4 Heat Transfer and Storage

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Two primary uses of solar energy are providing heating and lighting for buildings.
The ­building must be designed for the collection of solar energy, transfer of that
energy, storage, and the release of the solar energy. The electromagnetic radiation
is absorbed and becomes thermal energy (heat); therefore, we need to understand
how heat is transferred. Heat is just internal kinetic energy of a material and is the
random motion of atoms. Two important aspects for buildings using solar energy are
reduction in the transfer of heat and sizing of sufficient thermal mass so there will
not be large temperature variations from day to night or even over 3 to 5 days with no
solar input to the building due to clouds. The reduction of heat transfer means that a
solar-heated building must first be a well-insulated building, a heat trap.
Heat only flows in one direction, from hot objects to cold objects, high tempera-
ture to low temperature. Remember that temperature and heat are not the same. To
move heat from a cold place to a hot place requires energy. For example, the air con-
ditioner for your home uses a lot of energy. The government has promoted higher-
efficiency appliances, which has saved a lot of energy. If there is no input of energy,
then the heat transfer or flow is such that the objects come to the same temperature.
In the winter, if there is no heat input for the building, the temperature inside will
reach the outside value. In this case, the outside is so large that it can be considered
a reservoir, and its temperature is not affected by the small amount of heat trans-
ferred from the house. The same is true in the summer; if no heat is removed from
the building, then the inside temperature will reach the outside value, and again the
outside is so large that it can be considered a reservoir; its temperature is not affected
by the small amount of heat transferred into the house.
Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation. A building,
especially a building designed around the climate to use solar energy, must consider
and control all three methods of heat transfer. You should be able to use spreadsheets
to calculate the heat gain and loss. Water vapor and condensation are problems that
have to be considered in buildings.

4.2 CONDUCTION
Conduction is the transfer of heat in a solid. If one side or end is at a high tempera-
ture and the other is at a low temperature, heat flows from the hot to the cold side
(Figure 4.1). Conduction depends on the type of material. For example, metals are
good conductors, and polystyrene (Styrofoam) is a poor conductor of heat. The heat
flow or rate (amount/time) depends on the properties of the material, thickness of the
material, and the difference in temperature of the two sides. Thermal conductance
is the rate of heat flow through a unit area at the installed thickness and any given
delta temperature (difference between two temperatures). Heat flow across slabs of

59
60 Introduction to Renewable Energy

1 ft
or
1m

1 ft
or T T
1m hot cold

A = 1 ft2
or
A = 1 m2

FIGURE 4.1  Conduction of heat from a hot side to a cold side.

material is measured experimentally and is defined in terms of thermal conductance

(U) with units of watts per square meter per degree kelvin, W/(m2 °K). The conver-
sion between metric and English units is 1 W/(m2 °K) = 0.1761 Btu/(ft2 °F h) or 1 Btu/
(ft2 °F h) = 5.678 W/(m2 °K).
Resistance (R) is a property of a material to retard the flow of heat and is the
inverse of conductance. Good insulators have a high R value, which is low conduc-
tance. The total R value for a composite material is just the sum of the R values of
the component parts.

1
Ut = (4.1)
Rt

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + …+
Ut U1 U 2 U 3 Un

Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 + …+ R n (4.2)

U values are measured experimentally for different materials, thicknesses, and

unit area; of course, R values have inverse units ([m 2 °K]/W or [ft2 °F h]/Btu).
Note that for a delta temperature, use of degree kelvin or centigrade is the same.
Heat Transfer and Storage 61

A source for thermal conductivity values of some common materials and products
is ­available from the Engineering Toolbox at http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/
thermal-­conductivity-d_429.html.
The amount of heat loss or gain by conduction is given by
H CON = U * A * ΔT * h (4.3)

where:
A is the area
ΔT is the temperature difference
h is the number of hours

In the winter, you want to reduce the heat loss, and in the summer, you want to
reduce the heat gain of the house.

