Building Construction

Construction Materials and Methods

3-1, 3-2
Properties of the
Envelope

Prof. Shaher Rababeh

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Building Construction
Construction Materials and Methods

3-1
Properties of the
Envelope—I
(Thermal Properties)

Prof. Shaher Rababeh

Copyright © 2018, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Outline (1 of 2)
• 1 Energy Use in Buildings and Thermal Comfort
• 2 The Units of Measurement for Energy
• 3 Three Modes of Heat Flow through Materials and
Assemblies
• 4 R-Value of a Building Component
• 5 Use of Gases Other than Air in Building Assemblies
• 6 Surface Resistances
• 7 Surface Emissivity and R-Values of Air Spaces
• 8 Surface Color of Envelope Assemblies
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 Outline (2 of 2)
• 10 Multilayer Assembly in Parallel Combination—The U-
Factor
• 11 Thermal Bridging
• 12 Where and How Much to Insulate—The Building
Thermal Envelope
• 13 The International Energy Conservation Code
• 14 Continuous Envelope Insulation Required
• 15 Thermal Mass
• Principles in Practice: Commonly Used Insulating Materials

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 Energy Use in Buildings and Thermal
Comfort (1 of 1)
• Energy-Conserving Building Design
International Energy Conservation Code (IECC).

an energy-
conserving
building design is
a function of
several variables

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 The Units of Measurement for Energy
(1 of 1)
• In the U.S. system of units, unit for rate of energy
flow is Btu per hour (Btu/h).
• British thermal unit (BTU), a measure of the
quantity of heat, defined formerly as the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of
one pound of water 1° F.
• Btu is a much larger unit than Joule.
– 1 Btu = 1,055 J = 252 gram calories.
– 1 Btu/h = 0.293 J/s = 0.293 W

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 Three Modes of Heat Flow through
Materials and Assemblies (1 of 3)
• Heat flows from an object at a higher temperature
to an object at a lower temperature.

Molecules vibration

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 Three Modes of Heat Flow through
Materials and Assemblies (2 of 3)
• Conduction
– Heat transfer between molecules in a solid
• Convection
– Heat transfer by bulk motion of a gas or liquid
• Radiation
– Heat transfer between two objects in the form of
electromagnetic waves (infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-Rays, and Gamma
Rays)

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 Three Modes of Heat Flow through
Materials and Assemblies (3 of 3)
• Simultaneity of Conduction, Convection, and
Radiation

Modes of transfer of solar heat through a brick cavity wall.

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 R-Value of a Building Component (1 of 3)
Thermal resistivity (p)

• Thermal resistivity () is a constant property of the

material.
– The ability of the material to resist the flow of heat
through it
 A material with a high p-value resists the flow of heat, and is
called a thermal insulator.
 A material with a low p-value allows heat to flow through it
easily, and is called a thermal conductor.

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 R-Value of a Building Component (2 of 3)

• R-Value (Thermal Resistance)

– The measure of the ability of a component (thickness L) to
resist the flow of heat through it, R= pL
– A component with a high R-value is more insulating
(resistant to the flow of heat) than a material with a low
R-value.
– Thermal resistance is influenced by:
 Density: a low-density material has a high p –value (Voids)
 Moisture content: wet sample’s p-value is lower than that of a
dry sample. (p-water 0.24 < p-air 5.6)
 Entrapment of air or gas: (tiny voids)

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 R-Value of a Building Component (3 of 3)

• Insulation Materials

(c)

Most insulating products are labeled with their R-values.

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 Use of Gases Other than Air in Building
Assemblies (1 of 1)
• Cellular structures of various plastic foam
insulations contain a gas that is more insulating
than air. (entrapment)
hydrochloro-
fluoro-carbon

P-value 4
5
p –value 6.5
6.5
Air can permeate into the cell cavities

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 R-Value of a Multilayer Assembly in Series
Combination (1 of 1)
• R-value of a multilayer assembly

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 Surface Resistances (1 of 1)

• The inside and outside air films on the surfaces of

an assembly and their R-values
Inside and outside air films on the surfaces
inside surface resistance outside surface resistance
of an assembly add to its R-value.
The R-value of the inside air film (called
inside surface resistance, Rsi) is
approximately 0.7.
The R-value of the outside air film
0.7 0.2
(called outside surface resistance, Rsi Rso
Rso) is approximately 0.2. Both air
films together add an R-value of 0.9
(approximately 1.0) to the total
R-value of the assembly.

