Paper 2 Compilation (2015-2020)

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Cambridge International Examinations

Cambridge Ordinary Level
SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
Paper 2 May/June 2015
1 hour 45 minutes (including 15 minutes’ reading time)
No Additional Materials are required.
* 8 3 9 2 2 4 9 0 7 1 *
READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS FIRST
An answer booklet is provided inside this question paper. You should follow the instructions on the front cover
of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
Answer two questions.

The number of marks is given in brackets [ ] at the end of each question or part question.
This document consists of 3 printed pages, 1 blank page and 1 insert.
DC (ST) 107446
© UCLES 2015 [Turn over
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Sociology
Section A: The Family
1 As society changes, so does family life. Urbanisation is thought to be one of the key reasons why
family life is changing.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘urbanisation’? [2]
(b) Describe two demographic trends affecting the family, apart from urbanisation. [4]
(c) Explain how urbanisation affects family life. [6]
(d) Explain why there is an ageing population in modern industrial society. [8]
(e) To what extent are the roles found in the family changing in modern industrial society? [15]
Section B: Education
2 The type of school individuals attend is thought to have a big influence on their educational
success. One type of school found in modern industrial society is a single sex school.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘single sex school’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways that schools have tried to improve the educational achievement of boys.
[4]
(c) Explain how informal education is different from formal education. [6]
(d) Explain why girls often study different subjects to boys in school. [8]
(e) To what extent does the type of school individuals attend affect their life chances? [15]
© UCLES 2015 2251/22/M/J/15

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Section C: Crime, deviance and social control
3 Crime is thought to be a big problem in modern industrial society and different people have very
different views on how to deal with it. Some sociologists believe that prison is a deterrent to criminal
behaviour. However, others think that prison does not solve the problem of crime.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘deterrent’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways of dealing with crime, apart from prisons. [4]
(c) Explain how sociologists use victim surveys to measure crime. [6]
(d) Explain why there is a ‘dark figure’ of crime in society. [8]
(e) To what extent do prisons solve the problem of crime? [15]
Section D: Media
4 The media is an increasingly important agent of secondary socialisation in modern industrial

societies. How social groups are represented in the media is therefore very important.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘secondary socialisation’? [2]
(b) Describe two stereotypes of men often seen in the media. [4]
(c) Explain how working class people are represented in the media. [6]
(d) Explain why the media are thought to be an important agency of secondary socialisation. [8]
(e) To what extent are patterns of media use determined by the age of the audience? [15]
© UCLES 2015 2251/22/M/J/15

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CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL EXAMINATIONS

MARK SCHEME for the May/June 2015 series
2251 SOCIOLOGY
2251/22 Paper 2, maximum raw mark 70
This mark scheme is published as an aid to teachers and candidates, to indicate the requirements of
the examination. It shows the basis on which Examiners were instructed to award marks. It does not
indicate the details of the discussions that took place at an Examiners’ meeting before marking began,
which would have considered the acceptability of alternative answers.
Mark schemes should be read in conjunction with the question paper and the Principal Examiner
Report for Teachers.
Cambridge will not enter into discussions about these mark schemes.
Cambridge is publishing the mark schemes for the May/June 2015 series for most
Cambridge IGCSE®, Cambridge International A and AS Level components and some
Cambridge O Level components.
® IGCSE is the registered trademark of Cambridge International Examinations.