Example 4.1

Calculate the heat transfer for a wall composed of the following materials with
corresponding R value:

Component R ([m2 °K]/W) R ([ft2 °F h]/Btu)

Outside air film, 15-mph wind 0.03 0.17
Wood siding 0.14 0.81
Plywood sheeting, 0.5 in. 0.11 0.62
Fiberglass batt, 3 in. 2.29 13.00
Gypsum board, 0.5 in. 0.08 0.45
Inside air film 0.12 0.68
Total 2.77 15.73

Source: Equation 4.1, Ut = 1/Rt = 1/2.77 = 0.36 W/(m2 °K).

The conduction heat loss for a 4.5-m2 wall over an 8-h time period with the inside
temperature at 21°C and the outside temperature at 5°C can be calculated from
Equation 4.3.
HCON = 0.36 ( J / s) / (m2°C) * 4.5  m2 * (21− 5)°C * 8  h

= 0.36 * 4.5 * 16 * 8 * 3,600 Wh

= 746 kJ = 710 Btu

The answer has units and significant digits. Results cannot be more accurate than the
one input data with least significant digits used in the calculation.
There is conduction through the framing (studs), windows, ceilings, and founda-
tion, as all parts of the building allow heat to flow through it. The wood frame (studs)
of a house conducts more heat than fiberglass batts, so Example 4.1 was not correct
for a wall of a house. What would be the difference if aluminum studs were used in a
building? In general, there should be more insulation in the ceilings. Superinsulated
houses have high R values for ceilings, walls, and windows (double or triple pane).
62 Introduction to Renewable Energy

There are a number of websites with information on buildings and heat flow
through the exterior (building envelope). The Oak Ridge National Laboratory Building
Envelopes Program [1] has information on insulation and radiation barriers. The insu-
lation fact sheet has information for new (Figure 4.2) and existing houses. A map and
table of recommended insulation R values are given for eight climate zones of the
United States (Figure 4.3). A calculation for recommended insulation in the United
States by zip code is also available, and interactive c­ alculators are available, one of
which is for whole-wall R value if you know the components of the wall.

1A 1 1A
2C
2A
2B
1 2D
3A
1

2B
5
3
3
4D
6 4A
3B
4
4C

4B
3C
Earth
3C
3C

FIGURE 4.2  Locations where insulation is needed. Insulation fact sheet (insulating a new
house) from Oak Ridge National Laboratory, http://www.ornl.gov/sci/roofs+walls/insulation/
ins_05.html. (1) In unfinished attic spaces, insulate between and over the floor joists to seal
off living spaces below. (Note: Well-insulated attics, crawl spaces, storage areas, and other
enclosed cavities should be ventilated to prevent excess moisture buildup.) (1A) Attic access
door. (2) In finished attic rooms with or without dormer, insulate. (2A) Between the studs
of knee walls. (2B) Between the studs and rafters of exterior walls and roof. (2C) Ceilings
with cold spaces above. (2D) Extend insulation into joist space to reduce airflows. (3) All
exterior walls, including (3A), walls between living spaces and unheated garages, shed roofs,
or storage areas; (3B) foundation walls above ground level; (3C) foundation walls in heated
basements, full wall, either interior or exterior. (Note: For new construction, slab or grade
insulation should be installed to the extent required by building codes or greater). (4) Floors
above cold spaces, such as vented crawl spaces and unheated garages. Also insulate (4A), any
portion of the floor in a room that is cantilevered beyond the exterior wall below; (4B) slab
floors built directly on the ground; (4C) as an alternative to floor insulation, foundation walls
of unvented crawl spaces; (4D) extend insulation into joist space to reduce airflows. (5) Band
joists. (6) Replacement or storm windows and caulk and seal around all windows and doors.
Heat Transfer and Storage 63

7
6
4 6

5 5

3
3
2

2
All of Alaska in Zone 7 except for 2
the following boroughs in Zone 8:
Bethel Northwest Arctic
Zone 1 includes
Dellingham Southeast Fairbanks
Hawaii, Guam, 1
Fairbanks N. Star Wade Hampton
Puerto Rico, and
Nome Yukon–Koyukuk
the Virgin Islands
North Slope

FIGURE 4.3  Insulation recommendations (R values) for new wood-framed houses by

climate zone. Zone 1  includes Hawaii, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. Zone
7  includes most of Alaska, and Zone 8  is the northern part. (Map and table, Oak Ridge
National Lab, Building Envelopes Program.)

