Villagran (2019) - Compressed

J Archaeol Method Theory (2019) 26:344–395
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-018-9374-2
The Shell Midden Conundrum: Comparative

Micromorphology of Shell-Matrix Sites from South
America
Ximena S. Villagran 1
Published online: 7 April 2018

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018
Abstract Shell-matrix sites are one of the most widespread archaeological deposits in
the world. They inform archaeologists about human adaptations to coastal environ-
ments, the evolution of coastal economies, ritual practices, and prehistoric architecture.
In recent years, the micromorphological study of Brazilian shellmounds and a shell
midden from Tierra del Fuego revealed unique information about the human behaviors
related to the formation of shell-matrix sites. These investigations refined our knowl-
edge concerning the upward sequence of events involved in the growth and post-
depositional evolution of the deposits. Micromorphological studies denied the tradi-
tional view of shell-matrix sites as simple secondary deposits of food remains, provid-
ing evidence of trampling surfaces, midden redeposition, domestic spaces, abandon-
ment episodes, and intra-site differences. Dissimilarities were detected in the pre-
depositional history of sediments in the shellmounds and shell middens that also attest
to differences in site use and function. This comparative study highlights the role of
micromorphology in the study of shell-matrix sites as a unique approach intended to
disassemble the sequence of events hidden in the intricate stratigraphies. The technique
has the potential to reveal microdepositional events and/or the weathering process of
the seemingly thick layers of densely packed shell that characterize shell-matrix sites
worldwide.
Keywords Microarchaeology . Coastal archaeology . Shells middens . Shellmounds .

Microfacies . Taphonomy
* Ximena S. Villagran
villagran@usp.br
1
Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Prof. Almeida Prado 1466,
São Paulo 05508-070, Brazil
The Shell Midden Conundrum: Comparative Micromorphology of... 345
Introduction
Shell-matrix sites are unique sources of data for reconstructing subsistence practices
and understanding human adaptations to coastal landscapes (Claasen 1986; Waselkov
1987; Erlandson 1988; Reitz 1988; Jerardino et al. 1992; Bicho 1994; Stiner et al.
2003; Kennett 2005; Milner et al. 2007). The chronological and geographical ubiquity
of shell-matrix sites turns them into fundamental archives for studying the evolution of
coastal economies, and for proving the significance of coastal areas for prehistoric
hunter-gatherers (Yesner 1980; Waselkov 1987; Erlandson 2001; Henshilwood 2001;
Jones et al. 2002; Mannino and Thomas 2002; Sandweiss 2003; Erlandson et al. 2008;
Fa 2008; Jerardino and Marean 2010; Thompson and Worth 2010). Nevertheless, the
stratigraphic and compositional complexity of shell-matrix sites, plus the multiple
processes and meanings associated with their formation on a worldwide scale, opens
a larger spectrum of studies not necessarily focused on subsistence and adaptation.
Seminal work by Claassen (Claassen 1991, 1998) showed that a discarded shell does
not always signify food debris, and that the normative thinking has greatly influenced
the way we excavate, study, and interpret shell-matrix sites. In the last 20 years, several
studies have drawn attention to the ritual value of animal remains and to the construc-
tion and use of shell-matrix sites as ceremonial areas (Lightfoot and Cerrato 1988;
Claassen 1991, 1996, 1998; Luby and Gruber 1999; Bird and Bliege Bird 2000; Russo
2004; Luby 2004; DeBlasis et al. 2007; Mcniven and Wright 2008; Thompson et al.
2010, 2015; Saunders 2014; Klokler 2014; Pluckhahn et al. 2016). These works reveal
a wider array of information related to ritual behavior, social dynamics, and prehistoric
architecture, among others.
Despite the long tradition of studies on shell-matrix sites, a precise definition is still
elusive. In this work, I follow the definition given to the Danish køkkenmøddinger, the
first shell-matrix sites to be archaeologically studied: a human-made sediment layer
within a site stratigraphy or single deposit, at least 50% of which is composed of shells
(fragmented or complete) (Andersen 2000). At least three subcategories of shell-matrix
sites are commonly mentioned in the literature: (1) shell middens, which are frequently
associated with secondary debris next to a dwelling; (2) shellmounds, which are larger
structures resulting from a planned architectural project; and (3) shell-bearing sites,
which is the broad term used to avoid any functional connotation (e.g., the common
association of shell-matrix sites with domestic settlements) (Waselkov 1987; Claassen
1991; Henderson et al. 2002).
Shell-matrix sites are human-made structures resulting from the recurrent deposition
of residues in a specific place. Whether they are massive dumping areas, ceremonial
platforms, or domestic middens, shell-matrix sites are the material outcome of the social
organization of space (Wilson 1994; Needham and Spence 1997) and characterize
constructions within specific cultural systems. For this reason, not only the animal
remains (e.g., shells, fish bones, etc.) but also the archaeological sediments in shell-
matrix sites (as opposed to sediments deposited by natural agents) are 100% human
products, and invaluable sources of cultural information.
Geoarchaeology is the best approach to study archaeological sediments as artifacts,
complementing traditional zooarchaeological or artifact analyses (Goldberg and
Macphail 2006). Within the field of geoarchaeology, the technique of soil or sediment
micromorphology, the observation of undisturbed soil/sediment samples under the
346 Villagran
microscope (Courty et al. 1989), has been little applied in shell-matrix site research.
Pioneering work by Taulé (1996) on the ethnohistorical site Tunel VII (Argentina), by
Goldberg and Byrd (1999) on the Camp Pendleton shell middens (USA), and by
Goldberg (2000) on the Late Stone Age layers at Die Kelders cave I (South Africa)
boosted the potential of micromorphology for the study of shell-matrix sites. Over the
last 10 years, the micromorphological study of shell-matrix sites has been performed
mostly in South American sites and more recently in European and African contexts,
including the ethnohistorical shell midden in Tierra del Fuego (Balbo et al. 2010;
Villagran et al. 2011a; Villagran et al. 2011b), prehistoric shellmounds of the southern
Brazilian coast (Villagran et al. 2010, 2011; Villagran 2014a; Villagran and Giannini
2014), shell layers in an Epipaleolithic to Neolithic cave site in Morocco (Linstädter
and Kehl 2012), the Mesolithic shellmound of the Muge valley (Aldeias and Bicho
2016), and the shell midden of the Sado Valley (Duarte et al. 2017) in Portugal. The
micromorphological studies yielded unique information about the natural and anthropic
dynamics related to the formation of shell-matrix sites and revealed the potential of
micromorphology for (1) examining the upwards sequence of events involved in the
formation of the sites; (2) getting a glimpse of the activities on and around the sites by
dissecting the palimpsest in the sediments; (3) evaluating the impacts of post-depositional
processes on the sites as a whole, and on each of its components (animal remains, human
remains, artifacts, etc.); (4) and reconstructing the history of the deposits.
This work summarizes the micromorphological criteria for the identification of the
human behaviors involved in the formation of shell-matrix sites. This will be done by
comparing and contrasting the results of the micromorphological study of two South
American contexts: the monumental shellmounds of the subtropical coast of Brazil
(Santa Catarina state) and a domestic shell midden on the cold coast of Argentina
(Tierra del Fuego) (Table 1). Discussion includes published research on shell-matrix
sites from the USA and Portugal (Stein et al. 2011; Aldeias and Bicho 2016; Duarte
et al. 2017). Despite the geographical, chronological, and cultural differences, compar-
isons are based on the search for micromorphological indicators of the human and
natural dynamics that add to the sites’ volume. Only the cultural formation processes
(see Schiffer 1972, 1983) will be compared, i.e., the different types of discard behavior.
Comparisons will be based on the formation process as a mechanical action subject to
post-depositional alterations, and not on the meaning of the action.
The three aims of this comparative study are (1) to highlight the role of micromor-
phology in the study of shell-matrix sites as a unique approach to expose the complex-
ity of their formation process, (2) to reveal the potential of micromorphological studies
to disassemble the sequence of events hidden in the intricate stratigraphies of shell-
matrix sites, and (3) to take the first step towards building a database for the micro-
morphological study of shell-matrix sites worldwide that will serve as a reference for
the interpretation of microstratigraphic data.
Shell-Matrix Sites on the Coasts of South America
The earliest shell-matrix sites in the Americas date to the Pleistocene-Holocene transi-
tion and are located on the Pacific façade (Keefer 1998; Cannon 2000; Rick et al. 2001;
Sandweiss 2003; Erlandson 2007; Salazar et al. 2015). Early coastal settlements
Table 1 Shell-matrix sites used in this study, with information on chronology, substrate, size, and number of
thin sections analyzed. Radiocarbon ages of the Brazilian sites were taken from Giannini et al. (2010). The two
age intervals refer to ages from the base and top of the mounds. Ages for Tunel VII were obtained by
dendrochronology (Piana and Orquera 1996)
Sites Age (cal years BP) Natural substrate Size (length, Number
width, and height of thin
in meters) sections
Brazil
Stratified shell mounds
Caipora 7570–7320/6280–5950 Pre-Cenozoic granite hill 25 × 20 × 3 5
on colluvial slope
Cubiculo-1 4078–3716/3845–3568 Pre-Cenozoic granite hill 550-150-8 1
on colluvial slope
Morrinhos 5290–4860/3570–3220 Pre-Cenozoic granite hill 130 × 100 × 10 5
on colluvial slope
Jabuticabeira-1 4850–4430/2750–2130 Pre-Cenozoic granite hill 400 × 150 × 7 5
and Holocene
paleodunes
Shell mound with a sandy core
Carniça-3 3810–3360 Sandspit 40 × 30 × 5 1
Age (calendar years)