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Page 2 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

Cambridge O Level – May/June 2015 2251 22
Section A: Family
1 As society changes, so does family life. Urbanisation is thought by many to be one of the
key reasons why family life is changing.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘urbanisation’? [2]
Refers to the growth in the proportion of the population living in towns and cities. The idea
that the majority of the population migrate from rural to urban areas.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. moving to the city.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the process where the majority of the population migrate
from rural areas to towns/cities, often for work.
(b) Describe two demographic trends affecting the family, other than urbanisation. [4]
Candidates will be expected to describe two demographic (population) trends affecting the
family.
Demographic trends: patterns of population changes e.g. birth rate/death rate
Possible trends:
• Decline in the adult death rate (e.g. growth in beanpole families);
• Decline in infant mortality rate (e.g. increased child-centeredness);
• The ageing population in modern industrial societies (e.g. having to care for relatives);
• Longer life expectancy (e.g. increased involvement with elderly relatives);
• Decline/Increase in the birth rate/fertility rate (e.g. decreased average family size);
• Females have a longer life expectancy (e.g. increase in one person households);
• Migration patterns; either immigration or emigration (e.g. increase in family diversity/
increase in modified extended family or parents abroad working whilst children are
raised by extended family);
• Other reasonable response.
One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
(c) Explain how urbanisation affects family life. [6]
Candidates need to show an understanding of the relationship between urbanisation and

family life. Effects explained may be either positive or negative or a mixture of both.
Possible answers:
• Cost of living – young people likely to face difficulties in affording to buy their own home
in towns/cities, therefore live with parents well into adulthood, the ‘boomerang
generation’ returning to the family home after higher education is completed as maybe
can’t find work;
• Increased need for both partners to work in order to be able to financially support the
family means less time for childcare, external agencies used for childcare i.e. nurseries,
nannies etc.
• Due to partners working changing functions of the family e.g. need schools to educate
• Move towards smaller families – changing role of women (particularly in urban areas) –
equal status and rights with men means lots of women are more career focused and this
impacts on family life and helps to explain the move towards smaller families, also linked
to smaller homes in towns/cities/lack of space;
© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

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• Breakdown of the extended families – smaller families are encouraged - need for a
geographically mobile workforce – workforce needs to be able to easily move to other
areas for promotion or work, this is easier in this format and means the wider kin are
unlikely to live close together;
• Widening social gulf between family members - opportunities for social mobility through
aspects such as Higher Education and professional jobs, often found in towns and cities
means there may be a widening ‘social gulf’ between family members;
• Breakdown of traditional family support structures as families have to rely on
telecommunications and social media for contact;
• Breakdown of family-based communities - gentrification of towns and cities means an
increase in house prices and a divide between the rich and the poor, often resulting in
local people not being able to afford housing in their neighbourhoods and so displacing
them elsewhere resulting in a breakdown of community;
• Social problems and their effects on family life – crime, drugs, gangs etc.
Band 0
No creditworthy response.
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the concept of urbanisation and
its manifold effects on family life and may talk about e.g. ‘families living apart’. Responses
may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak
point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but
there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas
without using sociological language.
Band 2 (4–6)
A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding
of the relationship between urbanisation and the effects on family life. Sociological terms and
concepts should be expected e.g. ‘urbanisation results in families having to live apart from
one another as they have to be geographically mobile in order to look for work.’ This would
be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of
points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more
than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.
(d) Explain why there is an ageing population in modern industrial society. [8]
Candidates should show awareness of the various social factors which may lead to an
ageing population. Consideration should also be given to cultures where it is expected for
adult children to remain at home until they marry and/or are expected to stay at home to care
for younger siblings or older relatives.
Possible answers:
• Improved hygiene and sanitation;
• Advances in medicine and science;
• Higher standards of living – higher wages, better food, more amenities in the home,
much improved housing conditions generally;
• Public health and welfare systems i.e. the UK’s NHS system;
• Health education – widespread knowledge of the benefits of healthy diet and exercise,
awareness of the dangers of smoking, excessive drinking etc.
• Improved working conditions – technological developments, health and safety
legislation, shorter working hours, more leisure time etc.

