APPLIED PHYSICS

UNIT - 2
Chapter 2 : SEMICONDUCTORS

BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

In an isolated atom there are discrete energy levels in which the electrons can exist. However in
solids, in which the atoms are very close to each other, due to interatomic interactions the
electronic energy levels form nearly continuous bands. These are called energy bands.
The highest energy band that is completely filled with electrons is known as a valence band.
The next available band above the valence band is known as a conduction band.
The separation between the valence band and the conduction band is known as energy gap (Eg).
A material can conduct electric current only if it has electrons in the conduction band.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS BASED ON BAND STRUCTURE

a) Conductors: In conductors the valence band
and the conduction band overlap (Fig. a). As
such, there is no energy gap. (Eg = 0). Thus, the
conduction band always has electrons in it (even
at 0°K). Hence, on application of electric
potential a large current (in Amperes) flows
through conductors.
Example: Copper, Aluminium, Gold, Silver
b) Insulators: In insulators, the conduction band
is completely empty. There is a large energy gap
between the valence band and the conduction
band. (Eg > 3eV) (Fig. b). To take electrons from
valence band to conduction band huge amount
of energy is required. Therefore, under normal
conditions, an insulator does not conduct electric
current.
Example: Plastic, wood, paper, rubber
Note: If sufficiently high voltage (energy) is
supplied to an insulator it breaks down and
conducts current.
c) Semiconductors: In semiconductors, at 0°K,
the conduction band is completely empty. Thus,
a semiconductor will not conduct current and
behave like an insulator at 0°K. The energy gap
between the valence band and the conduction
band is small (Eg < 2eV) (Fig c). Thus, at room
temperature, the surrounding energy is sufficient to overcome the energy gap and take some
electrons from valence band to conduction band. Hence, at room temperature, on application of
electric potential a small current (in milliamperes) flows through a semiconductor.
Example: Silicon, Germanium, Selenium, Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
Note: As the temperature is raised, more and more electrons from valence band are taken to the
conduction band. Hence the current in a semiconductor increases with temperature.

Semiconductors Prof. Harison Cota, Don Bosco College of Engineering, Fatorda Page 1
DRIFT CURRENT AND DRIFT VELOCITY (vd)
When an electric potential is applied across a
semiconductor, the free electrons start
moving (drifting) towards the positive
terminal, whereas holes move towards the
negative terminal as shown in the figure. This
movement of free charge carriers (electrons
and holes) produces a current in the
semiconductor called as Drift Current.
The average velocity with which the free
charge carriers drift through the
semiconductor when an electric potential is
applied across it is called Drift Velocity (denoted by 𝒗𝒅 ).

Mobility (𝝁)
The ratio of the drift velocity of the free charge carriers to the electric field applied is defined as
the mobility of charge carriers. It is denoted as 𝝁.
𝑣𝑑
Thus, 𝜇 = where ‘E’ is the applied electric field
𝐸
SI units of mobility: m2/V.s

CONDUCTIVITY OF CHARGE CARRIERS (𝝈)

Consider a rectangular block of semiconductor of length
‘𝐿’ and area of cross-section ‘𝐴’. Let ‘𝑛’ be the
concentration of free electrons (or holes) available in it.
Total number of free electrons in the semiconductor,
𝑁 = 𝑛𝐴𝐿
Total free charge present in it, 𝑄 = 𝑁. 𝑒 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 𝐿
Let a potential difference ‘𝑉’ be applied across the
𝑉
semiconductor so that an electric field, 𝐸 = 𝐿
will be set up in it.
The resulting drift current through the conductor will be,
𝑄 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐿
𝐼=𝑡 = 𝑡
𝐿
= 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 (since 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑑 = drift velocity)

The current density ‘J’ is given by,

𝐼 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 𝑣𝑑
𝐽=𝐴= = 𝑛 𝑒 𝑣𝑑 ……..eqn.1
𝐴

From Ohm’s Law, we have

𝑉 𝑉𝐴 𝜌𝐿
𝐼=𝑅= (since 𝑅 = , where 𝜌 is the resistivity)
𝜌𝐿 𝐴
1 𝑉
=𝜎𝐴𝐸 (since 𝜌 = 𝜎, and 𝐿 = 𝐸)
𝐼 𝜎𝐴𝐸
Current density, 𝐽 = 𝐴 = =𝜎𝐸 ……..eqn.2
𝐴