Argentina
Shell midden
Tunel VII 1835–1898 years AD Pebble beach near 8×9×1 16
present-day coastline
strengthen the argument for a coastal migration route of humans into the Americas via
the Pacific Rim (Fladmark 1979; Mandryk et al. 2001; Erlandson 2002; Pitblado 2011).
In South America, early Holocene shell-matrix sites exist both on the Pacific coast of
Chile (Jerardino et al. 1992; Rivas et al. 1999; Legoupil 2005; Flores and Lira 2006;
San Roman et al. 2009; Salazar et al. 2015) and on the Atlantic coast of Brazil (Lima
et al. 2002; Giannini et al. 2010). Slightly older shell-matrix sites are found inland in
the Amazon River valley (c. 10 kA) (Roosevelt 1991), the Bolivian lowlands (c. 11 kA)
(Lombardo et al. 2013) and the southeast of the Sao Paulo state (c. 8 kA) (Neves et al.
2005). With the exception of one single site in Uruguay (Lopez Mazz et al. 1996;
Bracco 1999), shell-matrix sites reappear on the Atlantic coast south of Buenos Aires
province (Argentina) and on the Patagonian coast (San Matías Gulf) until Tierra del
Fuego (Gomez Otero 2006; Zubimendi 2007; Borella and Favier-Dubois 2008; Favier
Dubois et al. 2009). The oldest site in the Tierra del Fuego archipelago is on the
southern coast of the Beagle Channel (Áridos Guerrico, c. 7.2 cal. years BP; see
Ocampo and Rivas 2000). On the northern coast of the Beagle Channel, the site Tunel
I contains a basal settlement with a terrestrial economy (c. 6.7 kA) overlaid by a shell
midden (c. 6.4 kA BP) (Orquera and Piana 1999, 2009; Orquera et al. 2011). After the
mid-Holocene, shell-matrix sites are widespread on the coasts of the continent.
Given the long chronology for coastal settlements in South America, it is impossible to
assume that all shell-matrix sites served the same purposes or were created by the same
348 Villagran
culture. For thousands of years, coastal communities in South America followed different
paths, certainly with contact and interaction, but as independent cultural entities.
The next sections describe the monumental shellmounds of southeastern Brazil and
the domestic shell middens from Tierra del Fuego. Both cultures were arbitrarily grouped
as marginal tribes in the classical Handbook of South American Indians (Cooper 1946;
Serrano 1946). However, there are stark cultural and ecological differences expressed
from the macroscopic archaeological record down to the micromorphological scale. The
coastal communities of Brazil built hundreds of shellmounds and shell middens along the
7000 km of coastline. They are one of the densest populations in South American
prehistory, and one of the few examples of sedentary groups based on maritime econo-
mies with no agriculture. The coastal groups of Tierra del Fuego were the last survivors
of a fisher-hunter-gatherer lifestyle whose subsistence remained almost unchanged for
thousands of years. Rich descriptions of this society are available in chronicles and
ethnographies, from the accounts of Charles Darwin and Captain FitzRoy on the voyage
of the HSM Beagle, to several ethnographies produced in the twentieth century.
The Brazilian Shellmounds
Almost the entire Brazilian coastline contains shell-matrix sites of different shapes and
ages, either located on the coastal plains or associated with coastal lagoons, mangroves,
mud flats, beach ridges, and eolian dune systems. Well-accepted chronologies place the
earliest sites around 8000 BP, with an increase in site frequency between 4000 and
2000 BP (Gaspar 1995; Lima 1999; Giannini et al. 2010).
Zooarchaeological and stable isotope analyses proved that, although mollusks were the
most conspicuous remains, the subsistence of prehistoric coastal communities was pri-
marily based on fishing (Figuti 1992; De Masi 1994; Klokler 2008; Villagran et al. 2011;
Colonese et al. 2014). Plant gathering and the occasional consumption of marine mam-
mals were complements to the diet (Castilho 2005; Scheel-Ybert et al. 2009b; Boyadjian
2012; Boyadjian and Eggers 2014). Although physical evidence is missing, boats would
have been available for movement, as indicated by sites located on paleo-islands.
Since most sites in the state of Santa Catarina are conspicuous mounded structures,
sometimes reaching several meters high, the common term used to define them is
shellmound, rather than shell midden. This also emphasizes the deliberate and planned
action of creating the structures. The sites are viewed as artifacts themselves, given their
sizes and the high frequency of human interments inside (Afonso and DeBlasis 1994;
Figuti and Klokler 1996; Gaspar 2004; Klokler 2014). The shellmounds are stratified,
and the sediments contain shell valves, abundant fish bone fragments, charcoal, and
artifacts. Besides the large stratified shellmounds, smaller shellmounds (of less than
five meters high) exist as satellite structures of the monumental sites. These smaller
sites have a simpler stratigraphy, with a sandy core and an upper layer of clayey sand,
organic matter, and shell (Scheel-Ybert et al. 2009a; Giannini et al. 2010; Klokler et al.
2011; Villagran 2014a). This contrasts with the complex stratigraphies of the larger
shellmounds, made of intricate successions of shelly layers.
In the state of Santa Catarina, the frequency of human interments inside large
shellmounds is astonishing, which has led many researchers to consider most sites as
funerary monuments (DeBlasis et al. 1998; Fish et al. 2000; Gaspar et al. 2008, 2011,
2014, Klokler 2008, 2014). Evaluations of site visibility and studies of settlement
patterns, the availability of resources, the concentration of human burials, and

bioanthropology have suggested a dense demography and some degree of sedentarism
for the coastal societies (Storto et al. 1999; Neves and Wesolowski 2002; Okumura and
Eggers 2005; DeBlasis et al. 2007; Gaspar et al. 2008, 2011).
The Shell Middens of the Beagle Channel
The coasts of the Beagle Channel contain shell-matrix sites with ages from c.
6400 years BP until the contact with European colonizers made by hunter-fisher-
gatherers with specialized maritime economies (Schiavini 1993; Orquera and Piana
1999, 2009; Miotti and Salemme 2004; Orquera 2005). The sites are rather small (a few
meters wide), generally stratified and only a few are more than 1 meter high. They are
commonly ring-shaped with a central depression, although some sites can be crescent
shaped (Orquera and Piana 2009; Zangrando et al. 2009).
According to ethnographic sources, the Yahgan or Yamana occupied the coasts of
the Beagle Channel when European colonizers arrived in the seventeenth–eighteenth
centuries (Hyades and Deniker 1891; Bridges 1893; Lothrop 1928; Gusinde 1982,
1986; Martial 2005). The Yamana are described as canoe people with a maritime
lifestyle who lived on the shell heaps created after successive discard of food debris
(Darwin 1839; Wilkes 1844; Despard 1863; Spegazzini 1882; Hyades and Deniker
1891; Spears 1895; Bridges 1975; Gusinde 1986).
The Yamana were essentially nomads who organized in nuclear families, or in small
groups of two to three families sharing a single residential hut. A central hearth, lit on
pebbles and shells, was always kept inside the hut where most daily activities were
undertaken (e.g., sleeping, eating, stone tool manufacturing, food preparation, etc.)
(Fitz-Roy 1839; Wilkes 1844; Gusinde 1986; Martial 2005). Abandoned huts were
never destroyed and could be re-occupied by the same or different family at a later time
(Darwin 1839; Fitz-Roy 1839; Despard 1863; Hyades and Deniker 1891; Lothrop
1928; Gusinde 1986; Martial 2005).
Although mollusks are the most conspicuous component of the Yamana shell
middens, subsistence was mostly based on seal and guanaco, as proved by stable
isotope analyses on human bone (Orquera 1999; Orquera and Piana 2000; Estevez
et al. 2001; Yesner et al. 2003; Panarello et al. 2006). Few chroniclers describe human
burials in the shell middens (Hyades and Deniker 1891; Koppers 1997; Martial 2005),
but the archaeological record indicates frequent interments in the sites and their
proximities (Piana et al. 2006, 2008; Alvarez et al. 2008; Piana and Vazquez 2009).
Both ethnographic and archaeological data coincide with the domestic nature of the
Yamana shell heaps (Estevez and Vila 1998, 2007; Vila et al. 2007).
The Micromorphological Study of Shell-Matrix Sites
The first step in archaeological micromorphology involves the collection of undis-

turbed blocks of soil or sediment from a stratigraphic profile or from the excavation
surface of an archaeological site. Afterwards, samples are dried and embedded with
resin to produce hard blocks, from which thin sections are made that can be observed
under the petrographic microscope (Courty et al. 1989; Stoops 2003). The thin sections
350 Villagran
must have a standard thickness of 30 μm to allow the observation of the mineral and
organic components of soils and sediments at different magnifications. Each thin
section is a microscopic window into the archaeological sediments, revealing the
macroscopic and microscopic components, the spatial and stratigraphic relationships
between them, and the alteration processes before and after deposition.
Micromorphological work on South American shell-matrix sites was mostly done
following the identification of microfacies in the thin sections (following Courty 2001;
Flugel 2004; Goldberg et al. 2009). Microfacies have both a descriptive and interpre-
tative value. They are defined following the identification of comparable micromor-
phological attributes in individual sedimentary units (e.g., layers, lenses, and lamina-
tions) observed in the thin sections. The characteristics are used to infer the formation
processes through the identification of the origin or source, transport agent, and post-
depositional evolution of the sediments. Similarities are interpreted as evidence of an
analogous origin for the microfacies, i.e., the same depositional process is responsible
for the formation of microfacies that share the same micromorphological traits. In this
sense, the term is used to simplify descriptions and favor the identification of recurrence
in the depositional events that build up archaeological deposits. For instance, different
microfacies can refer to individual large- or small-scale depositional episodes in the site
stratigraphy and microstratigraphy, combustion activities that result in individual de-
posits (e.g., hearths, hearth rake-out, ash lenses, etc.) or to depositional units affected by
the same type of post-depositional alteration (e.g., trampling, soil formation), among
others.
The microfacies approach has been successfully used for site formation studies and
is becoming the standard method for micromorphological analyses in geoarchaeology
(see Mallol 2006; Goldberg et al. 2009; Shillito et al. 2011; Berna et al. 2012; Courty
et al. 2012; Miller and Sievers 2012; Macphail et al. 2013; Miller et al. 2013; Karkanas
et al. 2015; Aldeias and Bicho 2016). The criteria used to differentiate microfacies are
mostly dependent on the type of deposit under study. Since shell-matrix sites are
complete anthropogenic deposits (sometimes containing layers of natural deposition),
the criteria for microfacies identification prioritize the depositional traits or traits that
are penecontemporaneous to the deposition event (i.e., formed during or shortly after
the formation of the deposit). This follows Goldberg et al. (2009) who describe
microfacies after the identification of lithological changes within a thin section. Fol-
lowing the terminology of Stoops (2003) for the micromorphological description of
thin sections, the classification of microfacies in shell-matrix sites relies on differences
in five micromorphological traits (Villagran et al. 2011b): (1) microstructure (the
microscopic structure of a soil or sediment, comprising the size, shape and arrangement
of coarse particles, voids, and the fine matrix) and c/f related distribution (the distribu-
tion of the coarse particles, such as shell and bone, in relation to the fine matrix and
associated pores), which are associated with the depositional activities and the type and
degree of post-depositional alteration; (2) porosity and types of voids, which help to
understand the degree of anthropogenic compaction and/or biological alteration of the
sediments; (3) c/f ratio (a numerical ratio that expresses the percentage of volume
occupied by the coarse material and by the fine matrix in the sediment), which helps to
recognize variation between microfacies when they exhibit similar compositions that
may result from different activities; (4) coarse fraction (diversity, frequency, complete-
ness and distribution of shell fragments, bone, charcoal, mineral grains, among others),
which indicates the nature of the depositional activity and the post-depositional alter-
ation; and (5) micromass (the matrix and/or fine material in the sediment), the compo-
sition of which is key to understanding the depositional and taphonomic processes.
Microfacies from the same site, or from similar sites in the same region, can be
grouped into microfacies types. This second stage of classification allows for the
recognition of general trends in the origin and mode of deposition for each microfacies
(Courty 2001). The classification of microfacies into microfacies types must take into
account the micromorphological traits that are common to a group of microfacies. It is
in the classification stage that one can conclude that the same microfacies type appears
recurrently in the same stratigraphic profile, in different profiles from the same site or in
stratigraphic profiles from different sites in the same region. This ultimately points to
analogous processes in the formation of the archaeological deposits.
Study Areas and Sampling
The five shellmounds analyzed here are all located on the coast of the state of Santa
Catarina, southern Brazil (Fig. 1a). The shell midden is located on the northern coast of
the Beagle Channel, Tierra del Fuego province, Argentina (Fig. 1b). The environmental
conditions in both study areas are rather different. The Beagle Channel, located at the
southern tip of the Americas, is a drowned glacial valley connecting the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans. The mean annual temperature is 5 °C, and average rainfall is 570 mm
(cold sub-Antarctic climate). The vegetation consists of sub-Antarctic deciduous and
evergreen beech forests, with patches of Magellanic moorlands (Heusser 2003). The
climate and vegetation conditions have remained stable since the mid-Holocene
(Candel et al. 2009). The southern coast of the state of Santa Catarina is a coastal
lagoon system developed after the maximum Holocene transgression (5700–5100 years
BP, or before) (Angulo et al. 2006; Giannini et al. 2007). The present-day climate is
subtropical mesothermal humid. The mean annual temperature is 19 °C with an average
rainfall of 1450 mm (high relative humidity ~ 85%) (IBGE 2002). Open vegetation
with a predominance of herbaceous plants (restinga) and patches of lowland forest
characterize the area. Atlantic rainforest (ombrophilous tropical forest) is only present
at higher altitudes. The present-day climate and vegetation would have existed since the
mid-Holocene (Amaral et al. 2011).
For this work, 16 mammoth-sized thin sections collected from the stratigraphic
successions of four Brazilian shellmounds (Caipora, Cubículo-1, Morrinhos,
Jabuticabeira-1) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4; Table 1) and one thin section from a shellmound
with a sandy core (Carniça-3) (Fig. 5) were used. For the study of the Tunel VII shell
midden, analyses were performed on 14 medium-sized thin sections from two sampling
columns in the shell ring (each ~ 60 cm high), plus six thin sections from the
overlapping central hearths collected by the research team in 1992 (see Vila et al.
2011) (Fig. 6). Despite differences in the number of samples, the thin sections from the
shellmounds are larger than the ones from the shell midden (see Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6),
embracing a wider surface of the archaeological sediments. Also, the sampling of Tunel
VII tried to capture the complete stratigraphy of a small-scale shell midden (~ 30 to
60 cm high) (Vila et al. 2011), while sampling in the shellmounds followed the method
of archaeofacies analyses developed at the interface of archaeology and geosciences
352 Villagran
Fig. 1 Study areas on the southern coast of Brazil (a) and Tierra del Fuego (b). Photographs of some of the
sites analyzed in this study: a Caipora shellmound and the paleo-lagoon deposits nearby, b Morrinhos
shellmound, c Cubículo-1 shellmound, and d Tunel VII shell midden
(see Villagran et al. 2009). This method allows the identification of recurrence in large-
scale stratigraphic profiles after detailed field descriptions of each stratigraphic layer,
following a list of standard depositional attributes, and the laboratory characterization
of the sediments. Stratigraphic layers with similar depositional attributes, named
archaeofacies, are interpreted as having similar origins and/or analogous formation
processes. Archaeofacies can appear once or multiple times in a single stratigraphic
profile or in different profiles from the same site. The identification of great recurrence
in the stratigraphic profiles of the Brazilian shellmounds led to the collection of a
smaller number of blocks, since samples were taken from the different archaeofacies
and not from each stratigraphic layer. This contrasts with the number of samples from
the shell midden where the same procedure was not applied. In the few sites where a
single sample was collected (e.g., Cubiculo-1 and Carniça-3), the non-sampled
Fig. 2 Caipora shellmound. Stratigraphic profile with location of samples for micromorphology and identi-
fication of microfacies on scanned thin sections
sediments were extremely friable and made of loose shell or sand, preventing the
proper collection of an undisturbed block.
In both contexts, experimental hearths complemented the archaeological sampling
(Villagran et al. 2011a; Villagran 2014a), as well as modern reference samples from the
controlled heating of the two most abundant mollusk species found in the Argentinean
and Brazilian sites: Mytilus edulis and Anomalocardia brasiliana, respectively
Fig. 3 Jabuticaberia-1 shellmound. Stratigraphic profile with location of samples for micromorphology and
identification of microfacies on scanned thin sections
354 Villagran
Fig. 4 Morrinhos and Cubículo-1 shellmounds. Stratigraphic profile with location of samples for micromor-
phology and identification of microfacies on scanned thin sections
(Villagran et al. 2011b; Villagran 2014b). The experimental and control samples served
as reference for the identification of local material in the thin sections. In particular, the
heating of mollusk shells is fundamental to the proper identification of combustion
features in shell-matrix sites and necessary to infer the temperature of the fires. In
general, both species of mollusks show a general sequence of heat-induced transfor-
mation that involves loss of the periostracum until 500 °C, fissuring of the valve along
the laminae above 300 °C, overall darkening and fissuring of the valve above 400–
500 °C, and deformation of the valve with gray to black color (in plane polarized light,
PPL) and low interference color (in cross polarizers, XPL) above 600–700 °C. The
experimental hearth on a shell-matrix deposit served as reference for the
Fig. 5 Carniça-3 shellmound with a sandy core. Stratigraphic profile with location of samples for micromor-
phology and identification of microfacies on scanned thin sections
Fig. 6 Tunel VII shell midden.

