AM CLASS

PHY113
Topics :
- Vector Analysis
- Electrostatics
- Potentials
Vector Operations

Addition of two vectors : A + B = B + A (commutative)

(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (associative)
A − B = A + (−B)

Multiplication by a scalar : a(A + B) = aA + aB

Dot product of two vectors : A ・ B ≡ AB cos θ

A ・ B = B ・ A (commutative)
A ・ (B + C) = A ・ B + A ・ C
Cross product of two vectors : A × B ≡ AB sin θ where is a unit vector (vector of magnitude
1) pointing perpendicular to the plane of A and B
A × (B + C) = (A × B) + (A × C) (distributive)
(B × A) = −(A × B) (not commutative)
Vector Algebra: Component Form

A + B = (Ax + Ay + Az ) + (Bx + By + Bz )
= (Ax + Bx ) + (Ay + By) + (Az + Bz)

aA = (aAx ) + (aAy) + (aAz)

A ・ B = (Ax + Ay + Az ) ・ (Bx + By + Bz )
= Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz

A× B= = (AyBz-AzBy) + (AzBx -AxBz) + (AxBy -AyBx)

Ax Ay Az
Triple Products
 Scalar triple product : |A ・ (B × C)| is the volume of the parallelepiped generated by A, B, and C, since |
B × C| is the area of the base, and |Acos θ| is the altitude

A ・ (B × C) = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz
A ・ (B × C) = (A × B) ・ C

 Vector triple product : A × (B × C) = B(A ・ C) − C(A ・ B)

(A × B) × C = −C × (A × B) = −A(B ・ C) + B(A ・ C)
(A × B) ・ (C × D) = (A ・ C)(B ・ D) − (A ・ D)(B ・ C)
A × [B × (C × D)] = B[A ・ (C × D)] − (A ・ B)(C × D)
How Vectors Transform
 Ay = A cos θ , Az = A sin θ

 = A cos = A cos(θ − φ) = A(cos θ cos φ + sin θ sin φ) = cos φAy + sin φAz

 = A sin = A sin(θ − φ) = A(sin θ cos φ − cos θ sin φ) = −sin φAy + cos φAz

 We might express this conclusion in matrix notation

The Del Operator

Where ∇ is called del operator

Gradient
Suppose, now, that we have a function of three variables - T (x, y, z)

Where is the gradient of T

dT = ∇T ・ dl = |∇T ||dl| cos θ,
 The maximum change in T evidentally occurs when θ = 0. For a fixed distance |dl|, dT is
greatest when we move in the same direction as ∇T
 The gradient ∇T points in the direction of maximum increase of the function T
The Divergence

Divergence of a vector function v is itself a scalar ∇ ・ v

The Curl
Second Derivatives
 This object, which we write as ∇2T for short, is called the Laplacian of T

 Laplacian of a vector v is given by

 The curl of a gradient is always zero

 The divergence of a curl is always zero

INTEGRAL CALCULUS
 Line Integrals: A line integral is an expression of the form

where v is a vector function, dl is the infinitesimal displacement vector and the integral is to be
carried out along a prescribed path P from point a to point b. At each point on the path, we take
the dot product of v with the displacement dl to the next point on the path.
 Surface Integrals: A surface integral is an expression of the form

where v is again some vector function, and the integral is over a specified surface S. Here da is an
infinitesimal patch of area, with direction perpendicular to the surface
If the surface is closed then “outward” direction is taken to be positive, but for open surfaces it’s
arbitrary.
 Volume Integrals: A volume integral is an expression of the form

where T is a scalar function and dτ is an infinitesimal volume element. In Cartesian coordinates,

dτ = dx dy dz
volume integrals of vector functions is given by
The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients
 Suppose we have a scalar function of three variables T (x, y, z) the function T will change by an amount
dT = (∇T ) ・ d l1

This is the fundamental theorem for gradients

The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences
Divergence theorem :

x
The Fundamental Theorem for Curls
 Stokes’ theorem, states that
Spherical Coordinates
 spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ); r is the distance from the origin (the magnitude of the position vector r), θ
(the angle down from the z axis) is called the polar angle, and φ (the angle around from the x axis) is the
azimuthal angle.
 x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ.
 any vector A can be expressed in terms of spherical coordinates as
Spherical Coordinates
 Gradient:

 Divergence:

 Curl:

 Laplacian

 r ranges from 0 to ∞, φ from 0 to 2π, and θ from 0 to π (not 2π—that would count every point twice).
Cylindrical Coordinates
 The cylindrical coordinates (s, φ, z) of a point P, φ has the same meaning as in
spherical coordinates, and z is the same as Cartesian; s is the distance to P from the z
axis, whereas the spherical coordinate r is the distance from the origin.
 x = s cos φ, y = s sin φ, z = z.

