Applied Physics I B.

Tech CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE/CSBS/ME/CE

UNIT – II: SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

A Semiconductor is a substance whose electrical properties lies between Conductors and

Insulators.

 It has –ve temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) which means the resistance of a
semiconductor decreases with the increase in temperature and vice-versa.

 When a suitable metallic impurity is added to a semiconductor, its current conducting

property change appreciably.

Ex : Silicon and Germanium

Semiconductors are mainly two types

1. Intrinsic (Pure) Semiconductors

2. Extrinsic (Impure) Semiconductors

1. Intrinsic (Pure) Semiconductors:

 A Semiconductor which does not have any kind of impurities, behaves as an Insulator at
0k and behaves as a Conductor at higher temperature is known as Intrinsic Semiconductor
or Pure Semiconductors.

 Germanium and Silicon (4th group elements) are the best examples of intrinsic
semiconductors and they possess diamond cubic crystalline structure.

2. Extrinsic Semiconductors

 Extrinsic Semiconductors is an intrinsic semiconductor doped with specific impurities like

either 3rd group (B, Ga, In) elements or 5th group (As, P, Sb) elements.

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 These impurities deeply change its electrical properties.

 Making it, suitable for electric and optoelectronic applications

 Based on the impurities present in the Intrinsic Semiconductor, they are classified into two
categories.

i. n-type semiconductors

ii. p-type semiconductors

i. n-type semiconductors:

• The Intrinsic Semiconductors doped with pentavalent

impurities are called n-type Semiconductors.

• When any pentavalent element such as P, As, Sb is

added to the intrinsic Semiconductor, 4 valance
electrons are involved in covalent bonding with four
neighboring pure Semiconductor atoms.

• The fifth electron is weakly bound to the parent atom.

Even for lesser thermal energy it is released and Leaving
the parent atom positively ionized.

• The energy level of fifth electron is called donor

level(Ed).

• The donor level is close to the bottom of the conduction band and most of the donor level
electrons are excited in to the conduction band at room temperature so the electrons become
the Majority charge carriers.

• Hence in n-type Semiconductors electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.

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ii. p-type semiconductors:

 The Intrinsic Semiconductors doped with trivalent

impurities are called p-type Semiconductors.

 When a trivalent element such as Al, B, Ga or In have

three electrons in their outer most orbits, added to the
intrinsic semiconductor all the three electrons of B are
engaged in covalent bonding with the three neighboring
Si atoms.

 These types of trivalent impurities are called acceptor

impurities and the semiconductors doped the acceptor
impurities are called p-type semiconductors.

 Due to ionization of acceptor atoms only holes and no electrons are created.

 Thus, holes are more in number than electrons and hence holes are majority carriers and
electrons are minority carriers in p-type semiconductors.

Intrinsic Vs Extrinsic semiconductor:

BASIS OF INTRINSIC EXTRINSIC
DIFFERENCE SEMICONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR
Doping of impurity Doping or addition of impurity A small amount of impurity is
does not take place in intrinsic doped in a pure semiconductor for
semiconductor. preparing extrinsic semiconductor.
Density of The number of free electrons in The number of electrons and holes
electrons and holes the conduction band is equal to are not equal.
the number of holes in the
valence band.
Electrical Electrical conductivity is low. Electrical conductivity is high
conductivity
Dependency of Electrical conductivity is a Electrical conductivity depends on
electrical function of temperature alone. temperature as well as on the
conductivity amount of impurity doping in the
pure semiconductor.

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Example Crystalline form of pure Silicon Impurity like As, Sb, P, In, Bi, Al
and Germanium. etc. are doped with Germanium and
Silicon atom.

3). HALL EFFECT (expression for Hall coefficient):

When a piece of conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying current is placed in a transverse
(perpendicular) magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction
normal to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect and
the generated voltage is known as Hall voltage.

 If the material is a p type semiconductor, when electric and magnetic field is applied at
right angle to each other, holes experience a force and are accumulated on one face of the material.
This causes a potential difference and a voltage is developed called Hall voltage.
 If the material is a n type semiconductor, when electric and magnetic field are applied at
right angle to each other, electrons experience a force and are accumulated on one face of the
material. This causes a potential difference and a voltage is developed called Hall voltage.
Consider a n type semiconductor in which electrons have a velocity v due to current flow.
Let B be the applied magnetic field. The electrons experience a force of Bev due to the magnetic
field. This causes the electron current to be deflected causing a negative charge to accumulate on
one face of the semiconductor. A potential difference is established across the two faces of the
material causing a field EH. This field gives rise to a force e EH on electrons in opposite direction.