Stratigraphic profile with location
of the sampling columns for
micromorphology and
identification of microfacies on
>
scanned thin sections
356 Villagran
micromorphological identification of intact versus reworked combustion features.

Intact hearths in shell-matrix sites contain three distinctive microfacies: an upper
burned layer, with shell and bone fragments heated at medium temperatures (400–
600 °C); a calcined layer, with ashes mixed within calcined shell and bone fragments;
and a slightly burned substrate containing shell and bones heated at low temperature
(below 400 °C).
Microfacies in Shell-Matrix Sites
Microfacies of an Ethnohistoric Shell Midden
Although not explicitly using the concept of microfacies, Balbo et al. (2010) identified
different phases of site frequentation and abandonment by grouping microunits in one
of the sampling columns for micromorphology in Tunel VII. The same set of
microfacies was identified in the second sampling column (Villagran et al. 2011). A
total of six microfacies types (mF types) were described for the site (Fig. 6; Table 2).
The predominant type corresponds to tossing events of discarded food items (mF type
3), while the second most frequent mF type represents compaction or surface pressure,
possibly from trampling over the shell heaps (mF type 4). Episodes of site abandon-
ment were identified by the development of incipient soil made of blocky aggregates
(mF type 2), and evidence of site frequentation, connecting the central hut with the
outer limits of the shell ring, was identified by the reorganization of components
through cleaning or maintenance (mF type 6). Secondary mF types are thin lenses of
beach pebbles (mF type 5) and the current surface of the shell midden (mF type 1).
mF Type 1—Surface of the Shell Midden The topmost layer of the shell ring is
highly compacted and contains a mix of eroded shell midden material and forest litter
(Fig. 6).
mF Type 2—Soil Formation After Abandonment Abandonment of the site is

identified through the development of a shallow, incipient soil with angular blocky
prisms (Figs. 7 and 8). The blocky peds contain fine shell and bone fragments in
between the organomineral matrix and are produced by the action of freeze-thaw cycles
(Van Vliet-Lanoë 2010). The acicular crystals of calcite contained in the micromass
derive from physical weathering, i.e., frost action, of the shell valves of Mytilus eduls,
the predominant bivalve species in the shell middens (see Villagran and Poch 2014).
This mF type developed in fine sediments deposited over the shell midden after
abandonment, carried by eolian or colluvial agents. It was identified three times in
the shell midden stratigraphy, suggesting at least three moments at which the site was
abandoned.
mF Type 3—Tossing Events of Discarded Shells This mF type is the most frequent
in the shell midden (Fig. 6). Large shell valves have horizontal distribution, while
smaller shell fragments and bones have random distribution (Figs. 9 and 10). Large
shell valves are interconnected when fragmented; even pebbles that have been fissured
by frost-shattering have accommodated fissures. Large charcoal fragments are well
Table 2 Microfacies identified in the fueguian shell midden
Microfacies type 1
Surface of the shell midden
Microstructure Integrain microaggregate with cohesive granules (200–300 μm width)
c/f related Close fine enaulic
distribution
Types of voids Complex-packing voids
Porosity 20%
c/f ratio 50/50
Coarse fraction (1) Shell fragments (50%); (2) pebble, granule-sized rock fragments (20%); (3)
charcoal (20%); plant tissue (10%)
Coarse fraction Random and subhorizontal for shells (50%, respectively), other components with
distribution random distribution
Secondary –
components
Micromass Polymorphic organic matter, microcharcoal, decayed wood, and oxidized plant
remains
Microfacies type 2
Soil formation after abandonment
Microstructure Angular blocky prisms (5 × 5 mm)
c/f related Porphyric
distribution
Types of voids Fissure
Porosity 20%
c/f ratio 30/70
Coarse fraction (1) Fine sand to silt-sized shell fragments (5%); (2) pebbles (5%); (3) charcoal (5%);
(4) tissue residues (5%); (5) very fine sand sized bone fragments (< 5%)
Coarse fraction Random
distribution
Secondary –
components
Micromass Dark brown (PPL), organomineral clay with crystals of acicular calcite
Microfacies type 3
Tossing events of discarded shells
Microstructure Intergrain microaggregate with loose granules (100–200 μm)
c/f related Single spaced fine enaulic
distribution
Porosity 40%
c/f ratio 65/35
Coarse fraction (1) Fresh complete shell and shell fragments (30–40%); (2) heated shell fragments
(5%); (3) pebbles (20%); (4) coarse charcoal fragments (10–20%); (5) burned bones
(5%); (6) tissue residues (< 5%)
Coarse fraction 60% of large shells are subhorizontal, 30% subhorizontal, and 10% subvertical; small
distribution shell fragments and other components are randomly distributed
358 Villagran
Table 2 (continued)
Secondary –
components
Micromass Polymorphic organic matter, microcharcoal, tissue residues, and crystals of acicular
calcite
Microfacies type 4
Compaction/surface pressure by trampling
Microstructure Intergrain microaggregate with loose granules (100–150 μm)
c/f related Single spaced fine enaulic
distribution
Porosity 30%
c/f ratio 90/10
Coarse fraction (1) shell fragments (50–70%); (2) rock fragments (10–15%); (3) charcoal (5–10%); (4)
plant tissue (2%)
Coarse fraction Subhorizontal and horizontal for shell fragments. Random for other components
distribution
Secondary –
components
calcite
Microfacies type 5
Beach pebbles
Microstructure Single grain and intergrain microaggregate with loose crumbs (150–300 μm)
c/f related Coarse monic and close fine enaulic
distribution
Porosity 60%
c/f ratio 80/20
Coarse fraction (1) Pebbles (90%); (2) unsorted shell fragments (10%)
distribution
Secondary –
components
calcite
Microfacies type 6
Frequentation phases
Microstructure Intergrain microaggregate and spongy with interconnected granules (100–300 μm
width)
c/f related Single and double spaced fine enaulic
distribution
Porosity 20%
c/f ratio 30/70
Table 2 (continued)
Coarse fraction (1) Fresh shell fragments (20%); heated shell fragments (10%); pebbles (20%); fine
charcoal (5%); bone (< 2%)
distribution
Secondary –
components
Micromass Polymorphic organic matter, microcharcoal, tissue residues and crystals of acicular
calcite
Microfacies type 7
Summer hearths
Microstructure Intergrain microaggregate (100–300 μm) with loose granules (100–300 μm) with
areas of spongy microstructure with interconnected crumbs (100–300 μm)
c/f related Close, single-spaced fine enaulic
distribution
Porosity 40%
c/f ratio 80/20
Coarse fraction (1) Shell fragments heated beneath 500 °C (30%); shell fragments heated above 500 °
C (20%); (2) charcoal (30%); (3) heated pebbles (20%); (4) burned bones (2%)
Coarse fraction Subhorizontal for shell fragments; random for other components
distribution
Secondary –
components
Micromass Microcharcoal, oxidized plant tissue, micrite
Microfacies type 8
Winter hearths
Microstructure Chamber
c/f related Close, single-space porphyric
distribution
Types of voids Chamber, channel, and planar voids
Porosity 20%
c/f ratio 50/50
Coarse fraction (1) Shell fragments heated above 500–600 ° C (20–30%); (2) heated pebbles (30–
40%); burned bones (5%)
distribution
Secondary –
components
Micromass Micritic (ashes) and rubified clay
preserved. The fine fraction contains a mix of plant debris and other organic
components. According to Balbo et al. (2010) and Villagran et al. (2011a), shell valves
with low fragmentation and subhorizontal distribution indicate single tossing events of
food items discarded outside of the living space. This action is described by chroniclers
360 Villagran
Fig. 7 Mosaic photomicrographs of microfacies type 2 and E for the shell midden and shellmounds,
respectively (PPL and XPL)
(Bridges 1975; Gusinde 1986; Martial 2005) as part of the daily site maintenance
activities of the Yamana.
mF Type 4—Compaction/Surface Pressure by Trampling This mF type always

