Unit – 5

Electrical Installations

Contents: Components of LT Switchgear: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB, ELCB, MCCB, Types of
Wires and Cables, Importance of earthing. Types of Batteries, Important characteristics for
Batteries. Elementary calculations for energy consumption and savings, battery backup.

Components of LT Switchgear: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB, ELCB, MCCB:

Switchgear: The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical
circuits and equipment is known as switchgear.
The term ‘switchgear’ is a generic term encompassing a wide range of products like circuit
breakers, switches, switch fuse units, off-load isolators, HRC fuses, contactors, earth leakage
circuit breaker, etc...
Classification of Switchgear:
Switchgear can be classified on the basis of voltage level into the following:
1. Low voltage (LV) Switchgear: upto 1KV
2. Medium voltage (MV) Switchgear: 3 KV to 33 KV
3. High voltage (HV) Switchgear: Above 33 KV
Components of LT Switchgear:
The term LT Switchgear includes low voltage Circuit Breakers, Switches, off load electrical
isolators, HRC fuses, Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker, Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB) and
Molded Case Circuit Breakers (MCCB) etc i.e. all the accessories required to protect the LV
system.
The most common use of LV switchgear is in LV distribution board.
FUSE:
Fuse is perhaps the simplest and cheapest device used for interrupting an electrical circuit
under short circuit, or excessive overload, current magnitudes. The action of a fuse is based
upon the heating effect of the electric circuit. The fuse has inverse time-current characteristics
as shown in the next slide. The part which actually melts and opens the circuit is known as the
fuse element.

Time-Current Characteristics
Fuses have following advantages and disadvantages:

1. It is cheapest form of protection available.

2. It needs no maintenance.
3. Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike a circuit breaker which
requires an elaborate equipment for automatic action.
4. It interrupts enormous short circuit currents without noise, flame, gas or smoke.
Disadvantages:
1. Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation.
2. On heavy short circuits, discrimination between fuses in series cannot be obtained
unless there is considerable differences in the relative sizes of the fuse concerned.
3. The current-time characteristics of a fuse cannot always be correlated with that of the
protected device.
FUSE: Fuse is provided only in phase or live pole, never on neutral pole.

FUSE UNITS: The various types of fuse units, most commonly available are:
1. Round type fuse unit.
2. Kit-kat type fuse unit.
3. Cartridge type fuse unit.
4. HRC (High Rupturing Capacity) fuse units and
5. Semiconductor fuse units.
1. Round type fuse unit: This type of fuse unit consists of a porcelain or bakelite box and
two separated wire terminals for holding the fuse wire between them. This type of fuse is
not common use on account of its following disadvantages:
 One of the terminals remain always energized and, therefore, for replacement of fuse
either the worker will have to touch the live mains or open the main switch.
 Appreciable arching takes place at the instant of blowing off fuse and thus damage the
terminals. After two or three arcing the fuse unit becomes unusable.
2. Rewirable or Kit-kat Type Fuses: The most commonly used fuse in “house wiring’ and
small current circuits is the semi-enclosed or rewirable fuse (also sometimes known as kit-
kat type fuse). It consists of a porcelain base carrying the fixed contacts to which the
incoming and outgoing live or phase wires are connected and a porcelain fuse carrier
holding the fuse element, consisting of one or more strands of fuse wire, stretched between
its terminals.

The fuse wire may be of lead, tinned copper, aluminium or an alloy of tin-lead. The actual
fusing current will be about twice the rated current.
 The specifications for rewirable fuses are covered by IS: 2086-1963. Standard ratings are
6, 16, 32, 63 and 100A. A fuse wire of any rating not exceeding the rating of the fuse may be
used in it i.e. a 80A fuse wire can be used in a 100A fuse, but not in the 63A fuse.
Disadvantages of Rewirable or Kit-kat Type Fuses:
• Unreliable operation.
• Lack of discrimination.
• Small time lag.
• Low rupturing capacity.
• No current limiting feature.
• Slow speed of operation.
3. Cartridge Type Fuses: This is a totally enclosed type fuse unit. It essentially consists of an
insulating container of bulb or tube shape and sealed at its ends with metallic cap known
as cartridge enclosing the fuse element and filled with powder or granular material known
as filler.
There are various types of materials used as filler like sand, calcium carbonate, quartz
etc. This type of fuse is available upto 660V and the current rating upto 800 A.

4. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Fuses: With a very heavy generating capacities of the
modern power stations, extremely heavy currents would flow into the fault and fuse
clearing the fault wouldbe required to withstand extremely high stresses in this process.
HRC fuses developed and designed after intensive research for us e in medium and high
voltage installations. Their rupturing capacity is as high as 500MVAup to 66 KV and
above. There are basically two types of HRC fuses are used.
1. Cartridge Type HRC Fuse.
2. Tetra Chloride Type HRC Fuse.

5. Semiconductor Fuses: These are very fast acting fuses for protection of thyristor and
other electronic circuits.
Switch Fuse Unit (SFU):
Switch fuse is a combined unit and is known as an iron clad switch, being made of iron. It may
be double pole for controlling single phase two-wire circuits or triple pole for controlling
three- phase, 3-wire circuits or triple pole with neutral link for controlling 3-phase, 4-wire
circuits. The respective switches are known as double pole iron clad (DPIC), triple pole iron
clad (TPIC), and triple pole with neutral link iron clad (TPNIC) switches.
1. For Two-wire DC Circuits or Single Phase AC Circuits: 240V, 16A, DPIC switch fuse
2. For Three-Wire DC Circuits: 500V, 32A (63/100/150 or higher amperes), IS approved
TPIC switch fuse.
3. For Three-Phase Balanced Load Circuits: 415V, 32A (63/100/150 or higher amperes), IS
approved TPIC switch fuse.
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):
A device which provides definite protection to the wiring installations and sophisticated
equipment against over-currents and short-circuit faults. Thermal operation (overload
protection) is achieved with a bimetallic strip, which deflects when heated by any over-
currents flowing through it. In doing so, releases the latch mechanism and causes the contacts
to open. Inverse-time current characteristics result. i.e. greater the overload or excessive
current, shorter the time required to operate the MCB. On occurrence of short circuit, the
rising current energizes the solenoid, operating the plunger to strike the trip lever causing
immediate release of the latch mechanism. Rapidity of the magnetic solenoid operation causes
instantaneous opening of contacts.
MCBs are available with different current ratings of 0.5, 1.2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.5, 10, 16, 20, 25, 32,
35, 40, 63, 100, 125, 160 A and voltage rating of 240/415 V AC and up to 220 V DC. Operating
time is very short (less than 5 ms).
They are suitable for the protection of important and sophisticated equipment, such as air-
conditioners, refrigerators, computers etc.
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB):
It is a device that provides protection against earth leakage. These are of two
1. Cur types.
2. Voltrent operated earth leakage circuit breaker:
age operated earth leakage circuit breaker.
1. Current operated earth leakage circuit breaker: It is used when the pro duct of the
operating current in amperes and the earth-loop impedance in ohms does not exc eed 40. such
circuit breakers is used where consumer’s earthing terminal is connected to a su itable earth
electrode. A current-operated earth leakage circuit breaker is applied to a 3-p hase, 3-wire
circuit.
In normal condition when there is no earth leakage, the algebraic sum of the currents in the
three coils of the current transformers is zero, and no current flows through the trip coil. In case
of any earth leakage, the currents are unbalanced and the trip coil is energized a nd thus the
circuit breaker is tripped.

2. Voltage operated earth leakage circuit breaker: It is suitable for use when the earth–loop
impedance exceeds the values applicable to fuses or excess-current circuitor to current
breaker
operated earth leakage circuit breaker. When the voltage between the earth continuity
conductor (ECC) and earth electrode rises to sufficient value, the trip coil will carry the
required current to trip the circuit breaker. With such a circuit breaker the earthing lead
between the trip coil and the earth electrode must be insulated; in addition, the earth electrode
must be placed outside the resistance area of any other parallel earths which may exist.