It contributes greatly to the R-value of a

glazed window
Rt = Rsi + R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 … + Rso
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 Surface Emissivity and R-Values of Air
Spaces (1 of 3)
• Emissivity
– Property of the surface
of an object that refers to
its potential to emit
radiation
– The magnitude of
Radiation emitted by two identical objects that are at the
radiation emitted by an same temperature. The unlined object emits more radiation than
object is directly related the same object that is lined (wrapped) with aluminum foil. This
increases the R-value of the air space (R-2.5).
to its emissivity and its
temperature.
– Aluminum foil reduces
radiation heat transfer
due to its low emissivity .
– Restaurants (emit less, stay cool
and moist) Emissivity scale
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 Surface Emissivity and R-Values of Air
Spaces (2 of 3)
• R-Value of a Vertical Air Space
– The R-value of a vertical (wall)
cavity is approximately equal
to R-1.

– Radiation heat transfer across an air

space is reduced if one surface of
the air space is lined with a bright
metal such as aluminum foil. Thus,
the R-value of an (aluminum) foil-
lined air space is greater than that of
an unlined air space.

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 Surface Emissivity and R-Values of Air
Spaces (3 of 3)
• Location of Low-Emissivity Material (Aluminum
Foil) in a Vertical Air Space

Absorb .90

Absorb .05

Reflect .10
Reflect .95

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 Surface Color of Envelope Assemblies
(1 of 1)
White is the Greenest Color
resulting in saving money and being more
• It is not the emissivity of the efficient and comfortable.
building component that
governs the absorption or
reflection of radiation, but
the color of the building
component.
• Light-colored component
absorbs less solar radiation
than a dark-colored
component. (reduces the
cooling load on the building)

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 Thermal Bridging
(1 of 1)
• The greater the R-value of exterior sheathing, the lower the thermal bridging.

• Concrete Slab-on-Ground

• A simplified visualization of heat flow

showing three possible paths along
which heat may flow:
 Vertical path through the thickness of the
slab and into the ground
 Horizontal path through the slab
 Through-the-ground paths (shown by the
curved lines)

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 Insulating a concrete slab-on-ground
(1 of 1)
• Two alternative details of insulating
a concrete slab-on-ground with
vertical insulation on its exposed
edges

EIFS: Exterior
Insulation
Finishing System

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 Where and How Much to Insulate—The
Building Thermal Envelope (1 of 3)
The discussion of the thermal properties presented so far leads to two
questions:

• Where to insulate?
– Building envelope
• How much insulation to use?
– Varies with
 Climate (heating degree days, cooling degree days)
 Economics (Prices, return on investment) Sustainability
 Energy code (IECC International Energy Conservation Code)

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 Where and How Much to Insulate—The
Building Thermal Envelope (2 of 3)
• Location of Insulation

Sketch 1

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 Where and How Much to Insulate—The
Building Thermal Envelope (3 of 3)
• Insulation in a ground floor over crawl space

Termite-resistant insulation is cellular glass (XPS: extruded polystyrene insulation

or ISO: Polyisocyanurate thermal insulation).
Insulation in a floor over a vented crawl space.

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 The International Energy Conservation
Code (IECC) (1 of 1)
• Deals with all aspects of energy use in buildings
– Building thermal envelope
– HVAC systems
– Service water heating
– Lighting systems (artificial lighting and daylighting)
– Electrical systems

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 Continuous Envelope Insulation Required
(1 of 2)
• Continuous Insulation on Inside or Outside Face
of Envelope
– The placement of insulation on the outside face is
more effective.
 It moderates the temperature of the supporting members of the
assembly and the structural components of the building,
reducing their expansion and contraction, thereby increasing
their life span.
 It reduces energy consumption because it eliminates (or
reduces) thermal bridging in the envelope.

……………
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 Continuous Envelope Insulation Required
(2 of 2)

– Only when a building is intermittently heated or cooled,

such as a church hall, the interior placement of
insulation may be considered.

– The interior placement of insulation allows faster

heating or cooling of interior air because it reduces
energy loss to heat or cool the structural components
of the building.

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 Thermal Mass (1 of 1)

• Thermal Mass of an Element

– The ability of a building element to store heat is referred to as
its thermal mass.
Defined also as:
 The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 ft2 of the
element by 1°F.
– The greater the thermal mass of the element, the greater the
amount of heat it will absorb for a given rise in its
temperature.
– Thermal lag is the rate at which heat is absorbed and
released by a material.
 Dense materials, such as concrete, brick, stone, and adobe, have a higher thermal
mass than lightweight materials, such as wood, plastics, and insulating materials.
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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (1 of 14)
• Commonly Used Insulating Materials
They can be classified in several ways based on their configuration,
physical structure, or combustibility.
– A classification that is more
suitable for describing various
insulations is based on the
insulation’s physical structure; Flat Roofs

(three categories):

 1- Fibrous insulation
 2- Granular insulation
 3- Foamed insulation
Graphical notations for rigid and flexible insulations
for use in cross sections of building assemblies.

