana and from nickel sulfate imported from South Africa.

51.18 [ADVANCE RELEASE] U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERALS YEARBOOK—2018