Cathedral
Zone Heat System Attic Ceiling Wall Cavity Wall Sheathing Floor
1 All 30–49 22–38 13–15 None 13
2 Gas, oil, heat pump 30–60 22–38 13–15 None 13
Electric 19–25
3 Gas, oil, heat pump 30–60 22–38 13–15 None 25
Electric 2.5–5
4 Gas, oil, heat pump 38–60 30–38 13–15 2.5–6 25–30
Electric 5–6
5 Gas, oil, heat pump 38–60 30–38 13–15 2.5–6 25–30
Electric 30–60 13–21 5–6
6 All 49–60 30–60 13–21 5–6 25–30
7 All 49–60 30–60 13–21 5–6 25–30
8 All 49–60 30–60 13–21 5–6 25–30

Windows have higher conductivity, so double-pane windows or storm windows

will reduce conduction losses (Table 4.1). Wood frame windows have better insula-
tion than aluminum frames; however, aluminum is cheaper. Fiberglass frames are
gaining in popularity with better insulation than wood and are becoming easier
to manufacture. A comparison of many window frame types and glass styles is
shown in U.S. Department of Energy website (http://energy.gov/energysaver/articles/
window-types). Some aluminum windows use vinyl coverings or a thermal break
to reduce conduction heat loss. Thermal shutters or shades can greatly reduce the
64 Introduction to Renewable Energy

TABLE 4.1
U Values for Windows, 2.5 mm of Glass,
Vinyl or Wood Frame, 2.3 cm Air Space
No. of Panes W/(m2 °K) Btu/(ft2 °F h)
Single 4.7 0.84
Double 2.8 0.50
Double, low e 1.8 0.32

heat loss through windows [2]. Insulation (R values) and thermal conductivity of
building materials and air spaces (air is a good insulator) can be obtained from
the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) 2001  Fundamentals Handbook. Its Chapter 25, “Thermal and Water
Vapor Transmission Data,” Table 4, “Typical Properties for Common Building
Materials and Insulating Materials” provides thermal resistance per inch for vari-
ous building materials. The handbook chapter can be purchased individually and
downloaded at http://www.ashrae.org. R values and values for thermal conductivity
for a number of different materials are available on a number of websites. A source
for thermal conductivity values of some common materials and products is avail-
able from the Engineering Toolbox at http://www​.­engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-
conductivity-d_429.html.

4.3 CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of fluids—gases or liquids
(Figure 4.4). Heated fluids can move by natural convection or by forced convection
by pumps and fans. In natural convection or thermosiphoning, as a fluid is heated
it expands and becomes less dense, thereby the hot air and the hot part of a liquid
rise while the cooler part descends. So, a solar hot water system can be constructed
that requires no pumps. Also, natural convection can move heat around a properly
designed structure.
Convection works in conjunction with conduction. Heat from a warm or hot sur-
face is conducted to the adjacent fluid, which is then carried away by convection. In
forced convection, the quantity of heat moved depends on the amount of fluid moved
(rate) and the heat capacity of the fluid. It takes a lot more air than water to move the
same amount of heat.
Calculation of infiltration, convection heat loss or gain through open doors and
cracks, is just an educated estimate. Even though conduction heat loss or gain through
the exterior of the building is easier to calculate, reduction of infiltration (in or out
through the exterior) is more important and will save energy. Infiltration barriers are
now installed on the exterior of most new buildings.

H INF = c *Q * L * ΔT * h (4.4)
Heat Transfer and Storage 65

FIGURE 4.4  Convection currents from heat source.

where:
c is the heat capacity of the fluid
Q is the volume of air leakage per length of crack per hour
L is length of crack
ΔT is the temperature difference
h is the number of hours

Example 4.2

A wooden, double-sash window with no weather stripping has the follow-

ing values: Wind = 4.5 m/s, T inside = 22°C, T outside = 5°C, heat capacity of
air = 1,297 J/(m3 °K), Q = 1.9 m3/(m h), L = 5 m, ΔT = 17°C, h = 8 h.