In both the above types of ELCB the tripping operation may be tested by means of a finger-
operated test button which passes a predetermined current from the line wire through a high
resistance to trip the coil and thus to earth. This test operation should be performed regularly.
 Fig: Current Operated ELCB Fig: Voltage Operated ELCB

Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB) :

It is a type of electrical protection device that can be used for a wide range of voltages, and
frequencies of both 50 Hz and 60 Hz, the main distinctions between molded case and
miniature circuit breaker are that MCCB can have current rating up to 2500 amperes, and its
trip setting are normally adjustable. MCCBs are much larger than MCBs. An MCCB has three
main functions:
• Protection against overload.
• Protection against electrical faults.
• Switching a circuit ON and OFF. This is a less common function of circuit breakers,
but they can be used for that purpose if there is not an adequate manual switch.
The wide range of current ratings available from molded-case circuit breakers allows them to be
used in a wide variety of applications. MCCBs are available with current ratings that range
from low values such as 15 amperes, to industrial ratings such as 2500 amperes. This allows
them to be used in both low power and high power applications.
Operating Mechanism: At its core, the protection mechanism employed by MCCBs is based
on the same physical principles used by all types of thermal-magnetic circuit breakers.
 • Overload protection is accomplished by means of a thermal mechanism. MCCBs have a
bimetallic contact what expands and contracts in response to changes in temperature.
Under normal operating conditions, the contact allows electric current through the
MCCB. However, as soon as the current exceeds the adjusted trip value, the contact will
start to heat and expand until the circuit is interrupted.
• The thermal protection against overload is designed with a time delay to allow short
duration overcurrent, which is a normal part of operation for many devices. However
any over current conditions, that lasts more than what is normally expected represent
an overload, and the MCCB is tripped to protect the equipment and personnel. On the
other hand, fault protection is accomplished with electromagnetic induction, and the
response is instant. Fault currents should be interrupted immediately, no matter if
their duration is short or long. Whenever a fault occurs, the extremely high current
induces a magnetic field in a solenoid coil located inside the breaker-this magnetic
induction trips a contact and current is interrupted. As a complement to the magnetic
protection mechanism, MCCBs have internal arc dissipation measures to facilitate
interruption.

Types of Wires and Cables:

For internal wiring of any building, wires and cables may be categorized into following groups:
 1. Conductor Used: According to conductor material used in the cables, these may be
divided into two classes known as copper conductor cables and aluminium conductor
cables.
2. Number of Cores Used: It may be divided into different classes known as: single core
cables, twin core cables, three core cables, two core with ECC (Earth Continuity
Conductor) cables etc.
3. Voltage Grading: According to voltage grading the cables may be divided into two
classes (i) 250/440 Volt cables and (ii) 650/1100 volt cables
4. Types of Insulation Used: According to type of insulation the cables are of following
types:
• Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) insulated cables
• Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) or Cab Tyre Sheathed (CTS) cables.
• Lead Sheathed Cables.
• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Cables.
• Weatherproof cables.
• Flexible cords and cables.
• XLPE cables.
• Multi-strand cables.
 Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) insulated cables: VIR cables are available in 240/415
volts as well as in 650/1100 volt grades. VIR cables consists of either Tinned copper
conductor Covered with a layer of VIR insulation. Over the rubber Insulation cotton tape
sheathed Covering is provided with Moisture resistant compound bitumen wax or some
other insulating material for making the cables moisture proof.