 The infinitesimal displacements are dls = ds, dlφ = s dφ, dlz = dz,

 The range of s is 0→∞, φ goes from 0 → 2π, and z from −∞ to∞.

Cylindrical Coordinates
 Gradient:

 Divergence:

 Curl:

 Laplacian:
The One-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function
 The one-dimensional Dirac delta function, δ(x), can be pictured as an infinitely high, infinitesimally
narrow “spike,” with area 1

 and

 If f (x) is some “ordinary” function then the product f (x)δ(x) is zero everywhere except
at x = 0. It follows that f (x)δ(x) = f (0)δ(x).

 Here, the integral need not run from −∞ to +∞; it is sufficient that the domain extend across the delta
function, and −ℇ to +ℇ would do as well

 we can shift the spike from x = 0 to some other point, x = a

The One-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function
The One-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function
The Three-Dimensional Delta Function
 δ3(r) = δ(x) δ(y) δ(z).

 This three-dimensional delta function is zero everywhere except at (0, 0, 0), where it blows up. Its volume
integral is 1:

 and generalizing
The Divergence of /r2
 Consider the vector function

 Suppose we integrate over a sphere of radius R, centered at the origin; the surface integral is

 The source of the problem is the point r = 0, where v blows up. we found that the divergence of /r2 is zero
everywhere except at the origin, and yet its integral over any volume containing the origin is a constant.
These are precisely the defining conditions for the Dirac delta function
Potentials

 If the curl of a vector field (F) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be written as the gradient of a scalar

potential (V): ∇ × F = 0 ⇐⇒ F = −∇V.

 If the divergence of a vector field (F) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be expressed as the curl of a

vector potential (A): ∇ ・ F = 0 ⇐⇒ F = ∇ × A.

Electrostatics

 Electrostatics is a condition in which all the source charges are stationary

 Principle of superposition states that the interaction between any two charges is completely unaffected
by the presence of others. This means that to determine the force on Q, we can first compute the force F1,

due to q1 alone (ignoring all the others); then we compute the force F2, due to q2 alone; and so on. Finally,

we take the vector sum of all these individual forces: F = F1 + F2 + F3 + . . .

Coulomb’s Law
 The force on a test charge Q due to a single point charge q, that is at rest a distance r away is given by
Coulomb’s law:

 Constant is called the permittivity of free space.

 r is the separation vector from r‘(the location of q) to r (the location of Q): r = r − r‘

 The force points along the line from q to Q; it is repulsive if q and Q have the same sign, and attractive if
their signs are opposite.
The Electric Field
 If we have several point charges q1, q2, . . . , qn, at distances r1, r2, . . . , rn from Q, the

total force on Q is evidently

 E is called the electric field of the source charges. it is a function of position (r), because the separation
vectors ri depend on the location of the field point P

 E(r) is the force per unit charge that would be exerted on a test charge
Continuous Charge Distributions
 If, the charge is distributed continuously over some region, the sum becomes an integral
Flux and Gauss’s Law
 the flux of E through a surface S, is a measure of the “number of field lines” passing
through S.

 The flux through any closed surface is a measure of the total charge inside

 A charge outside the surface will contribute nothing to the total flux, since its field lines
pass in one side and out the other.

 In the case of a point charge q at the origin, the flux of E through a spherical surface of radius r is

 The flux through any surface enclosing the charge is q/ℇ0.

Flux and Gauss’s Law
 If, instead of a single charge at the origin, we have a bunch of charges scattered about. According to
the principle of superposition, the total field is the (vector) sum of all the individual fields:

The flux through a surface that encloses them all is

For any closed surface, then,

where Qenc is the total charge enclosed within the surface
Flux and Gauss’s Law
 If, instead of a single charge at the origin, we have a bunch of charges scattered about. According to
the principle of superposition, the total field is the (vector) sum of all the individual fields:

The flux through a surface that encloses them all is

For any closed surface, then,

where Qenc is the total charge enclosed within the surface
The Divergence of E

 Originally the integration was over the volume occupied by the charge, but we may as well extend it to all
space, since ρ = 0 in the exterior region anyway

 As we get which is
Gauss’s law in differential form.
Introduction to Potential
 Because ∇ × E = 0, the line integral of E around any closed loop is zero (that
follows from Stokes’ theorem). Because the line integral of E from
point a to point b is the same for all paths. Because the line integral is independent of path,
we can define a function

Here O is some standard reference point.