HINF = 1,297 J / (m3 °K) * 1.9 m3/ (m h) * 5  m * 17°C * 8 h = 1,700 kJ = 1,600 Btu

Now, you can see why weatherization programs are cost effective. Think how much
energy and money Russia could save by installing weather-tight, double-pane win-
dows on old buildings. It would be the same as discovering a giant oil field but with
the most important benefit: no depletion.
You can check for infiltration in your home on a cold, windy day by placing
your hand near suspected areas, such as edges of doors and windows, electrical
outlets, ceiling lights, range hoods, and a clothes dryer vents. You will be sur-
prised. In the home, 70% of infiltration is around the soleplate, wall electrical
outlets, exterior windows, and heating and cooling duct system. The soleplate is
the bottom member of the wall resting on the foundation or subfloor. If you have
exterior electrical outlets, the inside wall may be cool where they are located.
Dead air spaces between window panes, between window and storm window, and
in walls are good insulators. The problem is the maximum width that can be used
66 Introduction to Renewable Energy

before convection reduces the R value of the space. In other words, a large-width
dead air space will have convection currents.

4.4 RADIATION
Radiation was discussed in Chapter 3. Remember that all objects emit electromagnetic
radiation, and the amount and wavelengths depend on the temperature. Radiation bar-
riers, such as aluminum foil on insulation, are now well-accepted building practices.
You can be in a cooler surrounding and absorb infrared (IR) radiation directly from
radiant heaters to keep warm. Notice that in a fireplace, the red coals emit a lot of
energy (IR radiation) into the room. Do the astronauts wear aluminum underwear?
On commercial building roofs with flat roofs or low slopes, reflective coatings on
the roof can significantly reduce energy costs. There are also reflective coatings that
can be applied to the bottom side of the roof.
IR detectors can find heat leaks in structures (Figure 4.5). You can view IR photos
of building at google IR photos buildings and at the photo exchange of the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (http://www.nrel.gov/data/pix) (do a text
search for infrared). Notice that IR photos show leaks in the winter as hot from the
outside of the house and cold from the inside.

4.5  THERMAL MASS

Thermal mass in solar buildings reduces temperature variations between day and
night, and if there is a large mass, it can reduce temperature variations for days such
that no or less auxiliary heating or cooling is required. In the summer, the thermal
mass can be cooled at night, and then it absorbs heat during the day, keeping the
house cool. Thermal mass is also useful in ordinary buildings as it serves as a reser-
voir or sink for both heating and cooling.
Thermal mass provides a means of storing the solar energy that enters through the
windows. The thermal mass absorbs the solar energy during the day and keeps the
house from overheating. At night, the thermal mass releases the heat, keeping the house

Temp = 33.2°C E=7 D-9

Sierra Pacific Innovations

FIGURE 4.5  IR image of heat loss from a house. (Courtesy of Sierra Pacific Innovations,
Las Vegas, NV.)
Heat Transfer and Storage 67

warm. For thermal mass to be effective, air must circulate freely throughout the house
to carry the heat from the thermal mass to the rest of the house. Natural convection
will circulate the air; however, fans may be needed to assist heating in some rooms.
As a general rule, more thermal mass is better. The most common materials are rock,
stone, concrete, and water. In general, the denser a material is, the more thermal stor-
age is available per mass. Remember that in cold climates water can freeze and present
problems in terms of breaking containers. Solutions to keep water from freezing are
using antifreeze or containers placed in an area where temperatures will never be below
freezing. Also, water is corrosive, so ordinary barrels with water may be a problem
after some time period. Finally, using water for storage presents a problem if the stor-
age area is above ground level as a stronger structure is needed to support the weight.