Figure: Single Core VIR Cables

 Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) or Cab Tyre Sheathed (CTS) cables: These cables are
available in 250/440 volt and 650/1100 volt grades and used in CTS (or TRS) wiring. TRS
cable is nothing but a VIR conductor with an outer protective covering of tough rubber,
which provides additional insulation and protection against wear and tear. These cables are
waterproof, hence can be used in wet conditions. These cables are available as single core,
circular twin core, circular three core, flat three core, twin or three core with an earth
continuity conductor. The core are insulated from each other and covered with a common
sheathing.
These cables are cheaper in cost and lighter in weight than lead alloy sheathed cables and
have the alloy sheathed cables and have the properties similar to those of lead sheathed
cables and thus provide cheaper substitute to lead sheathed cables.
 Lead Sheathed Cables: These cables are available in 240/415 volt grade. The lead
sheathed cable is a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor covered with a continuous
sheath of lead. The lead sheath provides very good protection against the absorption of
moisture and sufficient protection against mechanical injury and so can be used without
casing or conduit system. It is available as a single core, flat twin core, flat three core and
flat twin or three core with an earth continuity conductor. Two-core lead sheathed cable is
shown in the given figure.

 Polyvinyl Chloride Insulated Cables: These cables are available in 250/440 volt and
650/1100 volt grades and are used in casing-capping, batten and conduit wiring system. In
this type of cable, conductor is insulated with PVC insulation. Since PVC is harder than
rubber, PVC cable does not require cotton taping and braiding over it for mechanical and
moisture protection. PVC insulation is preferred over VIR insulation because of the
following reasons:
• PVC insulation has better insulating qualities.
• PVC insulation provides better flexibility.
• PVC insulation has no chemical effect on metal of the wire.
• Thin layer of PVC insulation will provide the desired insulation level.
• PVC coated wire gives smaller diameter of cable and, therefore, more no. of wires can
be accommodated in the conduit of a given size in comparison to VIR or CTS wires.
PVC cables are most widely used for internal wiring these days. Though the insulation
resistance of PVC is lower than that of VIR but its effect is negligible for low and medium
voltages, below 600 V.
 Weather Proof Cables: These cables are used for outdoor wiring and for power supply or
industrial supply. These cables are either PVC insulated or vulcanized rubber insulated
conductors being suitably taped braided and then compounded with weather resisting
material. These cables are available in 240/415 volt and 650/1100 volt grades. These
cables are not affected by heat or sun or rain. Weather proof cables are shown in the given
figure:
 Flexible Cords and Cables: The flexible cords consist of wires silk/cotton/plastic covered.
Plastic cover is popular as it is available in different pleasing colours. Flexible cords have
tinned copper conductors. Flexibility and strength is obtained by using conductors having
large no. of strands. These wires or cables are used as connecting wires for such purposes
as from ceiling rose to lamp holder, socket outlet to portable apparatus such as radios,
fans, lamps, heaters etc. These must not be used for fixed wiring.

The flexible cords used for household appliances are available in various sizes and in
various thickness of coating as very thin/thin/medium/thick/very thick/extra thick etc.

 XLPE Cables: PVC and XLPE cables are built of insulation made of polymers. Polymers are
substances consisting of long macromolecules built up of small molecules or group of
molecules as repeated units. These are divided into homopolymers and copolymers.
Homopolymers are built by reactions of identical monomers. Copolymers are built up of at
least two different kinds of monomers.

The mechanical properties of the polymers e.g. tensile strength, elongation elasticity, and
resistance against cold depend upon chemical structure. Their resistance against external
chemical influences, acids, bases or oils together with their electrical and thermal
characteristics are the decisive factors for the usefulness of cables insulated and sheathed
with these materials.

 Multi-Stranded Cables: Multi-stranded cables have got the following advantages with
respect to the single solid conductor and hence preferred.
 The multi-stranded cables are more flexible and durable and, therefore, can be
handled conveniently.
 The surface area of multi-strand cable is more as compared to the surface area of
equivalent single solid conductor, so heat radiating capacity being proportional to
the surface area is more.
 Skin effect is better as the conductors are tubular, especially in the case of high
frequency.