appears associated with mF type 3, either on top or underneath (Figs. 6, 11, and 12).
The shell fragments and whole valves are densely packed and horizontal, with fine
loose granules in between. Higher compaction and interconnected fragments of shells
can be correlated with trampling on the shell layers.
mF Type 5—Beach Pebbles Pebbles in this mF type come from the beach located a
few meters south of the shell midden (Fig. 6).
mF Type 6—Frequentation Phases This mF is only described for the sampling

column located in the passageway through the shell ring into the central hut (Figs. 6
and 13). It shows a low c/f ratio and a random distribution of shell fragments and is
interpreted to be the result of episodes of higher frequentation of the site with a
reorganization of its components. The presence of heated shell fragments (10% of the
total) and a few bones indicates the connection with the habitation space (central hut)
where domestic hearths were lit.
Fig. 8 Photomicrographs of microfacies type 2 and E for the shell midden and the Brazilian shellmounds,
respectively, interpreted as soil formation after abandonment. a, c, e mF type 2 at Tunel VII made of angular
blocky peds/aggregates, with clayey micromass rich in polymorphic organic matter and micrometric bone and
shell fragments (PPL). b, d, f mF type E from the Brazilian shellmounds, with granular microstructure made of
clay, organic matter, and micrometric bone and shell fragments (PPL)
mF Type 7—Summer Hearths Shell fragments are always heated in this mF type,
but mostly at temperatures between 200 and 500 °C (temperature ranges are based
on the experimental heating of Mytilus edulis, see Villagran et al. 2011). The
pebbles are oxidized and fissured, bone fragments are burnt, and coarse charcoal
fragments are dispersed in between black granules made of microcharcoal and
oxidized plant tissue (Fig. 14). The temperature of heating inferred for the shells
and the absence of a rubified substrate indicate a low-moderate temperature fire
362 Villagran
Fig. 9 Mosaic photomicrographs of microfacies type 3 and F for the shell midden and shellmounds,
(according to the classification by Wattez 1992). Zooarchaeology and isotope

analyses proved that hearths with mF type 7 are coincident with summer and
spring visitations of the site (Mameli and Estevez 2004; Estevez and Vila 2006;
Colonese et al. 2012).
mF Type 8—Winter Hearths The heating temperatures of shell fragments in this mF

type are higher than in mF type 7, always above 500–600 °C (according to the
experimental heating of Mytilus edulis, see Villagran et al. 2011). Pebbles are cracked
and oxidized, bone fragments are burned, and the micromass is made of a mix of ashes,
microcharcoal crumbs, and rubified clay (Fig. 14). Coarse charcoal fragments are
scarce, and tissue residues are absent, suggesting the complete combustion of organics.
The high temperature of shell heating and the rubified sediments are indicative of high-
intensity combustion structures (Wattez 1992; Weiner et al. 2002; Mallol et al. 2007).
Zooarchaeology and isotope analyses proved that hearths with mF type 8 are coincident
with winter visitations of the site (Mameli and Estevez 2004; Estevez and Vila 2006;
Colonese et al. 2012).
Microfacies of Prehistoric Shellmounds
Despite the complex stratigraphies of the monumental shellmounds, both the macro-
scopic description of the stratigraphic profiles in the field, following the method of
archaeofacies analyses (Villagran 2014a), and the micromorphological study revealed
364 Villagran
Fig. 11 Mosaic photomicrographs of microfacies type 4 and A1 for the shell midden and shellmounds,
greater homogeneity than previously thought. Of the 23 microfacies identified in four

shellmounds, the predominant mF type is made of a mixture of reworked residues with
a predominance of shells (mF type A) (Figs. 2, 3, and 4; Table 3). The following mF
types are only observed in few sites. They include compaction or surface pressure on
mF type A substrate (mF type A1), reworked hearths (mF type B), clayey sediments
from lagoon deposits (mF type C), muddy sand from lagoon deposits (mF type D), and
soil formation on top of the mounds (mF type E) (Figs. 2, 3, and 4; Table 2). The
identification of five main mF types was corroborated by principal component analyses
(PCA) based on micromorphological quantifications (see Villagran 2014a).
For the shellmound with a sandy core, the identification of mF types was more
straightforward, given the simplicity of the stratigraphy (comprising an upper layer of
whole and fragmented shell embedded in a clayey black fine fraction, and a lower
massive sand deposit). Only one mF type characterizes the site (mF type F), made of a
mix of whole shell valves, which are sometimes burned, fine sand-sized quartz grains,
and pellets of polymorphic organic matter (amorphous fine material with more than 5%
coarser organic elements, but without recognizable vegetal structures, forming a mass
with different colors and densities; Stoops 2003) (Fig. 5; Table 3). This mF type is
Fig. 10 Photomicrographs of microfacies type 3 and F for the shell midden and shellmound, respectively,
interpreted as tossing events of discarded shells. a, c, e mF type 3 at Tunel VII with whole and fragmented
shells with horizontal to subhorizontal distribution (PPL). b, d, f mF type F at the Carniça-3 shellmound with a
sandy core (PPL). g, h Detail of the fine fraction made of small granules of monomorphic and polymorphic
organic matter, sometimes including tiny bone fragments
Fig. 12 Photomicrographs of microfacies type 4 and type A1 for the shell midden and shellmounds,
respectively, interpreted as compaction/surface pressure by trampling. a, c, e mF type 4 at Tunel VII shell
midden. The arrows indicate cracks on shells whose fragments remain interconnected (PPL). b, d, f mF type
A1 at Jabuticabeira-1 shellmound. The arrows indicate cracks on shells whose fragments remain intercon-
nected (PPL)
deposited on top of a 5-m-high sand mound of anthropic origin (Tanaka et al. 2009;
Villagran et al. 2011c).
mF Type A—Reworking of Multiple Residues with a Predominance of Shells This

mF type was identified in more than half of the thin sections analyzed per site (Figs. 2,
3, and 4). It contains shell fragments, sometimes heated above 600 °C (identification of
366 Villagran
Fig. 13 Mosaic photomicrographs of microfacies type 6 for the shell midden (PPL). a, b Photomicrographs
of the same microfacies interpreted as frequentation phases by Balbo et al. (2011) connecting the central hut to
the exterior (PPL)
heating temperatures was achieved by experimental micromorphology, see full

description and photomicrographs in Villagran 2014b), sand-sized quartz and feldspars,
burned and decayed fish bone fragments, and unsorted charcoal fragments (Figs. 15
and 16). Most components are randomly distributed, except for shell fragments that can
also have horizontal and subhorizontal distributions. The microstructure is made of
coalesced granules of clay, phosphates, microcharcoal, and silt-sized bone inclusions,
frequently cemented with carbonates from shell dissolution. Complex packing voids
and enaulic c/f distributions are dominant but not exclusive (e.g., carbonate cemented
areas that result in chitonic distributions). Secondary components include glassy slag
and tissue residues.
This mF reveals a complex pre-depositional history. It is common to find adjacent
bone fragments with differences in color (PPL), birefringence (XPL), and fluorescence
(ultraviolet light (UVL)), as well as adjacent shell fragments that are well-preserved,
dissolved, and/or heated. This indicates a mix of fresh and decayed shells and bones
with shells and bones heated at different temperatures (up to carbonization and
calcination) (Villagran 2014a). The organic fraction and possibly the phosphates in
the micromass derive from animal tissue decay, as indicated by isotopic analyses of the
organic matter in the sediments (δ13C and δ15N) (see Villagran 2014a). The δ15N
values, between + 10.05‰ and + 15.23‰, are typical of soil organic matter enriched in
nitrates of animal origin (Kendall 1998; Schoeller 1999; White 2001), specifically of
marine animals from estuarine settings (Schoeninger and De Niro 1984; Commisso and
Nelson 2006). This is consistent with the mollusks and fishes in the sites and with
Fig. 14 Photomicrographs of combustion features in the shell midden and shellmounds. a, b Summer hearths
at Tunel VII, made of shell heated below 500 °C in-between charcoal-rich micromass (PPL). c, d Winter
hearths at Tunel VII, made of shell heated above 500 °C in-between ashy micromass (PPL). e, f Reworked
hearths in the Brazilian shellmounds, showing mix of burnt and un-burnt components (shell and bone) and
localized ash domains
368 Villagran
Table 3 Microfacies identified in the Brazilian shellmounds
Microfacies type A
Reworking of multiple residues with predominance of shells
Microstructure Intergrain microaggregate
c/f related Enaulic, with areas of chitonic and gefuric distributions
distribution
Types of voids Complex-packing voids, with channel and chamber voids
Porosity 20–30%
c/f ratio 70/30
Coarse fraction (1) Shell (20–40%), complete, fragmented, and sometimes burned; (2) mineral grains
(10–40%), mostly quartzose sands, feldspars, and few rock fragments; (3) bone
fragments of diverse size (2–25%), mostly fine and very fine sand-sized with signs
of heating and weathering
Coarse fraction Horizontal/subhorizontal and random for shells; random for bones and quartz grains
distribution
Secondary Charcoal, glassy slag, tissue residues, echinoid spines, clay aggregates with diatoms
components
Micromass Mix of clay minerals with organic matter, micrite and secondary phosphates
Microfacies type A1
Compaction/surface pressure
Microstructure Integrain microaggregate
c/f related Close enaulic
distribution
Porosity 50%
c/f ratio 90/31
Coarse fraction (1) Shells (70%); (2) bone fragments (10%); (3) mineral grains (< 5%)
Coarse fraction Horizontal and subhorizontal
distribution
Secondary Charcoal
components
Micromass Mix of clay minerals with micrite and organic matter
Microfacies type B
Reworking of hearths
Microstructure Intergain microaggregate
c/f related Enaulic and porphyric
distribution
Porosity 20–40%
c/f ratio 30/70 and 85/15
Coarse fraction (1) Shell fragments heated beneath 600 ° C (25%); shell fragments heated above
600 °C (30%); (2) heated bone fragments (5%).
Coarse fraction Subhorizontal for shells; random for bones
distribution
Table 3 (continued)
Secondary Heated periostracum fragments, silicified tissue residues

components
Micromass Rubified and carbonized clay aggregates, ashes, and microcharcoal
Microfacies type C
Clay aggregates from lagoon
Microstructure Massive
c/f related Porphyric
distribution
Types of voids Chamber, fissures, compound-packing
Porosity 10%
c/f ratio 10/90
Coarse fraction (1) Very fine sand-sized quartz grains and glauconitic clay (25–40%); (2) shell
fragments of the bivalve species Mytella sp. and whole shells of the gastropod
Heleobia sp. (5–20%); (3) diatoms of the species Paralia sulcata, Triceratum flavus,
Biddulphia pulchella, and Actinoptycus vulgaris (< 5%)
distribution
Secondary –
components
Micromass Dark brown clay (PPL)
Microfacies type D
Muddy sand from lagoon deposits
Microstructure Integrain microaggregate with coated and bridged grains
c/f related Eunaulic, chitonic and gefuric
distribution
Types of voids Complex-packing
Porosity 30%
c/f ratio 90/10
Coarse fraction (1) Fine sand-sized quartz grains (55–65%) and feldspars (15%); (2) whole and
fragmented shells (10–15%); (3) glauconitic clay, anisotropic heavy mineral grains (<
10%); (4) whole shells of the gastropod species Heleobia sp. (< 5%); bone fragments
(2%)
distribution
Secondary –
components
Micromass Coatings and aggregates of light brown (PPL) clay
Microfacies type E
Soil formation after abandonment
Microstructure Cohesive granules (250–500 μm long) and/or cohesive crumbs (2–5 mm)
c/f related Porphyric and monic
distribution
Types of voids Chamber, channel, fissures
Porosity 10–20%
370 Villagran
Table 3 (continued)
c/f ratio 50/50 until 10/90

