Explosives

An explosive material or explosive is a substance which contains a large amount of stored energy that can produce a sudden expansion of the material after initiation, usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound and pressure. An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material. The energy stored in an explosive material may be Chemical energy, such as nitroglycerine and TNT Pressurized compressed gas, such as a gas cylinder or aerosol can Nuclear material, such as fissile isotopes of U 235 and Pu 239

Causes for Explosions

Friction Impact Heat Shock wave Static electricity, electromagnetic radiation Explosive material is often classified by the type of chemical reaction that takes place. An explosion is a type of spontaneous chemical reaction (once initiated) that is driven by both a large negative enthalpy change (great release of heat) and a large positive entropy change (great quantities of gases are released) in going from reactants to products, forming a very thermodynamically favorable process and it propagates very rapidly. So because of that explosives are substances that contain a large amount of energy stored in chemical bonds. The energetic stability of the gaseous products and their generation comes from the formation of strongly bonded species like CO, CO2, and N2 which contain strong bonds, is the reason for large energy. Consequently, most commercial explosives are organic compounds containing NO2, ONO2 and NHNO2 groups which release gases like CO, CO2, and N2 when detonated.

Types of Explosions
Decomposition The chemical decomposition of an explosive may take many times or in a millisecond. The slower processes of decomposition take place in storage and related to stability standpoint. The two rapid forms of decomposition are detonation and deflagration. Detonation This is an explosive phenomenon where the decomposition is propagated by the explosive shock wave propagated through the explosive material. The shock wave front should be capable of passing through the high explosive material at great speeds.

Deflagration In deflagration, the decomposition of the explosive material is propagated by a flame front, which moves slowly through the explosive material as compared to detonation. Deflagration is a characteristic of low explosive material. Exotic In addition to chemical explosives, there exist some of more exotic explosive material, and theoretical methods of causing explosions, such as nuclear explosives, antimatter, and abruptly heating a substance to a plasma state with a high-intensity laser or electric arc.

Properties of Explosives
To determine the suitability of an explosive for the industrial use, we should determine its physical properties first. The usefulness of an explosive can be decided when the properties and the factors affecting them are fully understood. Some of the more important characteristics are as below. Availability and cost Availability and cost of explosives are determined by the availability of the raw materials and the cost, complexity and safety of the manufacturing operations. Sensitivity This factor refers to the ease with which it can be ignited or detonated of an explosive. As an example the amount and intensity of shock, friction, or heat that is required. The relative sensitivity of a given explosive to impact may vary greatly from its sensitivity to friction or heat. Some of the test methods used to determine sensitivity is as follows. Impact Sensitivity is expressed as of the distance through which a standard weight must be dropped to the material for explode. Friction Sensitivity is expressed as of what occurs when a weighted pendulum scrapes across the material (snaps, crackles, ignites, and/or explodes). Heat Sensitivity is expressed as of the temperature at which flashing or explosion of the material occurs. Sensitivity is an important consideration in selecting an explosive for a particular purpose. The explosive in an armor-piercing projectile must be relatively insensitive, or the shock of impact would cause it to detonate before it penetrated to the point of target.