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At equilibrium
e EH = Bev
EH = Bv
If J is the current density, then J = nev where n is the number of charge carriers.

v=

EH = Bv
=B

The Hall effect is described by means of Hall coefficient, R H

RH =

EH = B

= RH B 𝐽

RH = =

In n type material since Hall field is developed in negative direction compared to the field
developed for p type material, negative sign is used.
𝟏
RH = -
𝒏𝒆

For p type material, RH = where p is the density of holes.

APPLICATION OF HALL EFFECT:

Determination of the type of Semi-conductors:
The Hall coefficient 𝑅 is negative for an n-type semiconductor and positive for p-type
semiconductor. Thus, the sign of Hall coefficient can be used to determine whether a given Semi-
conductor is n or p-type.
Calculation of carrier concentration:

RH = - or n = (number of electrons)

Determination of Mobility:
If the conduction is due to one typeof carriers, electrons
σ = neμ
σ
μ= =σ𝑅

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μ=σ𝑅 where μ is the mobility of charge carriers.

Measurement of Magnetic Flux Density:
Hall Voltage is proportional to the magnetic flux density B for a given current I. so, Hall Effect
can be used as the basis for the design of a magnetic flux density in metal.

4). DIRECT AND INDIRECT BAND GAP SEMICONDUCTORS

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Direct band gap semiconductor Indirect band gap semiconductor

1. These are impure or Extrinsic or 1. These are pure or intrinsic or elemental
compound semiconductors Semiconductors.
2. Examples: InP, GaAs, GaAsP etc 2. Examples: Ge, Si.
3. 3.
E E
CB CB

Et
Eg = hν Eg = hν+phonon
K K

VB VB
4. The minimum energy of Conduction band
4. The minimum energy of Conduction band
(CB) and maximum energy of valence
(CB) and maximum energy of valence
band (VB) have the different values of
band (VB) have the same value of wave
wave vector
vector,
i.e. k1 ≠ k2
i.e. k1 = k2
5. Here an electron from CB cannot
5. Here an electron from CB to can
recombine directly with holes in VB.
recombine with a hole in VB directly by
But can recombine through traps by
emitting light of photon of energy ‘h𝜗’.
emitting phonons(heat).
6. They are used to fabricate LEDs, Laser
6. They are used to amplify the signals in
Diodes etc.
electronic devices like rectifiers,
7. Life time (recombination rate) of charge
transistors, amplifiers etc.
carriers is less.
7. Life time of charge carriers is more.
8. Emission of light has energy gap is
8. No emission of light. It conducts only
Eg = ℎ𝐶/𝜆 eV
Electricity.

4). P-N JUNCTION DIODE (Construction, Working and I-V Characteristics):

Construction/formation:

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A p-n junction is formed when a p- type and n- type semiconductors are joined through the process
of crystal growth. Within the semiconductor the region where there is a transition from p- type to
n- type is called a junction.
 In p-type material holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers.
 In n-type material electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge carriers.
 At the junction, holes diffuse from p region to n region and likewise electrons diffuse from n
region to p region. The electrons and holes recombine and disappear at the junction region.
 Around the junction region, free electrons and holes recombine and only immobile ions are
present. This region is called space charge region. This region is also called depletion region.
 The fixed ions in the depletion region produce electric field, E. This electric field opposes the
further diffusion of electrons and holes from n-type region to p-type region. The electric field
gives rise to a potential called potential barrier.
 Further diffusion of electrons and holes across the potential barrier can only take place when
they overcome the potential barrier.

Circuit symbol of p-n junction diode:

Working of p-n junction diode under forward and reverse bias:

p-n junction under forward bias:

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 When a dc voltage, VF is connected to the diode in such a way that the positive terminal of the
source is connected to the p-region and the negative terminal to the n-region, then the junction
is forward biased.
 The voltage across the junction decreases by an amount, VO - VF, where VO is the barrier
voltage.
 The majority charge carriers diffuse across the junction and hence the width of the depletion
region decreases.

p-n junction under reverse bias:

 When a dc voltage, VR, is connected to the diode in such a way that the positive terminal of the
source is connected to the n-region and the negative terminal to the p-region, then the junction
is reverse biased.
 The voltage across the junction increases and is equal to, VO + VR, where VO is the barrier
voltage.
 The majority charge carriers are pushed away from the junction and hence the width of the
depletion region increases.
 Minority charge carriers drift across the barrier and give rise to current.
I - V characteristics of p-n junction diode:
(i) Unbiased circuit:
When the junction is not connected to any voltage source, it is said to be unbiased. Due to
the presence of barrier potential across the junction, there is no flow of charge carriers and
hence there is no current flow through the junction.
(ii) Forward biased circuit:
When the positive terminal of the source (battery) is connected to p-type and negative
terminal to n-type, the junction is said to be forward biased.