Importance of earthing:
An electrical equipment or appliance is said to be earthed, if its outer frame and its other parts
not carrying any current are connected to the earth so as to attain as nearly zero potential as
possible. In practice, all equipments and machinery, as well as electric poles, towers, neutral
wires, etc, are earthed. The purpose of earthing is to ensure that all parts of the system other
than live parts are maintained at the earth potential at all times.
Objective of Earthing:
1. The main objective of earthing is to provide safety of operation.
2. Another objective of the earthing, though not widely used nowadays, is to save
conducting material.
 3. It also helps in protecting high-rise buildings from atmospheric lightening. A fork metal
rod or thick wire, called the lightening conductor, sticks out from the top of the
building, chimney, tower, etc. its other end buried deep into the ground. Whenever
lightening occurs, the electricity passes directly from the top of lightening conductor to
the earth, thereby protecting the building from any damage.
Methods of Earthing: Earthing should be done in a way so that on a short circuit, the
earth loop impedance is low enough to pass 3 times the current if fuses are used, and 1.5
times the current if MCBs are used. The metal work should be solidly earthed without
using any switch or fuse in the circuit.
For effective earthing, the resistance offered by the earth electrode along with the soil in
which electrode is embedded should be quite low.
Galvanised Iron (GI) or copper is used to make an earth electrode.
There are different types of earthing methods are used:
1. Strip or Wire Earthing.
2. Rod Earthing.
3. Pipe Earthing.
4. Plate Earthing.
Pipe and Plate Earthings are commonly used.
1. Strip or Wire Earthing: In this system of earthing, strip electrodes of cross section not
less than 25 mm X 1.6 MM if of copper and 25 mm X 4 mm if of galvanized iron or steel are
buried in horizontal trenches of minimum depth 0.5 metre. If round conductors are used,
their cross-sectional area shall not be smaller than 3.0 mm2 if of copper and 6 mm2 if of
galvanized iron or steel. The length of buried conductor shall be sufficient to give the
required earth resistance. It shall, however, be not less than 1.5 metres.
This type of earthing is used at places which have rocky soil earth bed because at such
places excavation work of plate earthing is difficult.
2. Rod Earthing: In this type of earthing, 12.5 mm diameter solid rods of copper or 16 mm
diameter solid rods of galvanized iron or steel or hollow section 25 mm GI pipes of length
not less than 2.5 metres are driven vertically into the earth either manually or by
pneumatic hammer. In order to increase the embedded length of electrodes under the
ground, which is sometimes necessary to reduce the earth resistance to desired value,
more than one rod sections are hammered one above the other.
This system of earthing is suitable for areas which are sandy in character. This sytem of
earthing is very cheap as no excavation work is involved.
3. Pipe Earthing: In the given figure, a GI pipe with a few holes at its lower end is buried to a
depth not less than 2 m and atleast 0.6 m away from the foundation of any building.
Normally, the size of pipe is either 2m long and 38 mm diameter or 1.37 m long and 51 mm
diameter. However, for dry and rocky soil, we use longer pipes. Alternate layers of
common salt and charcoal have thickness of 30 mm and 80 mm, respectively.
To maintain good conductivity of the soil, an arrangement is made for pouring water into
the earth pit surrounding the earth electrode. This is especially needed during summer. As
the pipe has much larger contact area with soil, it can handle larger leakage currents than
the plate earthing of same electrode size. The earth wire (made of copper) is tightly
fastened to the earth electrode by means of nut and bolt.
4. Plate Earthing: This is another common system of earthing. In plate earthing an earthing
plate either of copper of dimensions 60cm X 60cm X 3mm or of GI of dimensions 60cm X
60cm 6mm is buried into the ground with its face vertical at a depth of not less than 3
metres from ground level. The earth plate is embedded in alternate layers of coke and salt
for a minimum thickness of 15cm. The earth wire (GI wire for GI plate earthing and copper
wire for copper plate earthing) is securely bolted to an earth plate with the help of a bolt,
nut and washer made of material of that of earth plate. A small masonry brick wall
enclosure with a cast iron cover on top or an RCC pipe round the earth plate is provided to
facilitate its identification and for carrying out periodical inspection and tests.
The copper plate and copper wire are usually not employed for grounding because of their
higher cost.