Coarse fraction (1) Quartz grains, feldspars, and rock fragments (20–45%); (2) burned and weathered
bone fragments (5–20%); (3) shell fragments (10%)
distribution
Secondary –
components
Micromass Mix of clay, organic matter and micrite.
Microfacies type F
Tossing of shell and combustion residues
Microstructure Intergrain microaggregate (50–200 μm), also as pseudo-coatings
c/f related Enaulic
distribution
Porosity 60%
c/f ratio 80/20
Coarse fraction (1) Whole and fragmented shells of Anomalocardia brasiliana (50%), few heated at
low temperature (3%); (2) rounded and subrounded fine sand-sized quartz grains
(40%); (3) very fine sand-sized feldspars (< 5%); burned fine to coarse sand-sized
bone fragments (5%); unsorted charcoal fragments (< 1%)
Coarse fraction Subhorizontal for shells; random for bones and mineral grains.
distribution
Secondary Fresh roots
components
Micromass Pellets of polymorphic organic matter with pseudo-coatings of welded pellets; few
coatings of monomorphic organic matter
zooarchaeological analyses indicating that fish species in the shellmounds come from
the coastal lagoons (Nishida 2007; Klokler 2008).
The mixing of components with different histories points towards reworking, by
means of the sweeping or dumping of material that was burnt and left to decay at a
location other than the final location (see Schiegl et al. 2003; Goldberg et al. 2009,
2012; Miller et al. 2010; Courty et al. 2012). The micromorphological and composi-
tional characteristics of mF type A are typical of midden deposits (Courty et al. 1989;
Matthews et al. 1997; Shahack-Gross et al. 2008; Shillito et al. 2011). This suggests
that mF A results from the reworking of discarded fresh, burned, and decayed material
accumulated in a midden deposit and later transported to the shellmounds.
The provenance of the sand-sized mineral grains in the archaeological sediments
supports the hypothesis of the reworking of midden material accumulated outside the
shellmounds, on the natural substrate. Grain-sized distributions of the mineral sand
fraction in the archaeological sediments consistently fit the natural deposits surround-
ings the sites (e.g., shellmounds near lagoon shores contain sediments from lagoon
beaches; shellmounds on colluvial deposits contain sediments from the surrounding
colluvium). For more details on the comparative grain-sized analyses of shellmound
sediments and sediments from the natural deposits, see Villagran and Giannini (2014).
Fig. 15 Mosaic photomicrographs of microfacies type A for the shellmounds (PPL and XPL)
mF Type A1—Compaction/Surface Pressure This mF is described in only one site

(Jabuticabeira-1) associated with mF A (Figs. 2, 11, and 12). It contains thin layers of
close-packed shells with horizontal distribution. Some shell fragments show lateral
continuity. The consolidation of shells can result either from sediment compression, as
new material is deposited on the mounds (Andrews 2006), or from human trampling.
mF Type B—Reworking of Hearths All of the components of this mF type have

been altered by heating (shells, bones, and clay), while others are common byproducts
of plant combustion (ashes and charcoal) (Figs. 2, 3, 14, and 17). The composition of
this mF is typical of combustion features; however, the abrupt contact, lack of a heated
substrate (see Berna et al. 2007; Canti and Linford 2000; Miller et al. 2010), and the
stratigraphic inversion in the burned clay aggregates (rubified clay above carbonized
Fig. 16 Photomicrographs of microfacies type 1 identified in the Brazilian shellmounds and interpreted as b
reworking of multiple residues with predominance of shells. a–c Mix of burnt and decayed components,
including burnt bone, weathered bone and intact and dissolved shell (PPL). c Same as C in XPL, the dashed
lines indicate the location of bone fragments with low to absent interference color. The central area includes
shell fragments cemented with calcium carbonate from shell dissolution. e–g Mix of shell fragments with
various degrees of weathering, burnt and dissolved bone fragments (PPL). h Same as G in XPL, the dashed
lines indicate domains with weak interference color inside mass of weathered bone
372 Villagran
Fig. 17 Mosaic photomicrographs of microfacies type B for the shellmounds (PPL and XPL)
clay) indicate remobilization of combustion debris. Remobilization could imply a

dumping of hearths (Schiegl et al. 2003; Miller et al. 2010), hearth-rake out (Mentzer
2014), or any short-distance remobilization of a hearth lit nearby. Experimental hearths
on shell deposits showed that rubified substrates are not necessarily present underneath
combustion features in shell-matrix sites.
mF Type C—Clay Aggregates from Lagoon Deposits This mF type gathers all mF
made of clay aggregates with diatoms (Paralia sulcata, Triceratum flavus, Biddulphia
pulchella, Actinoptycus vulgaris), glauconitic clay, and whole shells of the gastropod
Heleobia sp. Horizontal shells of the bivalve Mytella sp. appear in between the clay
aggregates. This mF appears only in the shellmounds located on the shores of a
paleolagoon (Figs. 2 and 3). The grain size distribution, diatom assemblage, and
mollusk species in this mF are indicative of lagoon deposits. The clayey sediments
possibly belong to the mollusk beds and were accidentally carried to the sites together
with the shellfish (see Villagran and Giannini 2014).
mF Type D—Muddy Sand from Lagoon Deposits As in the case of mF type C, this
mF appears only in the shellmounds located on the shores of a paleolagoon (Figs. 2 and
3). It contains sand-sized quartz and feldspars both coated with clay. Secondary
components include diatoms (Paralia sulcata) and a few shells of Heleobia sp. and
fragments of Mytella sp. The grain size distribution, diatom assemblage, and mollusk
species suggest lagoon deposits, possibly from a beach.
mF Type E—Soil Formation after Abandonment The development of incipient soil

horizons on top of the shellmounds is expressed by a mF type of crumb to spongy
374 Villagran
microstructure and less shell and bone than in the underlying sediments (mostly of mF
type A) (Figs. 2, 4, and 8). The shell and bone fragments are also smaller than in mF
type A and show clear signs of dissolution (especially visible in the shell fragments).
mF Type F—Tossing of Shell and Combustion Residues This mF type is only

present in the shellmound with a sandy core (Carniça-3) (Fig. 5). More than 50% of
the shell material is whole shell valves of a single species, Anomalocardia brasiliana,
few of which have been heated at low temperature (the estimation of temperature is
based on experimental micromorphology; see Villagran 2014b). A few small bone
fragments are always burnt. The micromass is made of loose and welded pellets of
polymorphic organic matter, which also form pseudo-pellets around shell and mineral
grains (Figs. 9 and 10). Isotopic analyses (δ13C and δ15N and C/N ratio) indicated
decayed and burned C3 plants (trees, shrubs, and some grasses) in the organic matter,
and no decayed animal tissue, as in the stratified shellmounds (δ13C value of − 28.17‰,
C/N ratio of 17.00, and δ15N value of + 8.50‰). The δ13C values for C3 plants are
commonly between − 21 and − 34‰ (De Niro and Hastrof 1985; Boutton 1996;
Meyers 1997). The C/N ratio of the archaeological sediments almost doubles the value
for natural sediments (17.00 and 10.00, respectively), indicating enrichment of total
organic carbon in the shellmound related with pyrogenic organic matter (e.g.,
microcharcoal) (see Villagran 2014a for further explanation on the isotope studies).
The microstructure of mF type F is typical of podzols in tropical, well-drained
environments, developed from the in situ microbial and mesofaunal decay of organic
debris, without illuviation down the profile (Van Breemen and Buurman 2003;
Buurman et al. 2005). Residues from combustion features (e.g., microcharcoal and
heated bones) were deliberately tossed on top of the human-made sand mound.
The Micromorphological Evidence of Human Activities in Shell-Matrix

Sites
The micromorphological study of monumental shellmounds and a domestic shell

midden disclosed some of the activities responsible for the formation of the sites.
One of the greater contributions of micromorphology is that it has revealed that tossing
events, the human action responsible for site growth, may involve much more than
shellfish discarded after consumption. This is a key element in interpreting the history
of the deposits.
The microscopic analyses of sediments refine our understanding of site growth in
different ways: (1) distinguishing immediate tossing events of consumed shells from
more complex deposits made by the reworking and tossing of multiple residues; (2)
identifying site frequentation phases that connect the sites with domestic spaces; (3)
finding the moments when sites were abandoned; (4) providing information on taphon-
omy and the post-depositional evolution of the deposits, a vital aid for
zooarchaeological studies; (5) revealing intra-site differences to understand the daily
use of the sites (e.g., how humans circulated and used the space); (6) showing the
potential of micromorphology to disclose environmental information. Ultimately, the
information obtained by micromorphology complements and refines the interpretation
of site function and use. All the mF types listed above and discussed below are
designed to be applicable to shell-matrix sites worldwide.
Middens, Mounds, and the Reworking of Domestic Middens
Micromorphology offered a novel view on the formation of shell-matrix sites by