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 As long as the forward bias voltage is less than the voltage across the potential barrier, the
current through the junction is negligibly small.
 The voltage at which the current increases sharply is called cut - in voltage or knee voltage.
 As the forward voltage increases beyond the potential barrier voltage, there is an
exponential increase in forward current. The current is in mA.
 The knee voltage for germanium is 0.3 V and for silicon it is 0.7 V.

(iii) Reverse biased circuit:

When the positive terminal of the source (battery) is connected to n-type and negative
terminal to p-type, the junction is said to be reverse biased.
 Under reverse bias condition a small reverse current (in µ A) flows across the junction due
to minority charge carriers.
 When the applied reverse voltage is high, it breaks the covalent bonds of the crystal and a
large number of charge carriers are produced. Thus the current rises suddenly in the reverse
direction. The reverse voltage at which the diode breaks down is called breakdown voltage
or Zener voltage.
 The diode breaks down may be due to Avalanche break down or due to Zener break down.
 Avalanche break down occurs in diodes which are lightly doped.
 Zener break down occurs in diodes which are thin and heavily doped.

Application: A p-n junction can be used as a switch or rectifier.

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5). ZENER DIODE (characteristics and explanation):

Zener diode is a semiconductor diode specially designed to operate in the breakdown
region of the reverse bias. Zener diodes are always operated in the reverse bias condition. The
breakdown phenomenon is reversible and harmless.

 Zener diode acts similar to a ordinary diode under forward bias condition.
 In reverse bias condition, as the reverse voltage is increased a small amount of current called
leakage current flows. Leakage current is due to minority charge carriers.
 At a particular value of reverse voltage, the current increases suddenly. This voltage is called
breakdown voltage or Zener voltage, V Z.
 In ordinary diodes the breakdown voltage is high and if reverse current is allowed to flow, then
the diode will be damaged.
 Zener diodes are designed so that their Zener voltage is much lower, about 2.4 volts.
 When a reverse voltage above the Zener voltage is applied to a Zener diode, there is a
controlled breakdown which does not damage the diode.
 In the Zener region the voltage across the Zener diode remains constant but the current changes
depending on the supply voltage.
 The location of Zener region can be controlled by varying doping levels. An increase in doping
will decrease the Zener potential.
 Zener diodes are available in the range of 2 V to 200 V.
Application:

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As a voltage regulator, protects from overvoltage, Used in clipping circuits, Used to shift
voltage

6). RADIATIVE RECOMBINATION:

 Radiative recombination occurs when an electron in conduction band recombines with a hole
in the valence band and the excess energy is given out as photon.
 Optical process associated with radiative recombination is: Absorption, Spontaneous emission
and Stimulated emission.

i. Absorption: When at atom absorbs an

amount of energy ‘hv’ in the form of
photon from the external agency and
excited into the higher energy levels
from ground state, then this process is
known as absorption.
Atom + hv atom*
ii. Spontaneous Emission: When an atom in the excited state emits a photon of energy ‘hv’
coming down to ground state by itself without any external agency, such an emission is called
spontaneous emission.
Atom*  atom + hν
 Photons released in spontaneous emission are not coherent. Hence spontaneous emission
is not useful for producing lasers.
iii. Stimulated Emission: When an atom in the excited state, emits two photons of same energy
‘hv’ while coming to the ground state under the influence of an external agency, such an
emission is called stimulated emission.
Atom*  atom + 2hν
 In the two photons one photon induces the stimulated emission and the second one is
released by the transition of atom from higher energy level to lower energy level.
 Both the photons are coherent.

7). LIGHT EMITTING DIODE [LED] (Construction, working and I-V characteristics):

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Principle: A Light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a p-n junction diode that gives off light
when it is forward biased. When carriers are injected across a forward-biased junction, it emits
incoherent light. Most of the commercial LEDs are realized using a highly doped n and p Junction.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and hence the color, depends on the band gap energy of the
materials forming the p-n junction. The emitted photon energy is approximately equal to the band
gap energy of the semiconductor.
The following equation relates the wavelength and the energy band gap.
hν = Eg
hc/λ = Eg
λ = hc/ Eg
Where h is Plank’s constant, c is the speed of the light and Eg is the energy band gap.

Construction:

 In a surface emitting LED light is emitted in

a direction perpendicular to the p-n junction
plane.
 An n-type layer is grown on a substrate and
a p-type layer is grown on it by the process
of diffusion.
 The p-layer is made very thin to prevent loss of photons due to absorption in the layer. Metal
contact is present on the p-layer such that some part of p-layer will allow photons to escape.
 Metal contact is present at the bottom for reflecting the photons into the material and to provide
electrical contact.
 The generated light may suffer total internal reflection at the semiconductor-air interface and
hence the device is enclosed in a epoxy resin of suitable refractive index so that the photons
escape.