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 Three categories of Insulating Materials

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (2 of 14)
• 1- Fibrous Insulation
– The unfaced fiberglass insulation will be covered with a
vapor retarder (where a vapor retarder is needed)
before installing gypsum board on the studs.

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (3 of 14)
– Projecting flanges of
building paper–faced
fibrous insulation

Thermal Extended Flange Batts

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (4 of 14)
– A clear polyethylene
sheet vapor retarder
being installed over
unfaced fiberglass
insulation between wood
studs

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (5 of 14)
• Blown-in fibrous insulation

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (6 of 14)
• 2- Granular Insulation
– Two types of granules are in common use:
 Expanded perlite granules
 Expanded polystyrene (EPS) granules

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (7 of 14)
– EPS Board Insulation EPS: expanded polystyrene insulation
 Manufacturing process of EPS boards foam (rigid cellular
plastic :Styrene)

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (8 of 14)
– EPS and Insulating Concrete Forms (ICF)
EPS: expanded polystyrene insulation

Insulating concrete
form (ICF) walls are
used as exterior walls
for residential and
commercial buildings.
The wall’s high
R-value makes ICF
construction an
attractive alternative
where energy
conservation is critical.

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (9 of 14)
• 3- Foamed Insulation
– Making of XPS Boards (liquids of Polystyrene and Hydrochloro-Fluro-Carbon)

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (10 of 14)
– Making of ISO Boards (liquids of Polyisocyanurate and Hydrochloro-Fluro-Carbon)

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (11 of 14)
– Foamed-in-Place Insulation

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (12 of 14)
– Foamed Concrete (Lightweight Cellular Concrete (LCC))
 Cross section through an insulating concrete roof deck with
sandwiched EPS boards (expanded polystyrene insulation)

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (13 of 14)
– Insulating concrete being placed over roof deck

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 Principles in Practice: Commonly Used
Insulating Materials (14 of 14)
– Because EPS boards are sandwiched between two
layers of concrete, the holes in EPS boards structurally
integrate the layers.

expanded polystyrene insulation

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Building Construction
Construction Materials and Methods

3-2
Properties of the
Envelope—II
(Air and Water Vapor
Control)

Prof. Shaher Rababeh

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 Outline (1 of 1)
• 1 Leakage and Diffusion
• 2 Air Leakage Control
• 3 Air Diffusion Control
• 4 Water Vapor in Air
• 5 Condensation of Water Vapor
• 6 Vapor Diffusion and Control of Condensation
• 7 Materials Used as Vapor Retarders
• 8 Vapor Retarders and Climate Zones
• 9 Importance of Attic Ventilation
• Principles in Practice: Condensation Analysis—Where Dew Point
Occurs in an Assembly
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 Introduction (1 of 2)

• Air
– Outside air often contains
 Dust
 Pollen
 Ozone
 Other pollutants
– The entry and exit of such air are called
(infiltration/exfiltration).
– Air leakage is essentially unwanted ventilation.

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 Introduction (2 of 2)

• Water and water vapor (moisture)

– Water is a liquid.
– Water vapor is a gas.
• Water Vapor
– Generally occurs in combination with air
 Leakage of air through the envelope means leakage of water
vapor.
 Water wets the insulation and reduces its R-value, corrodes
metals, promotes insect infestation, creates dampness giving
rise to mold and fungi, peels off paints, and reduces the
strength of cellulose- and gypsum-based materials.

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 Leakage and Diffusion (1 of 1)

• Leakage
– The migration of a gas (such
as air and water vapor) through
gaps, cracks, and voids in a
container (building envelope)

• Diffusion
– The migration of air and water
vapor even when the envelope is
fully sealed (without any gaps and
voids, so that there is no leakage).
– The rate at which diffusion occurs
through a building component is Difference between leakage and
called its permeability . diffusion of gas (or air) through a
balloon.
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 Air Leakage Control (1 of 4)

• Two factors affect air leakage in a building:

– Leakage area
– Pressure difference between inside and outside air
caused by:
 Wind
 Temperature

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 Air Leakage Control (2 of 4)

• Air Pressure Difference due to Wind

– Air leakage (infiltration and exfiltration) through a building
due to the pressure difference created by wind.