matching the microstratigraphy with specific human behaviors. In shell-matrix sites,
the most relevant human behavior is the shell tossing that ultimately builds up the sites
over multiple tossing events. Under the microscope, it is possible to observe all of the
macroscopic and microscopic elements involved in this action, from the shell valves
and bone fragments down to micrometric ash crystals, plant tissue residues, and the by-
products of organic materials. Not only the components are readily visible, but also
their arrangement and the alteration processes affecting them prior to and after depo-
sition. The microscopic attributes guide the geoarchaeologist towards the interpretation
of the specific practices associated with shell tossing events.
Both in the shellmounds and the shell midden, there are mF types typical of tossing
events, which characterize shell-matrix sites worldwide (mF type A in the shellmounds
and mF type 3 in the shell midden) (Tables 2, 3 and 4). Both microfacies have similar
microstructure (intergrain microaggregate), c/f related distribution (enaulic), c/f ratio (c.
70/30), and subhorizontal distribution of complete and fragmented shell valves. Despite
the similarities, there are important differences unrelated to the post-depositional
alteration of the deposits by local environmental factors, including the composition
of the sediments (there is a higher diversity in mF type A than in mF type 3) and the
transformation of materials before they become part of the deposit, which can be either
anthropogenic (e.g., heating) or natural (e.g., chemical weathering). This points towards
differences related to the origin of the material, how (or if) they were transformed prior
to deposition, and the way in which they traveled to the place of deposition.
The distinctive composition reflects the behaviors related to the formation of
shellmounds and shell middens. Differences are already expressed in the size of the
deposits, though this criterion alone is insufficient to reach such level of interpretation
(Marquardt 2010). On the coast of Brazil, the use of one location lasted for thousands
of years, creating shellmounds of several meters high (see DeBlasis et al. 1998; Gaspar
et al. 2008) that functioned as persistent places (sensu Schlanger 1992), while in the
fueguian shell midden, there are only brief re-occupations over the course of a century,
resulting in 1-m deposits (Estevez and Vila 2006). As stated elsewhere (Villagran
2014a), the pre-depositional history of Brazilian shellmounds is much more complex
than that of the fueguian shell middens. This is inferred by the greater diversity of
components in the shellmounds (shell valves of multiple species, bone fragments,
charcoal, plant residues, microcharcoal, etc.) as compared to the binary composition
of the shell midden, which contains mostly single-taxon shell valves between an
organic-rich micromass.
The pre-depositional alteration of components also supports the behavioral differ-
ences between both contexts. There is a higher quantity of heated shell and bone
fragments in the shellmounds, with minimal quantities in the shell midden. The mix of
shells and bones heated at different temperatures and with differential weathering in a
single deposit suggests a more complex pre-depositional history. This was key in
supporting the interpretation of mF type A as containing multiple residues accumulated
376
Table 4 List of the different microfacies identified in the Brazilian shellmounds and the fueguian shell midden, and the interpretation given for each. The microfacies types are
separated as those common to both contexts, and those only found either in the Brazilian shellmounds or the fueguian shell midden. The list also includes the corresponding microfacies
identified for the Mesolithic sites of Cabeço do Amoreira (CB) (Aldeias and Bicho 2016) and Poças de São Bento (PSB) (Duarte et al. 2017), and the English camp shell midden (Stein
et al. 2011)
Common mF types
Shellmounds Shell midden Interpretation CB PSB EC Interpretation
mF type A1 mF type 4 Compaction/surface pressure by trampling mF type 1a mF type 3 mF type 4 Trampling
mF type E mF type 2 Soil formation after abandonment
mF type F mF type 3 Tossing of shell and combustion residues/ mF type 1 mF type 5 Shell ridge Shell tossing events
tossing events of discarded shells
Context-specific mF types
Shellmounds Shell midden CB PSB EC Interpretation
mF type A Reworking of multiple residues with mF type 4 Reworking of food and combustion
predominance of shells residues
mF type B Reworking of hearths
mF type C Clay aggregates from lagoon deposits
mF type D Muddy sand from lagoon deposits
mF type 1 Surface of the shell midden
mF type 5 Pebble lenses from beach
mF type 6 Frequentation phases mF type 2 mF type 3 Depression Flattening of a surface
mF type 7 Summer hearths
mF type 8 Winter hearths
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elsewhere, left to decay and/or heated before final deposition in the shellmound. On the
other hand, mF type 3 clearly results from the immediate discard of consumed shells
from the habitation hut next to the shell ring. This is supported both by the ethnographic
accounts and the micromorphological evidence. The absence of heated shells in mF
type 3 may be related to the method applied for opening the mollusks, which involved a
short exposure to the embers and caused no thermal damage.
If shellmounds were also the result of the immediate tossing of domestic refuse, we
would expect the same sequence of events in the microscopic study: consumption and
immediate discard. However, the micromorphological evidence points at consumption
or processing, discard, decay, and burning and later reworking until final deposition.
The longer sequence of events revealed in the microscopic study of shellmound
sediments attests to a different history for the deposits. Thus, it is not the shape or size
of the sites that favors one interpretation over the other (e.g., midden versus mound).
Marquardt (2010) suggested that a thorough investigation of the sediments is needed in
order to make functional inferences. This work proves that such level of investigation
can be attained by the micromorphological study of the sediments in shell-matrix sites,
providing fundamental data to distinguish between the behaviors involved in site
formation.
The micromorphological simplicity of mF type 3 in the shell midden is similar to mF
type F described for the shellmounds with a sandy core. Both microfacies have
intergrain microaggregate microstructures made of organic matter and/or
microcharcoal, enaulic c/f related distribution, complex-packing voids, and complete
shell valves of a single species with horizontal to subhorizontal distribution (other
elements are randomly distributed). This suggests that, despite cultural and chronolog-
ical differences, the micromorphological similarity may be derived from similar be-
haviors, i.e., the immediate discard or tossing of shells. This by no means should be
understood as equating deposits with human cultures. As stated above, the comparison
is made on the formation process as a mechanical action and not on the meaning of the
action. The meaning of discard is certainly not the same for every human culture and
can even change through time within one cultural system. For instance,
ethnoarchaeological work at the Saloum Delta in Senegal revealed the fluidity in the
meaning and use ascribed to shell-matrix sites through time (e.g., trash deposits,
cemeteries, villages, monuments, etc.) (Hardy et al. 2016).
The substantial difference between the fueguian shell middens and the Brazilian
shellmounds is coincident with the larger demography and some degree of sedentism
interpreted for the shellmound builders (Fish et al. 2000; DeBlasis et al. 2007; Gaspar
et al. 2008). Sedentism and high population densities result in a more diversified
spectrum of activities as compared to highly mobile, short-term settlements.
The applicability of the micromorphological study of shell-matrix sites is supported
by recent micromorphological work conducted at two Mesolithic shell-matrix sites
from Portugal. At the Cabeço do Amoreira shellmound, Aldeias and Bicho (2016)
identified an mF type of shell tossing events (named mF type 1) by comparing their
results with the micromorphological study of the fueguian shell midden (Tunel VII)
(Balbo et al. 2010; Villagran et al. 2011). Recent work at Poças de São Bento also
revealed the same mF type of shell tossing events (named mF type 5) described for the
South American shell midden (and the shellmound with a sandy core) and the
Mesolithic site of Cabeço do Amoreira (Duarte et al. 2017). At the English Camp
378 Villagran
shell midden (USA), Stein et al. (2011) reached the same interpretation for the ridge,
although they did not use the concept of microfacies. The authors interpret the
micromorphological attributes as resulting from the sequential dumping of loads of
shell and debris from subsistence activities and hearths.
The examples from Portugal and the USA are extremely interesting, as they prove
that similar mF types and their associated behavior can be recognized in different
contexts, despite chronological and geographical distances (Table 4). This particular
microfacies may in fact be the most recurrent in shell-matrix sites worldwide, as it
reflects the most basic behavior associated with the deposits: the basket-load action of
tossing shell and other food debris in one location.
This can also be the case for more complex microfacies, such as the most frequent
microfacies in the Brazilian shellmounds, interpreted as the reworking of multiple
residues with a predominance of shells (mF type A). The microfacies of secondary
organic-rich deposits described at Cabeço do Amoreira by Aldeias and Bicho (2016)
(named mF type 4) resembles mF type A, also described for the Brazilian shellmounds.
In the Mesolithic site, mF type 4 is described as intergrain organic aggregates, with
enaulic or chitonic c/f related distribution and a higher frequency of bone fragments,
some of them exhibiting signs of dissolution, mixed with shells (also with signs of
dissolution). All coarse fraction components have random distributions. The authors
interpret the human action behind this microfacies as the reworking of food and
combustion residues. However, they do not elaborate any further on the significance
of this action.
In the Brazilian shellmounds, where this microfacies is dominant and widespread, it
is explained as the outcome of making a shellmound by reworking domestic middens,
connected with a symbolic redefinition of waste. The reallocation of the middens may
explain the absence of domestic areas in or associated with the shellmounds (Villagran
2014a). Recently, Thompson et al. (2016) based on the reversal of radiocarbon dates
explained the formation of Mound Key (Florida) in a similar manner to the model
proposed for the Brazilian shellmounds. Certainly, the micromorphological study of
Mound Key sediments will provide comparative data for a global characterization of
microfacies made of the reworking of middens.
Site Frequentation Phases Connecting the Sites with Domestic Spaces
One of the most interesting mF types identified in the shell midden corresponds with
frequentation phases involving the reorganization of components, which was described
by Balbo et al. (2010) as being associated with site maintenance activities. The mF type
6 is characterized by a random distribution of shell fragments, sometimes heated,
geogenic sediments (pebbles) and charcoal. The random distribution of shell fragments,
even vertically arranged, the fine fraction supporting the shells, and the fact that it is the
only mF from the shell ring containing burned shells pointed at a direct link with the
habitation space. A comparable mF was not described for the Brazilian shellmounds.
The mF type 6 of the fueguian shell midden is similar to a mF described for the
Mesolithic sites Cabeço do Amoreira (named mF type 2) and Poças de São Bento (mF
type 3) as a matrix-supported microfacies of an unsorted mix of shell fragments, bones,
charcoal and geogenic sediments with random distributions (Table 4). Heated and
rounded shell and bone fragments are present but with low frequency. This microfacies
is interpreted as the reworking of anthropogenic deposits associated with site mainte-