4.5.1 Thermal Mass Patterns

There are a number of methods or patterns for estimating the amount of thermal
mass per window area and for location of the thermal mass. The rules of thumb for
sizing thermal mass for passive solar homes are summarized in five patterns [3]:

Floor or wall in direct sunlight

Floor, wall, or ceiling in indirect sunlight
Floor, wall, or ceiling remote from sunlight
Mass wall (Trombe wall) or water wall in direct sunlight
Partial mass wall or water wall (containers) in direct sunlight

Then, the following interrelated factors determine the sizing characteristics:

Area of windows exposed to the Sun

Mass surface area
Mass thickness
Mass material type

4.5.2 Specific Heat
The amount of heat a material can store is determined by the mass of material and
its specific heat, a property measured experimentally (Table  4.2). Specific heat is
the amount of energy (J) needed to raise 1  kg a degree centigrade or the amount
of energy (Btu) needed to raise 1 lb a degree Fahrenheit. In fact, that was how the
British thermal unit was defined, and the calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise
the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C. The amount of heat (thermal energy) stored
in a given amount of material for a temperature difference is given by

H TE = S * m * ΔT (4.5)

where:
S is the specific heat
m is the mass
ΔT is the temperature difference
68 Introduction to Renewable Energy

TABLE 4.2
Specific Heat and Heat Capacities of Common Materials
Specific Heat Specific Heat Heat Capacity
Material (kJ/[kg °K]) (Btu/[lb °F]) Density (lb/ft3) (Btu/[ft3 °F])
Water 4.2 1.00 62.5 62.5
Air 1.0 0.24 0.075 0.018
Concrete 0.9 0.22 144 34.0
Bricka 0.9 0.22 123 24.6
Gypsum 1.1 0.26 78 20.3
Limestone 0.9 0.22 103 22.4
Wood 2.4 0.57 47 26.8
Rock 1.2 0.28
Soil (dirt) 0.8 0.19

Note: For specific heat and heat capacity of some common solids (kJ/kg °K) see the
Engineering Toolbox website (http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/specific-heat-
solids-d_154.html).
a If magnesium is added to the brick, the heat capacity is larger.

Example 4.3

For heat stored in rocks, m = 500 kg of rock, S = 840 J/(kg °C), T final = 50°C, T

initial = 40°C.

HTE = 840 J /(kg °K) * 500 kg * 10 K = 4.2 * 106  J

This is the same amount of heat given up as mass cools from 50°C to 40°C.

If the heat is stored in a liquid, then the quantity is probably given in terms of vol-
ume, so you need to know the density to calculate the mass or know the heat capacity
of the liquid, energy/(volume * degree).

ρ = m/V (4.6)

where:
ρ is the density
V is the volume

Example 4.4

For heat stored in 4 m3 of water, S = 4.19 kJ/(kg °C), T final = 26°C, T initial = 18°C.

1 m3 water = 1,000 kg, so m = 4,000 kg.

HTE = 4.19 kJ / (kg °C) * 4,000 kg * 8°C = 1.3 * 105 J = 1.3 * 108  J = 1.2 * 105 Btu
Heat Transfer and Storage 69

4.6  SEASONAL HEATING OR COOLING

Once the U values of all exterior surfaces (envelope) have been calculated, the
conduction heat loss is calculated using Equation 4.1  for each surface and then
summed to estimate the total conduction heat loss. An important quantity is the
hourly heat loss of the house at the outside temperature close to the lowest expected
value, the design temperature. Design temperatures are listed for a number of U.S.
cities. For example, the design temperature for Amarillo, Texas, is 8°F. A heating
system needs to be able to deliver this amount of heat per hour during the coldest
days. In general, building contractors use rules of thumb to size the heating system
for the size and type of house, amount of insulation, and the design temperature
of the area. Can the size of the heating system be reduced with solar heating and
thermal mass?
The conduction heat loss for a heating season or months within the season is
estimated using degree-days. The standard practice is to use 65°F for the inside tem-
perature because most buildings do not require heat until the outdoor air temperature
falls between 60°F and 65°F. A degree-day is then the difference between 65°F and
the average temperature for the day. For example, if the average outside temperature
is 50°F for 7 days, then the number of degree-days is 105. See the Links section for
data for heating and cooling degree-days.