Sensitivity to initiation It is defined by the power of the detonator which is certain to prime the explosive to a sustained and continuous detonation. Reference is made to the Sellier-Bellot scale that consists of a series of 10 detonators, from no. 1 to no. 10, each of which is at an increasing charge weight. In practice most of the explosives on the market today are sensitive to the no. 8 detonator. Velocity of detonation (VoD) Explosive velocity, also known as the detonation velocity, is the velocity at which the shock wave front travels through a detonated explosive. Most commercial mining explosives have detonation velocities ranging from 1800 ms-1 to 8000 ms-1. Together with density it is an important element influencing the yield of the energy transmitted for both atmospheric overpressure and ground acceleration. Stability Stability is the ability of an explosive to be stored without deterioration. The following factors affect the stability of an explosive. Chemical constitution It is generally recognized that certain groups like (NO2), (ONO2), and (N3), are intrinsically labile with respect to decomposition. They generally have positive enthalpies of formation and there is small resistance of internal molecular rearrangement to the more thermodynamically stable (more strongly bonded) decomposition products. Temperature of storage The rate of decomposition of explosives increases at higher temperatures. All of the standard military explosives can be considered to have a high degree of stability at temperatures of -10 to +35 C. Most explosives become dangerously unstable at temperatures exceeding 70 C. Exposure to the sun If exposed to the UV rays of the sun, many explosive compounds that contain nitrogen groups will rapidly decompose affecting their stability. Electric discharge Electrostatic or spark sensitivity to initiation is common to many of explosives. Static or other electrical discharge may be enough to inspire detonation under some circumstances. The safe handling of explosives always requires electrical grounding of the operator. Power, performance, and strength The term power or performance of an explosive refers to its ability to do work. Explosive power or performance is evaluated by a tailored series of tests to assess the material for its intended use. Tests are listed below. Cylinder expansion test

Cylinder fragmentation Detonation Determination of critical diameter Infinite-diameter detonation velocity Pressure versus scaled distance Impulse versus scaled distance Relative bubble energy (RBE) Brisance Brisance is the shattering capability of an explosive. It is a measure of the rapidity with which an explosive develops its maximum pressure. Brisance is practically important for determining the effectiveness of an explosion in fragmenting shells, bomb casings, grenades, structures and the same usage. Density Dependent on the charging method, an average density of the loaded charge can be obtained that is in between 8099% of the theoretical maximum density of the explosive. High load density can reduce sensitivity by making the mass more resistant to internal friction. If density is increased to the extent that individual crystals are crushed, the explosive may become more sensitive. Increased load density also permits the use of more explosive. It is possible to compress an explosive beyond a point of sensitivity known also as "dead-pressing" in which the material is no longer capable of being reliably initiated. Volatility Volatility affects the chemical composition of the explosive such that a marked reduction in stability can be occur, which results an increase in the danger of handling. Hygroscopicity and water resistance The introduction of water into an explosive will reduces the sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation of the explosive. Hygroscopicity is used as a measure of a material's moisture absorbing tendencies. Moisture affects explosives by acting as an inert material that absorbs heat when vaporized and by acting as a solvent medium that can cause undesired chemical reactions. This will reduce the continuity of the explosive mass. Stability is also affected by the presence of moisture since moisture promotes decomposition of the explosive. Explosives considerably differ from one another as to their behavior in the presence of water. Gelatin dynamites containing nitroglycerine have a degree of water resistance. Explosives based on ammonium nitrate have a small or no water resistance.

Toxicity Due to their chemical composition, most explosives are toxic to some extent. Explosive product gases can also be toxic to human. Explosive train A triggering sequence, also called an explosive train, is a sequence of events that fulfill in the detonation of explosives. For safety reasons, most widely used high explosives are difficult to detonate. Volume of products of explosion This is the volume of gas produced by the explosion. This will help to calculate the volume of air generated and hence the energy released. Oxygen balance (OB% or ) Oxygen balance is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized. If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to convert its entire carbon to carbon dioxide, all of its hydrogen to water, and all of its metal to metal oxide with no excess, the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance. The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than is needed. The sensitivity, strength and brisance of an explosive are dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to approach their maximums as oxygen balance approaches zero. Chemically pure compounds Each molecule of the compound dissociates into two or more new molecules (generally gases) with the release of energy. Nitroglycerin Acetone peroxide TNT Nitrocellulose RDX,PETN, HMX Mixture of oxidizer and fuel An oxidizer is a pure substance that in a chemical reaction can contribute some atoms of one or more oxidizing elements in which the fuel component of the explosive burns.