nance activities (Aldeias et al. 2014; Duarte et al. 2017). An association with a
microfacies of occupational surfaces led the authors to interpret the deposit as inten-
tionally created to flatten and prepare a new occupation surface, by transporting and
tossing material from elsewhere.
It is interesting to note that, despite the similarities between the microfacies de-
scribed for Tunel VII and the two Mesolithic shell-matrix sites, both can be interpreted
as the result of very different purposes (i.e., frequentation of the habitation space versus
the flattening out of a surface). The different interpretations derive from one of the most
substantial aspects of any micromorphological work: the constant dialog between the
microscopic evidence and the macroscopic field observations.
At Tunel VII, the stratigraphic unit where mF type 6 was described is about 10 cm
thick and less than 1 m wide. The excavation surface shows a connection of this unit
with the central habitation space. At Cabeço do Amoreira the stratigraphic unit
containing this microfacies is described as being a couple of decimeters thick and less
than 1 m wide (Aldeias and Bicho 2016). At Poças de São Bento, it is described as
being about 10 cm thick and laterally extent through the site (Duarte et al. 2017).
However, it is the association with a layer and a microfacies interpreted as occupation
surfaces that ultimately support its definition as a leveling layer intended to prepare the
ground for a new occupation.
By comparing these microfacies with the micromorphology of the depression at the
English Camp shell midden (Stein et al. 2011), it appears that while the ridge contains
episodes of shell tossing, the depression contains sediments that suggest site frequen-
tation connected with occupation floors. Sediments from the depression are fine-
grained and the coarse fraction contains fresh and burnt shell, bone, charcoal, lithics,
and wood fragments, all less than 1 cm in size. Combining the micromorphological
data with grain size, chemical and microartifact analyses, Stein et al. (2011) conclude
that the depression was an occupation area with high foot traffic.
For both Mesolithic sites, there is evidence that people were living on the shell
middens (postholes, hut-related features, and hearths were revealed during excavations;
see references in Aldeias and Bicho 2016 and Duarte et al. 2017). For the fueguian
shell midden, there is ethnographic and archaeological evidence that also indicates the
use of the site for habitation. Numerous archaeological studies indicate that the English
Camp shell midden was a domestic structure (Taylor 2011). Therefore, microfacies
similar to mF type 6 from Tunel VII, mF type 2 for Cabeço do Amoreira, and mF type
3 for Poças de São Bento can potentially serve as diagnostic geoarchaeological features
to determine domestic occupations on shell-matrix sites when the other evidence is
ambiguous.
Evidence of Site Abandonment
Abandonment of the sites and soil formation after long-term depositional hiatuses were
described for the shellmounds and the shell midden. The soil formation is identified as
a microfacies of angular blocky peds in the shell midden (mF type 2), and a microfacies
with crumb to spongy microstructure in the shellmounds (mF type E). Both microfacies
are characterized by a low shell and bone content (5–10%) as compared to the rest of
the sequences. The differences in the microstructure are strictly related to the
380 Villagran
environmental context, consisting of blocky soil formed under frost action (Van Vliet-
Lanoë 2010) in the cold climate of Tierra del Fuego and granular soil formed by intense
bioturbation in subtropical Brazil. Despite local environmental factors, soil develop-
ment in shell-matrix sites is consistently identified by the lowest c/f ratio, and the
lowest concentration of highly fragmented shell and bone.
In the shell midden, episodes of site abandonment could be identified three times in
a 40-cm-thick stratigraphic sequence. In the shellmounds, clear evidence of site
abandonment and soil formation was only recognized in the surface layer. This may
imply a continuous occupation for the shellmounds (Villagran 2014a), as opposed to
the episodic, seasonal use of the shell middens recorded in the ethnographic chronicles
(Estevez and Vila 2006).
Microfacies made of eolian silts and sands lacking any anthropogenic component
were described in some parts of the microstratigraphy of the Cabeço do Amoreira
shellmound and interpreted as moments of site abandonments. This realization was
crucial in interpreting the episodic use of the shellmound and its discontinuous site
formation (Aldeias and Bicho 2016). Despite several similarities between the Cabeço
do Amoreira and the Poças de São Bento shell-matrix sites, episodic use was only
confirmed for the former. At Poças de Sao Bento, the authors did not identify the thin
lenses of geogenic silts and sands and interpret a continuous occupation for the site (see
Duarte et al. 2017).
Site Taphonomy and Post-Depositional Alteration
Despite persistent action of microorganisms in shell middens, due to the high content of
organic material, the post-depositional evolution is commonly related to the weathering
of shells under different climatic conditions. Two contrasting taphonomic pathways
were identified for the shellmounds and the shell midden, strictly correlated with the
environmental context. The first is the dissolution of calcium carbonate from shells in
subtropical Brazil, described as infillings of micritic calcium carbonate, sometimes
visibly releasing from the shell valves, micrite and micro-sparite coatings around the
coarse fraction and voids, and the crystallitic micromass (Villagran 2014a); the other is
the physical weathering of shells in Tierra del Fuego, revealed by micrometric,
prismatic calcite needles detaching from the outer layer of the shell vales (Villagran
and Poch 2014).
Secondary phosphates in the micromass are also common in the Brazilian
shellmounds and, given the alkalinity of the deposits, may derive from soft tissue
decay and not from bone weathering. This was proved by isotopic analyses of the
organic matter, revealing δ15N values typical for residues of animal origin (see
Section 5.2), and specifically of aquatic animals living in estuarine or lagoon settings
(Villagran 2014a). Intense shell dissolution and crystallitic b-fabrics and pedofeatures
were also described for the shell middens of the Bolivian Amazon (Lombardo et al.
2013). In a tropical semi-arid region of the coast of Brazil (Cabo Frio, Rio de Janeiro
State) shells appear intact in the thin sections, and strong phosphatization processes
were described that resulted from the decay of P-rich, soft organic materials (Corrêa
et al. 2013).
Partial shell dissolution is the main post-depositional process described for the
Mesolithic shell-matrix sites and is identified by carbonate pendants and a higher
concentration of secondary carbonates that cement the lowest parts of the profiles
(Aldeias and Bicho 2016; Duarte et al. 2017). In the cemented areas, micrite coatings
are frequent, while in the upper parts of the profiles, micritic infillings and
hypocoatings are abundant (Duarte et al. 2017). Secondary carbonates concentrated
at the base of the deposit were also described at the English Camp shell midden (Stein
et al. 2011).
In general terms, widespread crystallitic b-fabrics and pedofeatures from shell
dissolution are dominant in humid subtropical and tropical contexts, like that of the
southern coast of Brazil (Villagran 2014a) and the Bolivian Amazon (Lombardo et al.
2013). However, in tropical semi-arid contexts, shell dissolution is minimal and
precipitation of secondary Ca-phosphates is a frequent process (Corrêa et al. 2013).
In warm Mediterranean climates, like that of Portugal, and in humid to semi-humid
temperate climates, like that of the northwest coast of the USA, partial shell dissolution
is a common process, combined with higher concentration of secondary carbonates at
the base of the sites from dissolved shells higher up in the deposits (Stein et al. 2011;
Aldeias and Bicho 2016; Duarte et al. 2017).
Intra-Site Differences Within Shell-Matrix Sites
The multiple microfacies described for the shellmounds and the shell midden demon-
strate the diversity of activities involved in the use and growth of the sites. It is the
repetition of those activities, recognized by their recurrence in the macrostratigraphy
and microstratigraphy, which ultimately builds up the mounds and middens. It is
interesting to note that, so far, fewer microfacies were described for the large
shellmounds than for the small-scale shell midden (e.g., seven microfacies for the
shellmounds compared to eight for the shell midden). This is certainly related to the
differential use and purpose for each site: the shellmounds are monumental structures
containing hundreds and potentially thousands of human interments buried under large
mounds of reworked residues, and the shell midden is a domestic structure made to last
for a couple of generations.
Between the dominant microfacies of either the reworked residues, in the
shellmounds (mF type A), or the tossing of discarded shells (mF type 3), in the
shell midden, a secondary microfacies corresponds to compaction or surface pres-
sure by trampling (mF type A1 and mF type 4, respectively). The micromorpho-
logical identification of trampling on shell middens was first done by Balbo et al.
(2010) who used as diagnostic criteria highly compacted shells, horizontal to
subhorizontal distribution, and fragments of shell that are still interconnected.
Using the same criteria, trampled surfaces have also been described at the Cabeça
do Amoreira site (in mF types 1 and 3) (Aldeias and Bicho 2016) and at Poças de
São Bento (mF type 4) (Duarte et al. 2017) (Table 4).
Trampling was identified in only one shellmound, but was described at least five
times in the microstratigraphy of the shell midden. This suggests that the frequency of
trampled surfaces in shell-matrix sites can point towards different uses and purposes. It
is unlikely that trampling never existed on the monumental shellmounds, but it was
possibly restricted to certain areas of the site, perhaps between the funerary mounds.
Also, given the fact that shellmound are considerably larger than shell middens, the
probability of capturing trampled layers in the micromorphological sampling is lower.
382 Villagran
Extensive trampling would happen on the shell middens, given the domestic use of the
space.
Besides diachronic differences in the stratigraphic successions, micromorphological
analysis at Tunel VII corroborated that activity areas exist even in small-scale shell
middens. The micromorphological study revealed differences between the sampling
columns in the shell ring and the center of the site, where the habitation hut was placed.
In the center of the shell midden, low-intensity hearths (mF type 7) and high-intensity
hearths (mF type 8) were defined by differences in the frequency of shells burnt at
temperatures above and below 500 °C, porosity, microstructure (intergrain
microaggregate versus chamber), and the composition of the micromass (loose black
crumbs versus massive rubefied and impure ash) (Villagran et al. 2011a). The com-
bined results of faunal isotope analysis (Estevez and Vila 2006; Colonese et al. 2011)
and the micromorphology of the combustion features showed that mF type 7 hearths
were used during summer and spring, while mF type 8 hearths were used during the
winter.
On the other hand, the shellmounds only contain a secondary microfacies from the
reworking of hearths (mF type B), identified once in two sites. However, this does not
mean that all hearths are reworked in the shellmounds, since in situ hearths have been
described in several works (Hurt and Blasi 1960; Orssich 1977; Fish et al. 2000;
Klokler 2008; Tenório et al. 2008).
Significant spatial differences were also detected in the micromorphological study of
the English camp shell midden (shell tossing versus habitation) (Stein et al. 2011) and
the shell-matrix sites of Cabeço do Amoreira (Aldeias and Bicho 2016) and Poças de
São Bento (Duarte et al. 2017). These works demonstrate that when other sources of
data are not available, the sedimentary matrices contain precious information that helps
to track the use of the space by the site inhabitants.
Shell-Matrix Sites as Environmental Archives
The micromorphological study of shell-matrix sites can also reveal valuable informa-
tion concerning the paleoenvironmental conditions at the time of occupation. This is
evidenced by the microfacies of natural sediments, such as the clayey sediments (mF
type C) and muddy sand from lagoon deposits (mF type D) identified in two
shellmounds. The sediments came from the substrate where the harvested mollusks
lived (the shores of a paleo-lagoon in the close proximity of the sites) and were
unintentionally carried together with the shellfish. The microfacies contain diatom
and microgastropod species typical of estuarine and lagoon environments, and grain
size analyses of the mineral quartz fraction corroborate the provenance. Grain size
analyses of shellmound sediments were performed using a method designed for the
exclusive study of the geogenic sand fraction. The method involves discarding all
anthropogenic components (e.g., shell fragments, bone, charcoal) to create grain size
distributions that are comparable with data from natural deposits (see the method in
Villagran and Giannini 2014).
Besides the microfacies of natural sediments, isolated microcomponents can also
offer information on the past environment near the sites. Such is the case of the
echinoid spines identified exclusively in the Caipora shellmound. Echinoderms are
marine subtidal invertebrates living on rocky shores. Studies of the geological evolution
of the area show that marine waters reached the vicinity of Caipora during the
maximum Holocene transgression, 5700–5100 years BP (Angulo et al. 2006, 1999).
The site is now located 15 km from the present-day coastline, and the presence of
echinoid spines attest to its former proximity to marine waters. Echinoid spines are also
described in the micromorphology of archaeological sites on coastal settings, such as
Die Kelders cave I (Goldberg 2000), the English Camp shell midden (Stein et al. 2011),
and the Usiminas shellmound (Corrêa et al. 2013).
Isolated microcomponents, such as calcareous pebbles and foraminifera, also pro-
vided paleoenvironmental data from the micromorphological analyses of the Poças de
Sao Bento shell midden. Unintentionally brought to the sites during shell gathering
activities, calcareous pebbles and foraminifera are taken as evidence to infer the
location of the shell beds explored by the Mesolithic dwellers (Duarte et al. 2017).
Summary and Future Directions
The micromorphological studies show the potential of the technique to help fully
understand the multiplicity of formation processes in shell-matrix sites. As indicated
by Kidder and Sherwood (2016), sediments are artifacts that can inform us about the
actions of their users. Thus, a thorough, detailed study of sediments in shell-matrix sites
can unravel key information concerning site use, history and post-depositional
alteration.
Micromorphology offered a new insight on how shell-matrix sites grow through
time and across space. Once conceived as homogeneous layers of dumped shells and
other food residues, shell-matrix sites are the result of complex successions of diverse
activities synchronically and diachronically happening in one location, over a couple of
centuries up to thousands of years. The technique of micromorphology reveals that
differences between large, monumental shellmounds and small, domestic shell middens
are expressed down to the microscopic scale. The pre-depositional history of
shellmound sediments contrasts with the simple sequence of events associated with
the formation of shell middens. However, the microstratigraphy of the shell middens
can be more intricate than that of the large shellmounds.
This is especially relevant for discussions on the use of sites. As Marquardt (2010)
stated, we should first know how the sites formed before making interpretations about
their function (e.g., domestic structures, ceremonial sites, monuments etc.). Thanks to
the large volume of information gathered by the research teams working in each
context over the last 10 to 20 years (see, e.g., DeBlasis et al. 1998, 2007; Fish et al.
2000; Estevez et al. 2001; Estevez and Vila 2007; Gaspar et al. 2008, 2014; Estevez
2009; Vila et al. 2011; Estévez and Vila 2013), the functional and symbolic differ-
ences between Brazilian shellmounds and the fueguian shell midden could be further
refined by micromorphology. Multiple human activities, from site frequentation
phases, trampling, tossing of shells, reworking of hearths, and reworking of domestic
middens, were documented in the microscopic study. However, it must be recognized
that most interpretations are closely linked to the ideas of the research teams or the
historically built knowledge on the sites and/or archaeological contexts under study. It
is not shape or size alone that define a shell mound or a shell midden, but the history
of the sediments that make up the sites, interpreted after careful evaluation of the
384 Villagran
stratigraphy and the diversity, state of preservation, and relative abundance of their
constituents.
In fact, there is a need to move beyond traditional dichotomies that oppose shell-
matrix sites as habitation versus ritualized monuments. Many shell-matrix-sites world-
wide probably served as both or contain the residues of both. Such is the case of the
Brazilian shellmounds, comprising the reworking of discarded food mostly originated
from domestic contexts, but also from ritual practices. For instance, some authors
proposed feasting as the main force behind shellmound construction (for
zooarchaeological studies of feasting in a Brazilian shellmound see Klokler 2008,
2014).
An intercalation of continuous and episodic activities has been demonstrated in
North American shell-matrix sites, and interpreted as refuse disposal and purposeful
construction, respectively (see Moore and Thompson 2012; Pluckhahn et al. 2015;
Thompson et al. 2015, 2016). Effective approaches focusing on the temporality of
shell-bearing landscapes have been proposed to overcome the use of static categories,
such as daily midden versus ritual monument (see Pluckhahn et al. 2015). The
micromorphological study reveals a diversity of sediments and sediment histories in
shell-matrix sites that may not always fit dichotomic categories of use and function. A
step forward from interpreting depositional practices as either mundane or ritual was
recently proposed for the study of Cahokia earthen mound (Illinois) (Baires and Baltus
2017). Given the complexity of shell-matrix sites, we now need to deepen our search
for the several processes and behaviors that characterize the human experience.
In this study, we took the first step towards building a database for the micromor-
phological analyses of shell-matrix sites worldwide. The different microfacies types are
created to serve as a reference for the description and interpretation of
microstratigraphic data in other shell-matrix sites of the world. The list will certainly
be expanded and refined as the micromorphological research in shell-matrix sites
develops and new sites are investigated.
The case studies in this work, and their comparison with previous work on a North
American shell midden and recent studies in shell-matrix sites from Portugal, indicate
three main trends in shell-matrix research. First, more work on different geographic
areas and time periods is needed to further develop the potential of the technique in the
study of shell-matrix sites. Second, reference data from experimental micromorphology
(e.g., burning experiments of a wider diversity of mollusk species, including gastropod
shells) or ethnoarchaeological studies (e.g., Friesem et al. 2016) can greatly improve
the interpretative range. Third, complimentary methods to archaeological micromor-
phology, also known as a microstratigraphic approach (see Shillito et al. 2011; Mallol
and Mentzer 2015), are essential for a thorough and complete interpretation of the
history of any archaeological deposit.
Despite the high-resolution potential of the technique, micromorphology cannot
stand alone as the single source of data in a geoarchaeological study of site formation
processes. The oftentimes qualitative nature of micromorphological descriptions and
interpretations must be overcome by complimentary studies that further refine the
micromorphological evaluations of a number of factors: the composition of the fine
fraction, whether it contains decayed plant remains and/or animal tissue residues and
their relative proportion; the secondary minerals, frequently phosphates, formed after
the complex mix of residues that characterize midden deposits; the provenance of the
geogenic material, which, in order to differentiate between natural and cultural transport
to the sites, demands the sampling of natural deposits from potential sources near the
sites and comparing the grain size distributions; and the degree of heating in the coarse
fraction and/or the micromass, since visual estimation of heating can often be mislead-
ing. In addition, specific studies on microremains, such as phytoliths, pollen, diatoms,
or calcareous microorganisms, are necessary for a multidisciplinary approach to site
formation.
New macroscopic methods for the study of shell-matrix sites also need to be
incorporated. For example, computer vision and photogrammetry was successfully
used to investigate the vertical and lateral growth of two shell middens in St.
Catherine’s Island (Georgia) by differentiating between successive events of shell
deposition (Sanger 2015). Other studies using ground penetrating radar recently helped
in the identification of a past pyramidal shape in the shellmounds at the Robert Island
Complex (Florida) (Pluckhahn et al. 2016). The authors inferred the existence of five to
seven steps in the shellmounds by analyzing the ground penetrating radar profiles, and
referred to the societies as the BMichelangelos of mollusks.^ A multi-scalar approach,
combining high-resolution mapping, geophysical survey, coring, excavations and
Bayesian chronological modeling of radiocarbon dates revealed the temporality of
the different activities that produced shell-matrix sites of the Woodland period
(Florida) (Pluckhahn et al. 2015). The three examples above bring unique information
to understand the timing and methods of mound formation.
This is especially relevant since the pace of shell-matrix site formation still deserves
further study. Micromorphology per se cannot determine whether shell accumulation
was fast or whether it took a couple years, but it can certainly determine if sites were
abandoned for a long enough time to allow soil formation, dissolution, and precipita-
tion of secondary minerals, and/or the deposition of natural, frequently eolian, sedi-
ments on the sites. Extensive stratigraphically controlled radiocarbon datings and
Bayesian modeling proved to be an appropriate method for this (Stein 2003; Kennett
et al. 2011; Lombardo et al. 2013; Jew et al. 2015; Pluckhahn et al. 2015; Pluckhahn
and Thompson 2017). However, radiocarbon dating does not have the sufficient
resolution to distinguish the timing of depositional events corresponding to the
microfacies identified in thin sections. Seasonality proxies in shells (e.g., δ18O)
coupled with radiocarbon data have recently proven their efficiency to overcome
this problem, differentiating between deposits resulting from feasting and daily
subsistence (Thompson et al. 2015), and even offering a monthly resolution for
the accumulation rates of shell layers (Hausmann and Meredith-Williams 2017).
Hausmann and Meredith-Williams (2017) recognize the importance of detailed
stratigraphic context to support the results of isotope data on the seasonality of
mollusk exploitation and accumulation rates. In this sense, a promising strategy
would be to combine the radiocarbon and seasonality sampling with micromor-
phology. This will confidently assess the intra-site variability and evaluate the
post-depositional alteration of the deposit, which are key elements to support the
reliability of radiocarbon and seasonality data.
This geoarchaeological work and others mentioned in this section demonstrate that a
combined approach integrating macroscopic and microarchaeological methods is es-
sential for a complete assessment of the diverse formation processes, functions, and use
of shell-matrix sites worldwide. Whether by coupling stratigraphic studies with
386 Villagran
micromorphology, stable isotopes of the organic matter and experimental archaeology,