Example 4.5

Calculate the heat loss for a season for a wall for Amarillo, Texas.
Ut = 0.064 Btu/(ft 2 °F h), area = 50 ft 2 , season degree-days = 3,985

Season degree - hours = 3,985°F day * 24 h/day = 95,640°F h

HCON = 0.064 Btu / (ft 2 °F h) * 50 ft 2 * 95,640°F h = 3.1* 105  Btu = 3.3 * 108  J

Generally, the calculation is done by month because the heat loss will be highest in
December and January.
A similar estimation can be made for season cooling, which also uses 65°F as the
base. Conduction heat gain can be calculated for the hottest day of the summer to
estimate the design size of the cooling system. A conduction heat gain for a cooling
season is estimated by the same procedure. Again, building contractors use rules of
thumb for sizing cooling systems.

4.7  THERMAL COMFORT

As you well know, thermal comfort is subjective and differs from person to person.
In the tropics, when the temperature dips to 30°C (86°F), most people feel cold. We
want our houses to be comfortable with a feeling of heat in the winter and a feeling of
cooling in the summer. We set the thermostat at 25°C (77°F) or lower in the summer
and at 23°C (73°F) or higher in winter.
70 Introduction to Renewable Energy

Thermal comfort depends on environmental and physiological factors:

Environmental: Air temperature (dry bulb), relative humidity, air speed, and
radiation (mean radiant temperature, MRT)
Physiological: Metabolic rate and amount of clothing (insulation)

If you are active in the winter, then you feel comfortable at lower temperatures.
Previously, we dressed for winter with long underwear, sweaters, and so on, but now
we expect to wear summer clothes inside buildings during the winter.
The environmental factors are interrelated in our perception of thermal comfort.
Air temperature affects the amount of heat lost or gained due to convection and
affects evaporation of sweat.
MRT affects our perception of temperature because hot and cold objects emit or
absorb radiant energy, which activates the same sensory organs as heat transferred
by conduction or convection. The net exchange of radiant energy between two
objects is proportional to their temperature difference multiplied by their ability to
emit and absorb heat. MRT is the area-weighted mean temperature of all surround-
ing objects, which is positive when surrounding objects are warmer than the skin
and negative when they are colder. People are highly responsive to changes in MRT
as the human skin has extraordinarily high absorptivity and emissivity (0.99). This
is why people have their thermostats set lower in summer than in the winter. In
my office at the university, even though the thermostat is at the same level in the
winter, on really cold days, I am cold because I am radiating heat to a brick out-
side wall and not getting radiation in return. The Efficient Windows Collaborative
has information on the benefits of efficient windows and how they can reduce the
radiation to enhance thermal comfort (http://www.efficientwindows.org).
Relative humidity is the amount of moisture vapor in a specific volume of air.
For any dry-bulb temperature, there is only a certain amount of moisture vapor that
can be absorbed in the air before it becomes saturated and precipitation occurs.
Relative humidity affects the evaporation, and in hot, dry climates, sweat is read-
ily evaporated. At relative humidity above 80%, sweat is produced, but most of
it cannot evaporate as the air immediately surrounding the body becomes satu-
rated. Humidity less than 20% can dry out mucous membranes and greatly increase
susceptibility to infection. In the winter, humidity in buildings may need to be
increased for thermal comfort. In hot, humid climates, the control of humidity is a
major factor in cooling.
Air speed is also an important factor in thermal comfort. Stagnant air in artifi-
cially heated spaces often contributes to a feeling of stuffiness, and any air move-
ment in cold environments is often considered drafty. We can accept higher air
temperatures in the summer if there is air movement; therefore, ceiling fans are
now installed in many houses and other buildings. If the air temperature is less
than skin temperature, air movement increases convective losses substantially. In
30%–85% humidity, air movement increases the evaporation of sweat; however, air
speed makes only minimal differences for relative humidity below 30%. In winter,
Heat Transfer and Storage 71