 V then depends only on the point r. It is called the electric potential. The potential difference between
two points a and b is

Now, the fundamental theorem for gradients states that so

Since, finally, this is true for any points a and b, the integrands must be equal
Applications of Gauss’s Law
 Gauss’s law is always true, but it is not always useful.

 Symmetry is crucial to compute Electric field using Gauss’s law.

 Three kinds of symmetry

1. Spherical symmetry: Make your Gaussian surface a concentric sphere.

2. Cylindrical symmetry: Make your Gaussian surface a coaxial cylinder.

3. Plane symmetry. Use a Gaussian “pillbox” that straddles the surface.

Poisson’s Equation and Laplace’s Equation

 ∇ · E = ∇ · (−∇V) = −∇2V,
The divergence of E is the Laplacian of V

 Gauss’s law, then, says

This is known as Poisson’s equation. In regions where there is no charge, so ρ = 0, Poisson’s equation
reduces to Laplace’s equation
The Curl of E

where ra is the distance from the origin to the point a and rb is the distance to b.
The integral around a closed path is evidently zero (for then ra = rb):

hence, applying Stokes’ theorem,

The above proof is for the field of a single point charge at the origin
The Curl of E

 If we have many charges, the principle of superposition states that the total field is a vector sum of their

individual fields
Introduction to Potential
 A surface over which the potential is constant is called an equipotential.

 Potential obeys the superposition principle: V = V1 + V2 + . . .

That is, the potential at any given point is the sum of the potentials due to all the source charges
separately

This time it is an ordinary sum, not a vector sum.

 Units of Potential : potential is newton-meters per coulomb, or joules per coulomb. A joule per coulomb
is a volt.
The Potential of a Localized Charge Distribution
 Setting the reference point at infinity, the potential of a point charge q at the origin is

 In general, the potential of a point charge q is

 Invoking the superposition principle, then, the potential of a collection of charges is

 for a continuous distribution

The Potential of a Localized Charge Distribution
 For a volume charge,

 The potentials of line is

 The potentials of surface charges is

 we got these equation from the potential of a point charge at the origin, (1/4πℇ0)(q/r ), which is valid only
when O =∞. If you try to apply these formulas to one of those artificial problems in which the charge
itself extends to infinity, the integral will diverge
Boundary Conditions
 The electric field always undergoes a discontinuity when we cross a surface
charge σ.

 The tangential component of E, by contrast, is always continuous. For which

we apply to the thin rectangular loop. The ends

give nothing (as ℇ→ 0), and the sides give (Eabovell l− Ebelowll l), so

 The boundary conditions on E can be combined into a single formula:

The Work It Takes to Move a Charge
 To move a test charge Q from point a to point b. The work you do is

 Notice that the answer is independent of the path you take from a to b; in mechanics,
then, we would call the electrostatic force “conservative.”

 The potential difference between points a and b is equal to the work per unit charge required to carry a
particle from a to b

 if you want to bring Q in from far away and stick it at point r, the work you must do is

if you have set the reference point at infinity,

The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
 Bringing in the charges, one by one, from far away. The first charge, q1, takes no
work, since there is no field yet to fight against. Now bring in q2. This will cost you

q2V1(r2), where V1 is the potential due to q1, and r2 is the place we’re putting q2:

 Now bring in q3; this requires work q3V1,2(r3), where V1,2 is the potential due to charges q1 and q2

 Similarly, the extra work to bring in q4 will be

 The total work necessary to assemble the first four charges, then, is
The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
 In general, take the product of each pair of charges, divide by their separation distance, and add it all up:

The stipulation j > i is to not count the same pair twice. A nicer way to accomplish this is intentionally to

count each pair twice, and then divide by 2:

Finally, let’s pull out the factor qi

 The term in parentheses is the potential at point ri (the position of qi ) due to all the other charges—all of
them, now, not just the ones that were present at some stage during the assembly. Thus
The Energy of a Continuous Charge Distribution
 For a volume charge density ρ,

But ∇V = −E, so

If we integrate over all space, then the surface integral goes to zero, and we are left with
Basic Properties of conductor
 In an insulator, such as glass or rubber, each electron is on a short leash, attached to a particular atom. In
a metallic conductor, by contrast, one or more electrons per atom are free to roam.