Air infiltration and exfiltration

through a building caused by
the pressure difference
created by wind. Because
wind creates positive (+)
pressure on the windward
face of a building and suction,
that is, negative (-) pressure
on the other faces, air
infiltration and exfiltration
occur through the building.
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 Air Leakage Control (3 of 4)

• Air Pressure Difference due to Temperature

– Air leakage
(infiltration and
exfiltration)
through a building
due to the
temperature
difference between
the inside and the
outside air.

– Sealing all joints

(leakage areas)
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 Air Leakage Control (4 of 4)

– Typical leakage sites in a

wood frame or cold-formed
steel (CFS) frame building

Notice that most leakage sites in a building are in the walls.

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 Air Diffusion Control (1 of 6)

• Air diffusion reduction is achieved by using an air

(diffusion) barrier in the envelope.
– Because an air diffusion barrier must allow water vapor
to pass through it, it cannot be entirely impermeable to
air.
– Therefore, it is not really an air barrier (100%), but a
retarder.
• Commonly called air barrier
• Air Barrier—A Requirement of the International
Energy Conservation Code (IECC)
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 Air Diffusion Control (2 of 6)

• Important Properties of an Air Barrier and its

Types
– Air Impermeability
 Should allow little or no air to pass through
– Water Resistivity—Air Barrier as Air-Weather Barrier
 Must be water resistive (hydrophobic: lacking affinity for water)
– Vapor Permeability
 Should be vapor permeable
– Must be continuous, strong, and durable.

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 Air Diffusion Control (3 of 6)

– Location of an air-weather barrier in a wall assembly

framed with wood or cold-formed steel (CFS)

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 Air Diffusion Control (4 of 6)

• Sheet Membrane Air-

Weather Barrier
– A membrane air-
weather barrier
wrapped over the
exterior wall sheathing
of a five-story wood
frame apartment
building

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 Air Diffusion Control (5 of 6)

• Sealing the Exterior Window and Door Perimeter

– Self-adhering flashing
tape over air-weather
barrier at window sill
and jambs, and below
window head prevents
air and water passage
between window and
wall opening.

photographed before the

application of exterior cladding.
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 Air Diffusion Control (6 of 6)

• Sealing the Exterior Window and Door Perimeter

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 Water Vapor in Air (1 of 2)

• The diffusion of air and the diffusion of

vapor through a building envelope are
independent of each other and are
controlled by their own individual
pressure differences across the
envelope.
• In other words, the diffusion of air is
related to the air pressure difference
across the envelope, and the diffusion of
vapor is similarly related to the vapor
pressure difference.
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 Water Vapor in Air (2 of 2)

• Movement of Water Vapor through Assemblies

– Like air, vapor has two means
of migrating through a
building assembly:

 Vapor leakage (through holes

and cracks in the assembly)

 Vapor diffusion (through the

body of the assembly)

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 Condensation of Water Vapor (1 of 2)

• The temperature at which the air’s RH (relative

humidity) becomes 100% is called the air’s dew
point temperature, or the dew point of air.

• If the temperature of the air is decreased below

the dew point, the water vapor in air converts to
(liquid) water—a phenomenon known as
condensation.

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 Condensation of Water Vapor (2 of 2)

• Concealed Condensation and Surface Condensation

– Concealed
condensation
 The condensation of
vapor inside an envelope
assembly
– Surface condensation
 The condensation that
occurs on the envelope’s
surface, such as a
window glass

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 Vapor Diffusion and Control of
Condensation (1 of 1)
• Surface condensation can be prevented by simply
increasing the R-value of the assembly.
• The effect of the R-value of an assembly on the location of
dew point during a heating season

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 Materials Used as Vapor Retarders (1 of 1)

• Classification of Vapor Retarders

– Vapor retarders are classified into three types:
 Class I: perm rating … 0.1 perm
 Class II: perm rating between 0.1 perm and
1.0 perm
 Class III: perm rating between 1.0 perm Sketch 2
and 10.0 perm
A material with a higher perm value (or rating) is more vapor
permeable.
Apart from being a property of the material, the perm rating is a
function of the material’s thickness.

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 Vapor Retarders and Climate Zones (1 of 1)

• Vapor Permeability of an Air-Weather Barrier

– Because a vapor retarder
encloses an interior space
completely (as shown), interior
vapor will not permeate into
the envelope assembly.
– To ensure that any unintended,
small amount of interior vapor
does not condense therein, the
assembly beyond the vapor
retarder should be vapor
permeable (breathable).
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 Importance of Attic Ventilation (1 of 2)

• The effect of attic ventilation on the formation of

ice dams at overhanging eave of a sloping roof

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 Importance of Attic Ventilation (2of 2)

• Various alternatives of providing attic ventilation

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