we accept lower temperatures if there is no air movement, so the wind chill index is
a combination of air temperature and wind speed as it affects people. For example,
the wind chill index is –7°C when T = 0°C and the wind speed is 10 m/s. See the
National Weather Service Windchill Chart website (http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/
winter/windchill.shtml).
A psychrometric chart (Figure 4.6) is used to determine the thermal comfort zone
using local climatic data. That comfort zone can be enlarged (Figure 4.7) by chang-
ing air speed, humidity, and evaporative cooling in dry climates and of course by air
conditioning (changing temperature).
Thermal comfort is highly subjective as is it depends not only on personal prefer-
ence and acclimatization but also on the integration of internal and external tem-
perature sensing. The overall sensation may be pleasing or displeasing depending on
whether the overall effect is toward or away from the restoration of deep body tem-
perature. A cold sensation will be pleasing when the body is overheated but unpleas-
ant when the body core is already cold. At the same time, the temperature of the skin
is by no means uniform. The wearing of clothes also has a marked effect on the level
and distribution of skin temperature. For the purposes of building design, comfort
will be defined as the absence of thermal stress on people.

Barometric pressure Relative humidity (%)

101.325 kPa 100 90 80 70 60 50 40
0–914 mt (0–3000 ft)
28
Wet bulb 30
.950
temperature (°C) 30%
24
Absolute humidity (gkg)

25 20
.925
Specific 20%
volume 16
(m3/kg) 20 .900

15 12
.825 .875
10%
10 8
.800 .850
5
0 4

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Dry bulb temperature (°C)

FIGURE 4.6  Psychrometric chart. (Graph from the Engineering Toolbox.)

72 Introduction to Renewable Energy

25

p
m
te
b
bul
Natural

et
20
W
ventilation

15

10

10 15 20 25 30 35 Dry bulb temp

FIGURE 4.7  Thermal comfort zone (gray area) is enlarged by natural ventilation (big area).
(Graph from the Engineering Toolbox.)

REFERENCES
1. Building Envelopes Program, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. http://www.ornl.gov/
sci/roofs+walls/index.html.
2. W. A. Shurcliff. 1980. Thermal Shutters and Shades. Brick House, Amherst, NH.
3. The Thermal Mass Pattern Book, Guidelines for Sizing Heat Storage in Passive Solar
Homes. 1980. Total Environmental Action, Harrisville, NH.

RECOMMENDED RESOURCES
Links
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Buildings Technologies Office. Information
resources. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/information_resources.html.
The Engineering Toolbox. Resources, tools, and basic information for engineering and design
of technical applications. Great site for information. http://www.engineeringtoolbox​
.com/metabolism-activity-d_116.html.

Climate Data
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Center. http://www​
.noaa.gov/climate.html.
World Climate. Heating and Cooling Degree Days. http://www.climate-charts.com.
Heat Transfer and Storage 73

Heating and Cooling Degree-Days

BizEE. Calculates degree-day (heating and cooling) data for the world by day, week, month, or
average. Results downloaded as a spreadsheet. http://www.degreedays.net/.
The Engineering Toolbox. Design conditions in U.S. states and cities summer and winter.
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/us-outdoor-design-temperature-humidity-d_296​
.html.
Environmental Change Institute. Data for United Kingdom. http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/
energy/degreedays.php#degreedays.
National Climatic Data Center, NOAA. Heating and cooling degree data. http://lwf.ncdc.noaa​
.gov/oa/documentlibrary/hcs/hcs.html.
National Weather Service. Degree-day monitoring and data. http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/
products/monitoring_and_data/DD_monitoring_and_data.shtml.
Sustainable by Design. U.S. climate data. http://susdesign.com/usa_climate/index.php.

Thermal Comfort
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Thermal comfort for office work. http://
www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/thermal_comfort.html.
Health and Safety Executive. Thermal comfort. http://www.hse.gov.uk/temperature/thermal/
index.htm.
INNOVA, AirTech Instruments. Thermal Comfort. http://www.lumasense.dk/Booklets.60​
.0.html.
Thermal comfort. http://personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bsapplec/thermal.htm.