or by a combination of stratigraphic/sediment analyses, extensive radiocarbon datings,
Bayesian modeling, seasonality proxies or ground penetrating radar (Thompson et al.
2015, 2016; Pluckhahn et al. 2016; Hausmann and Meredith-Williams 2017), it
becomes clear that a detailed understanding of shell-matrix sites requires multi-scalar
approaches. Care must be taken in interpreting the nature, use and function of shell-
matrix sites based on single sources of data. One approach alone is no longer sufficient
to reach overarching interpretations, such as determining if a site was used for
ceremonial versus domestic purposes or a combination of both, among other
possibilities.
Finally, the micromorphological study of shell-matrix sites is one of the rare
examples of an archaeological method developed outside the mainstream centers of
archaeological science. The first archaeological and experimental micromorphological
studies of shell-matrix sites were performed in South American contexts. Further
refinement of the technique also took place on the continent, applying methods and
multidisciplinary approaches contemporarily used in the geoarchaeological study of
Old World and North American contexts. The recent use of the technique in European,
African and other South American sites is expanding the range of human behaviors and
post-depositional processes recorded in shell-matrix sites worldwide. The frequently
reported absence of domestic features in shell-matrix sites (e.g., house floors, intact
hearths) may be overcome by microstratigraphic studies revealing other, non-traditional
indicators of domestic spaces or activity areas. Further studies in shell-matrix sites, one
of the most widely distributed archaeological deposits that exist in almost every coastal
setting of the world, will greatly improve our understanding of the meaning of their
variability in terms of population densities, cultural practices, depositional behaviors,
and use.
Acknowledgements The author thanks the financial support of FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa
do Estado de São Paulo, proc. 04/11038-0, 08/51264-0, and 2015/19405-6), CNPq (Conselho Nacional de
Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, proc. 142532/2008-8), and Bank Santander. Special thanks to
Paulo C.F. Giannini, Jordi Estevez Escalera, Paulo DeBlasis, Marco Madella, Assumpció Vila, and Andrea
Balbo. New photomicrographs of the thin sections were done at the Microarchaeology Laboratory of the
Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, University of Sao Paulo, Universidade and the Petrology Laboratory
of the Institute of Geosciences. Thanks to three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.
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J Archaeol Method Theory (2019) 26:344–395

The Shell Midden Conundrum: Comparative

Published online: 7 April 2018

Keywords Microarchaeology . Coastal archaeology . Shells middens . Shellmounds .

Shell-Matrix Sites on the Coasts of South America

Age (calendar years)

The Brazilian Shellmounds

patterns, the availability of resources, the concentration of human burials, and

The Shell Middens of the Beagle Channel

The Micromorphological Study of Shell-Matrix Sites

The first step in archaeological micromorphology involves the collection of undis-

Study Areas and Sampling

Fig. 6 Tunel VII shell midden.

micromorphological identification of intact versus reworked combustion features.

Microfacies in Shell-Matrix Sites

Microfacies of an Ethnohistoric Shell Midden

mF Type 2—Soil Formation After Abandonment Abandonment of the site is

Table 2 Microfacies identified in the fueguian shell midden

mF Type 4—Compaction/Surface Pressure by Trampling This mF type always

mF Type 6—Frequentation Phases This mF is only described for the sampling

(according to the classification by Wattez 1992). Zooarchaeology and isotope

mF Type 8—Winter Hearths The heating temperatures of shell fragments in this mF

Microfacies of Prehistoric Shellmounds

greater homogeneity than previously thought. Of the 23 microfacies identified in four

mF Type A—Reworking of Multiple Residues with a Predominance of Shells This

heating temperatures was achieved by experimental micromorphology, see full

Table 3 Microfacies identified in the Brazilian shellmounds

Secondary Heated periostracum fragments, silicified tissue residues

c/f ratio 50/50 until 10/90

mF Type A1—Compaction/Surface Pressure This mF is described in only one site

mF Type B—Reworking of Hearths All of the components of this mF type have

clay) indicate remobilization of combustion debris. Remobilization could imply a

mF Type E—Soil Formation after Abandonment The development of incipient soil

mF Type F—Tossing of Shell and Combustion Residues This mF type is only

The Micromorphological Evidence of Human Activities in Shell-Matrix

The micromorphological study of monumental shellmounds and a domestic shell

Middens, Mounds, and the Reworking of Domestic Middens

Micromorphology offered a novel view on the formation of shell-matrix sites by

Site Frequentation Phases Connecting the Sites with Domestic Spaces

is interpreted as the reworking of anthropogenic deposits associated with site mainte-

Evidence of Site Abandonment

Site Taphonomy and Post-Depositional Alteration

Intra-Site Differences Within Shell-Matrix Sites

Shell-Matrix Sites as Environmental Archives

Summary and Future Directions

micromorphology, stable isotopes of the organic matter and experimental archaeology,

Mentzer, S. M. (2014). Microarchaeological approaches to the identification and interpretation of combustion

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