From eqn.1 and eqn.2 we have,

𝜎 𝐸 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝑣𝑑
𝑛 𝑒 𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝑑
⇒ 𝜎= =𝑛𝑒𝜇 (since = 𝜇 = mobility of charge carriers)
𝐸 𝐸

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Thus, 𝜎=𝑛𝑒𝜇 ------> expression for conductivity of charge carriers
For free electrons, 𝜎𝑒 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝜇𝑒
where 𝜎𝑒 and 𝜇𝑒 are the conductivity and mobility of free electrons respectively.

Similarly, for holes, 𝜎ℎ = 𝑝 𝑒 𝜇ℎ

where 𝑝 is the concentration of holes
𝜎ℎ and 𝜇ℎ are the conductivity and mobility of holes respectively.

Total conductivity (due to electrons and holes) is,

𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜎𝑒 + 𝜎ℎ = 𝑛 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑝 𝑒 𝜇ℎ ………eqn.3

Drift current density due to free electrons,

𝐽𝑒 = 𝜎𝑒 𝐸 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝐸 (using eqn.2)

Similarly, current density due to holes,

𝐽ℎ = 𝜎ℎ 𝐸 = 𝑝 𝑒 𝜇ℎ 𝐸
Thus, total current density,
𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐽𝑒 + 𝐽ℎ = 𝑛 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝐸 + 𝑝 𝑒 𝜇ℎ 𝐸 = 𝑒 𝐸 (𝑛 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑝 𝜇ℎ ) ………eqn.4
For intrinsic semiconductor
𝑛 = 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 where 𝑛𝑖 is the intrinsic concentration of electrons or holes
Thus eqn.3 and eqn.4 become,
𝜎𝑖 = 𝑒 𝑛𝑖 (𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ) ……..intrinsic conductivity
𝐽𝑖 = 𝑒 𝐸 𝑛𝑖 (𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ) ……..intrinsic current density

THE HALL EFFECT

If a semiconductor carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field with the direction of field
perpendicular to the direction of current, then a potential difference is developed across the
semiconductor in a direction perpendicular to both current and magnetic field. This
phenomenon is called Hall Effect and the potential developed is called Hall potential (VH).

Explanation of Hall Effect (for p-type

semiconductor)
In a p-type semiconductor the current is due
to holes moving from left to right as shown in
the figure. Since the semiconductor is placed
in a magnetic field, the holes experience a
magnetic force which according to the
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is in the downward
direction. Due to this downward magnetic
force the holes start drifting towards the
lower surface making it positively charged,
while the upper surface becomes deficient of
holes or negatively charged. This gives rise to
the Hall potential in the upward direction.
Explanation of Hall Effect (for n-type
semiconductor)
In a n-type semiconductor the current is due

Semiconductors Prof. Harison Cota, Don Bosco College of Engineering, Fatorda Page 3
to electrons moving from right to left as shown in the figure. Since the semiconductor is placed
in a magnetic field, the electrons experience a magnetic force which according to the Fleming’s
Left Hand Rule is in the downward direction. Due to this downward magnetic force the electrons
start drifting towards the lower surface making it negatively charged, while the upper surface
becomes deficient of electrons or positively charged. This gives rise to the Hall potential in the
downward direction.

Expression for Hall Potential (𝑽𝑯 )