Classification of explosives
By sensitivity

Primary explosive
A primary explosive is an explosive that is extremely sensitive to stimuli such as impact, friction, heat, static electricity or electromagnetic radiation. A relatively small amount of energy is required for initiation. Primary explosives are often used in detonators or to trigger larger charges of less sensitive secondary explosives. Primary explosives are commonly used in blasting caps to translate a physical shock signal. In other methods, different signals such as electrical/physical shock, or in the case of laser detonation systems, light signal are used to initiate an action.

Examples for primary high explosives are Acetone peroxide Ammonium permanganate Copper acetylide Diazodinitrophenol Hexamethylene triperoxide diamine Lead azide Lead styphnate Lead picrate Mercury(II) fulminate Nitrogen trichloride Nitrogen triiodide Nitroglycerin Silver azide Silver acetylide Silver fulminate Sodium azide Tetacene

Secondary explosive A secondary explosive is less sensitive than a primary explosive and require more energy to be initiated. Because they are less sensitive they are usable in a wider variety of applications and are safer to handle and store. Secondary explosives are used in larger quantities in an explosive train and are usually initiated by a smaller quantity of a primary explosive. Examples of secondary explosives are TNT and RDX. Tertiary explosive Tertiary explosives, also called blasting agents, are more insensitive to shock that they cannot be detonated by practical quantities of primary explosive and require an intermediate explosive booster of secondary explosive. These are primarily used in large-scale mining and construction operations. ANFO is an example of a tertiary explosive. By velocity Low explosives Low explosives are compounds where the rate of decomposition proceeds through the material at less than the speed of sound. The decomposition is propagated by a flame front (deflagration) which travels much more slowly through the explosive material. Under normal conditions, low explosives undergo deflagration at rates that vary from a few centimeters per second to approximately 400 ms-1. It is possible for them to deflagrate very quickly, producing an effect similar to a detonation. This can happen under higher pressure or temperature which usually occurs when ignited in a confined space. A low explosive is usually a mixture of a combustible substance and an oxidant that decomposes rapidly. High explosives High explosives are explosive materials that detonate, which means that the explosive shock front passes through the material at a supersonic speed. High explosives detonate with explosive velocity rates ranging from 3000 to 9000 ms-1. They are normally employed in mining, demolition, and military applications. They can be divided into two explosives classes differentiated by sensitivity Primary explosive and secondary explosive.

By composition Priming composition Priming compositions are primary explosives mixed with other compositions to control the sensitivity of the mixture to the desired property. For example, primary explosives are so sensitive that they need to be stored and shipped in a wet state to prevent accidental initiation. By physical form Explosives are often characterized by the physical form that the explosives are produced or used in applications. These use forms are commonly categorized as follows. Pressings Castings such as TNT Plastic or polymer bonded such as LX##,PBX####,PBXN# Putties (plastic explosives) such as C-4,Semtex,PE-4 Rubberized such as Detasheet,Primasheet Extrudable such as XTX-8003,XTX-8004,Demex -400 Binary such as kinstick Blasting agents such as ANFO,Nitramon,Nitramite,Dynatex Slurries and gels Dynamites

Shipping label classifications

Shipping labels and tags may include both United Nations and national markings. United Nations markings include numbered Hazard Class and Division (HC/D) codes and alphabetic Compatibility Group codes. Those two codes are separate and distinct. Any Compatibility Group designator can be assigned to any Hazard Class and Division. United Nations Organization (UNO) Hazard Class and Division (HC/D)

Explosives warning sign Listed below are the Divisions for Class 1 (Explosives) 1.1 Mass Detonation Hazard. 1.2 Non-mass explosion, fragment-producing. HC/D 1.2 is further divided into three subdivisions, HC/D 1.2.1, 1.2.2 and 1.2.3, to account for the magnitude of the effects of an explosion. 1.3 Mass fire, minor blast or fragment hazard. 1.4 Moderate fire, no blast or fragment. HC/D 1.4 items are listed in the table as explosives with no significant hazard. 1.5 Mass detonation hazard, very insensitive. 1.6 Detonation hazard without mass detonation hazard, extremely insensitive.