Double Earthing: For providing better safety, it is advisable to provide two separate earth
wires, from two separate earth electrodes, connected to same metallic body of the equipment
at two different points. This is known as double earthing. Double earthing is essential, as per
Indian Electricity Rule, for metallic bodies of large rating equipment such as transformer,
motors etc. working at 400 V and above.
Advantages of Double Earthing:
 1. Surety of safety, because if at any time one earthing is ineffective, then another will
provide earth path to fault.
2. As the two earth wires are in parallel so the effective resistance from equipment to
earth electrode is reduced.

Types of Batteries, Important characteristics for Batteries:

Types of Batteries: There are two types of batteries which are given below:
1. Primary Battery: Primary batteries can be used only once because the chemical
reactions that supply the current are irreversible. Primary batteries are the most
common batteries available today because of their low cost and simplicity in use.
Carbon-zinc dry cells and alkaline cells dominate portable consumer battery
applications where currents are low and usage is sporadic. Other primary batteries
such as those using mercury or lithium-based chemistries, may be used in applications
when high energy densities, small sizes, or long shelf life are especially important. In
general, primary batteries have dominated two areas: consumer products where the
initial cost of the battery is very important and electronic products (such as watches,
hearing aids and pacemakers) where drains are low or recharging is not feasible.
2. Secondary Battery: Secondary batteries, sometimes called storage batteries or
accumulators, can be used, recharged and reused. In these batteries, the chemical
reactions that provide current from the battery are readily reserved when current is
supplied to the battery. The process of inducing or storing energy in an accumulator is
called the charging, and the process of giving out energy in the form of an electric
current, the discharging. Accumulators or storage batteries owe their name
“secondary” due to the fact that they can supply electrical energy only after they have
been charged. Secondary batteries, which are rechargeable, have traditionally been
most widely used in industrial and automotive applications. Only two rechargeable
battery chemistries, lead acid and nickel-cadmium, have to-date, achieved significant
commercial success. There are several types of secondary batteries are given below:
• Lead Acid Batteries: Lead acid batteries, according to service rendered by them, are
classified into automotive, motive power and stationary batteries.
• Nickel-Iron (OR Edison) Batteries: These batteries are going to become more and
more popular as there is a possibility of their development into high energy density
batteries for electric vehicles.
• Nickel-Cadmium Accumulators:
• Nickel-Metal Hydride Cells:
1. Lead Acid Batteries:
Charging and Discharging Curves: Typical charge and discharge curves (variation in
terminal voltage) of a lead-acid accumulator are as follows:
When the cell is charged, the voltage of the Cell increases from 1.8V to 2.2V during first
two hours, then increases very slowly, rather remains almost constant for Sufficient
time and finally rises to 2.5 to 2.7V.
Caution: The cell should never be allowed to discharge beyond 1.75V otherwise lead sulphate
will be formed on the electrodes which is hard, insoluble and increases the internal resistance
of the cell. The conversion of active material into lead sulphate is termed sulphatization.
2. Nickel-Iron (OR Edison) Batteries:
Charge and Discharge Curve: The given figure shows how the voltage of a nickel-iron
cell varies during charging and discharging. The emf, when fully charged, is about 1.4V,
decreases to 1.3V rapidly and then slowly to 1.1 or 1.0V of discharge. An average
discharge voltage is about 1.2V. The average charging voltage is about 1.7V per cell.
The voltage characteristics are similar to those of a lead-acid cell. There is no lower
limit to the voltage of the Edition cell because in it there is nothing like sulphation, but
discharge is not continued below a useful lower limit. The emf of the cell or battery
increases slightly with the temperature. Due to comparatively high internal Resistance,
the efficiency of the Edison batteries are lower than those of the lead-acid batteries.