PROBLEMS
4.1. Place your hand close (do not touch) to an incandescent lightbulb. What
do you feel? How did that energy get from the lightbulb to your hand? Do
the same thing with a fluorescent lightbulb or an LED lightbulb that emits
around the same amount of light. What is the difference?
4.2. When there is significant temperature difference between outside and
inside the house, place your hand on a window (inside and then go out-
side). Note the date and inside and outside temperatures. Does the window
feel hotter or colder for each situation compared to the inside and outside
temperatures?
4.3. Place a wooden pencil and a spoon in a cup of hot water. Feel both after a
short time (10 s) and then after a longer time period (2 min). Their thermal
conductivity differs quite a bit. Write down your observations. What if there
is a metal casing on the pencil for the eraser? How does that feel compared
to the wood?
4.4. Calculate the season heating loss for a single-pane picture window 1.2 m
high by 3 m long. Use heating degree-days for Amarillo, Texas.
4.5. Calculate the season heating loss for a double-pane, low-e glass picture win-
dow 1.2 m high by 3 m long. Use heating degree-days for Amarillo, Texas.
4.6. Calculate the season cooling need for a single-pane picture window 1.2 m
high by 3 m long. Use cooling degree-days for Amarillo, Texas. In other
74 Introduction to Renewable Energy

words, your air conditioner needs to remove this amount of heat from your
house.
4.7. Calculate the season cooling need for a double-pane, low-e glass picture
window 1.2  m high by 3  m long. Use cooling degree-days for Amarillo,
Texas. In other words, your air conditioner needs to remove this amount of
heat from your house.
4.8. Calculate the season heating loss for the south-facing windows of your
house. Use heating degree-days for the city closest to you for which data
are available.
4.9. Calculate the season cooling need for the south-facing windows of your
house. Use heating degree-days for the city closest to you for which data
are available.
4.10. Calculate the conduction heat loss for the following wall, 4 m long, 2.5 m
tall. Calculate for 8  h, inside temperature at 20°C and the outside tem-
perature at −5°C. Wall components from outside to inside are: brick; 2 cm
Styrofoam board; 1.2 cm plywood; wood studs, 5 × 10 cm, on 50 cm centers
with air space between studs; 1.2 cm gypsum board.
4.11. Calculate the conduction heat loss for the following wall: 15 ft long, 8 ft
tall. Calculate for 8 h, inside temperature at 78°F and the outside tempera-
ture at 3°F. Wall components from outside to inside are brick; 1.2-cm (1/2-in.)
plywood; wood studs, 5 × 10 cm (2 × 4), 45-cm (18-in.) centers with 9-cm
(3.5-in.) fiberglass batt between the studs; 1.2-cm (1/2-in.) gypsum board.
Remember that the air film adds to the insulation.
4.12. Estimate the infiltration loss at your home on a windy day (24 h). The ­outside
temperature is at freezing. This will be a rough estimate. When doors are
opened, they let in or out a lot of air.
4.13. Use Figure 4.2. When should insulation be placed for foundations?
4.14. Use Figure 4.3. What is the recommended R value for a wall cavity for
a new wood frame house in your hometown? Include the town and state in
your answer.
4.15. Use Figure 4.3. What is the recommended R value for the attic for a new
wood frame house in your hometown? Include the town and state in your
answer.
4.16. Calculate the heat stored in a concrete floor (10 cm thick, 3.5 m × 4.5 m),
initial temperature 15°C, final temperature 27°C.
4.17. Calculate the heat stored in water (fifty 4-liter jugs), initial temperature
15°C, final temperature 27°C.
4.18. What is the design heating temperature for your home? Use the city c­ losest
to you for which there are data. Use your parents’ home if needed.
4.19. What is the design cooling temperature for your home? Use the city ­closest
to you for which there are data. Use your parents’ home if needed.
4.20. At what temperature do you set your thermostat in summer? In winter?
4.21. Most ceiling fans will run in both directions. Why?