Class 1 Compatibility Group Compatibility Group codes are used to indicate storage compatibility for HC/D Class 1 (explosive) materials. Letters are used to designate 13 compatibility groups as A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,J,K,L,N and S.

Common explosives
Nitroglycerin Nitroglycerin (NG), trinitroglycerin, trinitroglycerine, 1, 2, 3-trinitroxypropane and glyceryl trinitrate, is a heavy, colorless, oily, explosive liquid obtained by nitrating glycerol. High shock sensitivity and friction sensitivity. Explosive velocity 7700ms-1. Nitrocellulose Nitrocellulose (also called as cellulose nitrate, flash paper) is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose through exposure to nitric acid or using another powerful nitrating agent. When used as a propellant or low-order explosive, it is also known as guncotton. HMX
HMX, also called octogen, is a powerful and relatively insensitive nitro amine high explosive, chemically related to RDX. The name has been variously listed as High Melting explosive, Her Majesty's explosive, High-velocity Military explosive or High-Molecular-weight rdx.

Low shock sensitivity and friction sensitivity. Explosive velocity 9100ms-1.

Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), also known as PENT, PENTA, TEN, corpent, is the nitrate ester of pentaerythritol, a polyol. PETN is most well known as an explosive. It is one of the most powerful high explosives known, with a relative effectiveness factor (RE) of 1.66. Medium shock sensitivity and friction sensitivity. Explosive velocity 8400ms-1. Dynamite Dynamite is an explosive material based on nitroglycerin, initially using diatomaceous earth or another absorbent substance such as powdered shells. It is usually sold in the form of a stick about 20 cm long and about 2.5 cm in diameter, with a weight of about 0.25 kg. C-4 C-4 is made up of explosives, plastic binder, plasticizer and usually marker or odorizing taggant chemicals such as 2, 3-dimethyl-2, 3-dinitrobutane (DMDNB) to help detect the explosive and identify its source. Explosive velocity 8092ms-1. RDX RDX is an explosive nitro amine widely used in military and industrial applications. It is also known as cyclonite. In its pure synthesized state RDX is a white crystalline solid. As an explosive, it is usually used in mixtures with other explosives and plasticizers, phlegmatizers or desensitizers. It is stable in storage and is considered one of the most powerful and brisant of the military high explosives. Low shock sensitivity and friction sensitivity. Explosive velocity 8750ms-1.

Explosives in mining industry

Cast blasting Explosive casting is used by many surface coal mines to control the displacement of overburden by means of explosive energy. A blasting engineer must consider bench height, pit width, borehole diameter and geologic formation when designing a cast blast. In most cases, the blaster uses a complicated sequence of down hole and surface delays to minimize the ground roll associated with the large amounts of explosives (like ANFO) used in a cast blast.

Fragmentation Blasts Many of hard rock open-pit mines design blasts that will optimize the insitu fragmentation of the material. This is accomplished by loading the holes with two different energy levels, higher energy explosives in the bottom and lower energy near the top. The result is that the material is not thrown into the mined-out pit as in the cast blasts. Quarry Blasts Quarry blasts are smaller in spatial extent and explosives content than fragmentation and cast blasts. Efficient fragmentation of the rock into small pieces is required for use in a rock crusher. For ease in extraction of the materials, the rocks are usually blasted into the mined-out pit.

Explosives & Environment

Explosives-contaminated process waste waters can be subdivided into two categories, red water from the manufacture of TNT and pink water which includes any wash water associated with load, assemble, and pack operations or with the demilitarization of munitions involving contact with finished explosive. Red water has a more defined chemical composition. Pink water is a wastewater generated in the production and handling of high explosive munitions. The principal contaminants in pink water are trinitrotoluene (TNT) and cyclo trimethylene trinitramine (RDX). Under ambient environmental conditions, explosives are highly persistent in soils and groundwater, exhibiting a resistance to naturally occurring volatilization, bio-degradation, and hydrolysis. So the accumulation of those chemicals in living body can cause major health problems.