The ampere-hour and watt-hour efficiencies of the Edison batteries are about 80 per
cent and 60 per cent respectively. Average energy density is about 50Wh per kg of cell.
When assembling batteries for the same voltage, the number of nickel-iron cells
required are more than that of lead-acid cells. For example, a 12V lead-acid battery will
need 12/2 i.e. 6 series-connected cells, whereas the nickel-iron battery will require
12/1.2 i.e. 10 series-connected cells to give the same voltage i.e. 12V.
 Application: These batteries are used for the propulsion of industrial trucks, and mine
locomotives and for railway car lighting and air-conditioning because of their rugged
construction and other advantages.

Important characteristics for Batteries:

Electrical Characteristics:
There are three important characteristics of an accumulator (or storage battery) namely,
 Voltage
 Capacity and
 Efficiency
1. Voltage: Average emf of cell is approximately 2.0 volts. The value of emf of a cell does
not remain constant but varies with the change in specific gravity of electrolyte,
temperature and the length of time since it was last charged. The emf of the cell
increases with the increase in specific gravity of the electrolyte and vice versa but
increase in specific gravity of the electrolyte also causes increase in internal resistance
of the cell, therefore, its value should not go beyond 1.22. Best results are obtained
with the electrolyte of specific gravity 1.21.
The emf of the cell, though, not much, but slightly increases with the increase in
temperature.
The terminal voltage of battery is higher during charge than that during discharge.
2. Capacity: The quantity of electricity which a battery can deliver during single
discharge until its terminal voltage falls to 1.8 V/cell is called the capacity of a battery.
The capacity of cell is, therefore, expressed in ampere-hours (A-H) and is equal to the
product of the specific discharge current in amperes multiplied by the number of hours

If 𝐼𝑑=Discharging Current in Ampere and

before the cell discharges to the specific extent.

𝑇𝑑=Discharging Time of cell or battery in hours

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐i𝑡𝑦 𝑜ƒ 𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐼𝑑𝑇𝑑
3. Efficiency: The efficiency of the cell can be given in two ways:
1. The Quantity or Ampere – Hour (A-H) Efficiency: The ratio of output ampere-hour
during discharging to the input ampere-hour during charging of the battery is called

𝐼𝑑𝑇 𝑑
quantity or ampere-hour efficiency of the battery.
y𝐴𝐻 =
𝐼𝑐 𝑇𝑐
Where 𝐼𝑑=Discharging Current in Ampere
𝐼𝑐=Charging Current in Ampere
𝑇𝑑= Discharging Time of cell or battery in hours
𝑇𝑐= Charging Time of cell or battery in hours
2. Energy or Watt – Hour (W-H) Efficiency: The ratio of output watt-hour during
discharging to the input watt-hour during charging of the battery is called energy or

yW𝐻 = 𝑉𝑑𝐼𝑑𝑇𝑑
watt-hour efficiency of the battery.

𝑉 𝐼 𝑇
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Where 𝑉𝑑= Average Terminal Voltage during Discharging
𝑉𝑐=Average Terminal Voltage during Charging
𝐼𝑑=Discharging Current in Ampere
𝐼𝑐=Charging Current in Ampere
 𝑇𝑑= Discharging Time of cell or battery in hours
𝑇𝑐= Charging Time of cell or battery in hours

Elementary calculations for energy consumption and savings:

Electrical energy is supplied to a consumer by the supplier. To charge the electrical energy
consumed by a consumer, an energy meter is installed to its quantity. The reading of the
energy meter is taken every month. The difference between the fresh reading and the previous
reading tell about the consumption of electrical energy in that month. This quantity of energy
is multiplied by the rate (tariff) fixed by the supplier to prepare an electricity bill. However,
some other charges such as meter rent, GST, other taxes applicable etc. are also added in the
bill.

Battery Back-up:
The time (in hrs) for which a battery can deliver the desired current is called battery back-up
of the bank.

Static variable have the property of preserving their values even after they are out of their
scope. We can say that they are initialized only once and exist until the determination of the
program.

PROPERTIES OF STATIC STORAGE CLASS

#include<stdio.h>

A variable is defined elsewhere not within the same block where it is used. The well