 E = 0 inside a conductor.

 ρ = 0 inside a conductor: This follows from Gauss’s law: ∇ · E = ρ/ℇ0. If E is zero, so also is ρ. There is
still charge around, but exactly as much plus as minus, so the net charge density in the interior is zero.

 Any net charge resides on the surface. That’s the only place left.

 A conductor is an equipotential.

 E is perpendicular to the surface, just outside a conductor.

 Induced Charges
 If there is some hollow cavity in the conductor, and within that cavity you put some charge,
then the field in the cavity will not be zero. But the cavity and its contents are electrically
isolated from the outside world by the surrounding conductor No external fields penetrate
the conductor; they are canceled at the outer surface by the induced charge there. Similarly,
the field due to charges within the cavity is canceled, for all exterior points, by the
induced charge on the inner surface. The total charge induced on the
cavity wall is equal and opposite to the charge inside, for if we surround
the cavity with a Gaussian surface, all points of which are in the conductor E · da = 0, and hence (by
Gauss’s law) the net enclosed charge must be zero. But Qenc = q + q induced , so q induced = −q.
Then if the conductor as a whole is electrically neutral, there must be a charge +q on its outer surface
Surface Charge and the Force on a Conductor
 The force per unit area is

 This amounts to an outward electrostatic pressure on the surface, tending to draw the conductor into the
field, regardless of the sign of σ. Expressing the pressure in terms of the field just outside the surface
Capacitors

 Capacitance is a purely geometrical quantity, determined by the sizes, shapes, and separation of the two
conductors. In SI units, C is measured in farads (F); a farad is a coulomb-per-volt.

 V is the potential of the positive conductor less that of the negative one; likewise, Q is the charge of the
positive conductor

 To “charge up” a capacitor, you have to remove electrons from the positive plate and carry them to the
negative plate. In doing so, you fight against the electric field, which is pulling them back toward the
positive conductor and pushing them away from the negative one. Suppose that at some intermediate
stage in the process the charge on the positive plate is q, so that the potential difference is q/C. The
work you must do to transport the next piece of charge, dq, is

The total work necessary, then, to go from q = 0 to q = Q, is

since Q = CV, where V is the final potential of the capacitor

Laplace’s Equation in One Dimension
 Suppose V depends on only one variable, x. Then Laplace’s equation becomes

The general solution is V(x) = mx + b, the equation for a straight line

 V(x) is the average of V(x + a) and V(x − a), for any a: V(x) = 1/2[V(x + a) + V(x − a)].

 Laplace’s equation tolerates no local maxima or minima; extreme values of V must occur at the end
points. For if there were a local maximum, V would be greater at that point than on either side, and
therefore could not be the average
Laplace’s Equation in Two Dimensions
 If V depends on two variables, Laplace’s equation becomes

Harmonic functions in two dimensions have the same properties we noted in one dimension:

 The value of V at a point (x, y) is the average of those around the point. More precisely, if you draw a
circle of any radius R about the point (x, y), the average value of V on the circle is equal to the value at the
center:

 V has no local maxima or minima; all extrema occur at the boundaries.

Laplace’s Equation in Three Dimensions
 The value of V at point r is the average value of V over a spherical surface of radius R centered at r:

 As a consequence, V can have no local maxima or minima; the extreme values of V must occur at the
boundaries. (For if V had a local maximum at r, then by the very nature of maximum I could draw a
sphere around r over which all values of V—and a fortiori the average—would be less than at r.)
Boundary Conditions and Uniqueness Theorems
 First uniqueness theorem: The solution to Laplace’s equation in some volume V is uniquely determined if V is
specified on the boundary surface S.

 Proof: Suppose there were two solutions to Laplace’s equation:

both of which assume the specified value on the surface.

This obeys Laplace’s equation,

and it takes the value zero on all boundaries (since V1 and V2 are equal there). But Laplace’s equation allows no
local maxima or minima—all extrema occur on the boundaries. So the maximum and minimum of V3 are both zero.
Therefore V3 must be zero everywhere, and hence

V1 = V2.
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