Working:
When a Voltage V is applied across the junction, the potential barrier across the p-n junction is
reduced. This allows the electrons from the n side to get injected into the p-side. Since electrons
are the minority carriers in the p-side, this process is called minority carrier injection. But the hole

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injection from the p side to n side is very less and so the current is primarily due to the flow of
electrons into the p-side.

Electrons injected into the p-side recombine with the holes which results in spontaneous emission
of photons (light). This effect is called injection electroluminescence. These photons should be
allowed to escape from the device without being reabsorbed.
The recombination can be classified into the following two kinds

 Direct recombination
 Indirect recombination

In direct band gap materials, the minimum energy of the conduction band occurs at the same value
of momentum vector as the maximum energy of the valence band. The efficiency of transition is
good. GaAs is an example of a direct band-gap material.
In in-direct band gap materials, the minimum energy of the conduction band and maximum energy
of valence band occur at different values of momentum vector. Due to this difference in
momentum, the probability of direct electron-hole recombination is less. GaP is an example of an
indirect band-gap material.
The amount of light emitted is directly proportional to the forward current.

 To get the desired colored LED, we must choose suitable material with right Eg, such that
𝒉𝒄
𝑬𝒈 =
𝝀
Characteristics of LED:
One of the major characteristics of an LED is its colour.
 Gallium Arsenide, GaAs emits light in infrared region.
 Gallium Arsenide-Phosphide, GaAsP emits red or yellow colour.

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 Gallium Phosphide, GaP emits red or green colour.

The diagram below shows some typical approximate

curves for the voltages that may be expected for different
LED colours. Typically, the LED voltage drop is between
around 2 and 4 volts.
The actual LED voltage that appears across the two
terminals is dependent mainly upon the type of LED in
question - the materials used.

Applications of LED:

 As indicators and light source in fiber optics communication.

 A number of LED'S may be grouped together to form a display

SOLAR CELL (Structure, working principle and characteristics):

A solar cell is a p-n junction that can generate electrical power when illuminated with sunlight.
They operate under photovoltaic mode i.e. if the diode is left on open-circuit; an externally
measurable voltage appears between p and n regions.
The structure of a solar cell is
shown in the figure below. It consists
of a p – type chip on which a thin
layer of n – type material is grown.
The n region is heavily doped and
thin so that the light can penetrate
through it easily. The p region is
lightly doped so that most of the
depletion region lies in the p side. It
also consists of a glass cover and
antireflection coating. The front and
back contacts are metallic contacts

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for the flow of electrons. Electron hole pairs are mainly created in the depletion region and due to
the built-in potential and electric field, electrons move to the n region and the holes to the p region.
The movement of electrons and holes results in accumulation of charge on the two sides of the
junction and produces a potential difference called photo emf. If a load (bulb in the above circuit)
is connected across the cell a current flow through it.
I-V Characteristics:
The I-V characteristics depend on the intensity of the incident radiation and also the operating
point (external load) of the cell.

 If the external circuit is a short circuit (external load resistance is zero) then the only current is
due to the generated electron – hole pair by the incident light. This is called the photocurrent,
denoted by Iph. Another name for this is the short circuit current, Isc.
 The photo current is related to the intensity of the incident radiation, I op, by Iph = k Iop where k
is a constant and depends on the device. k is equivalent to an efficiency metric that measures
the conversion of light into electron-hole pairs.
 When external load, R, is connected it develops a voltage. This voltage opposes the built-in
potential and reduces the barrier for carrier injection across the junction.
 This is similar to a pn junction in forward bias, where the external bias causes injection of
minority carriers and increased current. This forward bias current opposes the photo current
generated within the device due to the solar radiation. This is because Iph is generated due to
electrons going to the n side and holes to the p side due to the electric field within the device,
i.e. drift current while the forward bias current is due to diffusion current (Id) caused by the
injection of minority carriers.
 The net current can be written as I = −Iph + Id
 From the figure 1 below, it can be seen that Short circuit current and open circuit voltage both
increase with increasing illumination.
 From figure 2 below, maximum power is indicated by the shaded area. The corresponding
voltage and current are Vm and Im
Power = Vm x Im

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Figure 1 Figure 2

Questions:

Short answer questions

1. Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.
2. Write a note on radiative transitions.
3. Explain the working of forward bias and reverse bias p-n junction diode.
4. Draw I - V characteristic curve of p-n junction diode and explain.
5. What are the applications of Hall effect?
6. Write the few applications of solar cell.

Long answer questions

1. What is Hall Effect? Derive an expression for Hall coefficient in semiconductors.

2. Describe the formation of p-n junction and discuss I – V characteristics of p – n junction
diode in forward and reverse bias conditions.
3. What is a Zener diode? Draw I - V characteristic curve of Zener diode and explain.
4. Explain the construction, working and characteristics of LED
5. Explain the structure, working principle and characteristics of solar cell.

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