Consider a p-type semiconductor of
length ‘L’, width ‘w’ and thickness ‘t’
and carrying a current ‘I’ along x-
direction as shown in the figure. Let ‘B’
be the magnetic field applied
perpendicular to the direction of
current along z-direction.
Due to the magnetic field the holes
experience a magnetic force given by,
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐵 ……….eqn. 1
(𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑞 = 𝑒, 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑑 , 𝜃 = 90°)
where 𝑣𝑑 = drift velocity of holes
According to Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, the direction of this magnetic force is downwards (along
–ve y-direction). Due to this magnetic force the holes drift towards the lower surface making it
positively charged while the upper surface becomes negatively charged. An electric potential
called as Hall Potential 𝑉𝐻 is thus developed across the semiconductor in the upward direction
(+ve y-drection). The Hall potential gives rise to an electric field called as Hall Field given by,
𝑉𝐻
𝐸𝐻 = ……….eqn. 2
𝑤
Due to this electriv filed the holes now experience an electric force give by,
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑒𝐸𝐻 ……………eqn. 3 (𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸, 𝑞 = 𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐻 )
The direction of this electric force is upwards, (+ve y-dir).
Since 𝐹𝑚 and 𝐹𝑒 are in opposite directions, after some time when they become equal in
magnitude, they will cancel each other and the net force on the holes will become zero.
In this situation we have
𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑚
⇒ 𝑒𝐸𝐻 = 𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐵 (from eqn. 1 and eqn. 3)
⇒ 𝐸𝐻 = 𝑣𝑑 𝐵
𝑉𝐻
⇒ = 𝑣𝑑 𝐵 (using eqn. 2)
𝑤
⇒ 𝑉𝐻 = 𝑤𝑣𝑑 𝐵 ……….eqn. 4
We know current density is given by,
𝐽 = 𝑝𝑒𝑣𝑑 ………….eqn. 5 (see eqn. 1 from Conductivity derivation)
Current density is also given by,
𝐼 𝐼
𝐽 = 𝐴 = 𝑤𝑡 …………eqn. 6 (𝐴 = area of cross-section = 𝑤. 𝑑)
From eqn. 5 and eqn. 6 we can write,
𝐼
= 𝑝𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝑤𝑡
𝐼
⇒ 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑝𝑒𝑤𝑡 ………..eqn. 7

Semiconductors Prof. Harison Cota, Don Bosco College of Engineering, Fatorda Page 4
Substituting eqn. 7 in eqn. 4 we get,
𝐼
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑤𝑡 𝐵
𝐼𝐵
⇒ 𝑉𝐻 = ……….eqn. 8 ---------> Expression for Hall Potential
𝑝𝑒𝑡

𝐼𝐵
⇒𝑝=𝑉 ……….eqn. 9
𝐻 𝑒𝑡
Using the above expression, the concentration of holes ‘𝒑’ (or concentration of free electrons
‘𝒏’) can be determined.

Hall Coefficient (𝑹𝑯 )

Hall Coefficient is defined as the Hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction.
𝐻 𝐸
𝑅𝐻 = 𝐽.𝐵
Substituting for 𝐸𝐻 and 𝐽 from eqn. 2 and eqn. 6 we get,
𝑉𝐻
𝑤 𝑉𝐻 .𝑡
𝑅𝐻 = 𝐼 =
.𝐵 𝐼𝐵
𝑤𝑡
Further substituting for 𝑉𝐻 from eqn. 8 we get,
𝐼𝐵
.𝑡 1
𝑝𝑒𝑡
𝑅𝐻 = = 𝑝𝑒
𝐼𝐵
1
𝑅𝐻 = 𝑝𝑒 ………eqn. 10

To find mobility (𝝁𝒑 or 𝝁𝒏 ) of holes or electrons

The conductivity ‘𝜎’ is given by,
𝜎 = 𝑝𝑒𝜇ℎ
𝜎
⇒ 𝜇ℎ = 𝑝𝑒
⇒ 𝜇ℎ = 𝜎. 𝑅𝐻 ……….eqn. 11 (using eqn. 10)

Applications of Hall Effect

1) To determine the nature of semiconductor (i.e. whether n-type or p-type). This can be
determined from the polarity of the Hall potential 𝑉𝐻 .
If 𝑉𝐻 is +ve (along +ve y-dir. or upwards) ⇒ p-type semiconductor.
If 𝑉𝐻 is -ve (along -ve y-dir. or downwards) ⇒ n-type semiconductor.
2) To determine the concentration of charge carriers (holes or free electrons). This can be
determined using eqn. 9.
𝐼𝐵
𝑝=𝑉 -------> concentration of holes
𝐻 𝑒𝑡
𝐼𝐵
𝑛=𝑉 -------> concentration of free electrons
𝐻 𝑒𝑡

3) To determine the mobility of holes or free electrons. This can be determined using eqn. 11.
𝜇ℎ = 𝜎. 𝑅𝐻 ------> mobility of holes
𝜇𝑒 = 𝜎. 𝑅𝐻 ------> mobility of free electrons.

Semiconductors Prof. Harison Cota, Don Bosco College of Engineering, Fatorda Page 5