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• Early retirement/pensions provisions (less stress so live longer);

• Decline in the birth rate in some societies
• Increased life expectancy;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why we have an ageing
population. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped,
e.g. ‘people living longer’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are
unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the
band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why we
have an ageing population. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g.
‘We have an increasingly ageing population because there have been lots of advances in
medicine.’ ‘The population is ageing because of the declining birth rate’ etc. At the bottom of
the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher
in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with
greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially
developed/explained.
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why we
have an ageing population and will be well developed and explained e.g. ‘we have an
increasingly ageing population because there have been lots of advances in medicine. This
means that vaccines and cures have been found for diseases that would previously have
killed people. Similarly, drugs for diseases such as cancer can often prolong life well into old
age’. Or ‘The population is ageing because we live in a healthier society in terms of food,
exercise and ‘vices’. The informal agencies of socialisation all ensure that we know the
benefits of a healthy diet and exercise and the dangers of things such as smoking and
alcohol. These often today attract negative sanctions and so helps to explain why the
population is living longer on average than ever before.’ They can then expand on the
explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be
used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a
range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.
(e) To what extent are the roles found in the family changing in
modern industrial society? [15]
Candidates should show awareness of the complexity and diversity of the roles found in the
family here. A range of different family types are likely to be discussed. There should be a
focus on how family roles have changed over time.
Possible answers:
For
• Joint conjugal roles leads to greater equality and more symmetry;
• Typically both partners work so external agencies/other family members are required for
childcare;
• Lone parent families on the increase in many societies;

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• Growth in singlehood and childlessness;

• Rise in ‘children’s rights’ – the idea of the child focused/centred family;
• Homosexual families;
• More births outside marriage;
• Remarriage and the growth of the reconstituted family;
• Decline in marriage and the growth of cohabitation;
• Rising divorce rates;
• Beanpole and boomerang families (ageing population);
• Loss of traditional family functions;
• Weakening of extended kinship links and the decline of the extended family;
Against
• Segregated conjugal roles still exist/the triple shift for women;
• Women still responsible for most childcare and other caring responsibilities;
• Women still responsible for housework;
• Women more likely to work part-time;
• Wider family members do still live with the smaller family unit due to childcare/financial
needs;
• Family unit is still the most important source of primary socialisation;
• The extended family has not disappeared it has merely changed i.e. the modified
extended family (use of media to maintain relationships) and in some cultures and/or
social classes is as strong as ever;
• The type of family does not affect the roles within it i.e. the argument that a homosexual
family provides the same love and support as a more traditional heterosexual family;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited
knowledge of the extent to which roles in the family are changing in modern industrial
society. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short,
undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. men and women are more equal now as they both go out
to work. Children are the main focus of modern families. Everyone has the same roles in
families. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band
(3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key
terms, e.g. roles are the parts played by people in a family, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which roles in the
family are changing in modern industrial society. Alternatively, they may offer an answer
which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the
question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may
be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are
unlikely e.g. Not everyone has children anymore and lots of people live alone. Children have
more rights in the family than they did before. Women have more power in their family life
than they did before etc. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points
covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered
and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with
little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.
A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks.

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Band 3 (9–12)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent
to which roles in the family are changing in modern industrial society. Sociological terms and
concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will
be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented.
Candidates may say that e.g. despite more equality and changing roles within the family,
women still do most of the housework and childcare. Or increased rates of divorce,
remarriage and the formation of reconstituted families means that traditional roles in the
family have had to change. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced.
At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well developed
points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which
roles in the family are changing in modern industrial society. There will be a strong grasp of
the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts.
Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of
points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the
answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to
offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question through a focused
conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of
changing roles in the family, citing some of the examples given.

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2 The type of school an individual attends is thought to have a big influence on their
educational success. One type of school found in modern industrial society is a single sex
school.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘single sex school’? [2]
The practice of conducting education where male and female students attend separate
classes or in separate buildings or schools – segregation.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. just boys are taught here.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. a school that educates one sex only, i.e. an all boys or all
girls school.
(b) Describe two ways that schools have tried to improve the educational
achievement of boys. [4]
Candidates will describe two different ways.
Possible answers:
• Higher teacher expectations of male students (e.g. better management of poor boys’
classroom behaviour);
• Reduction of negative peer group pressure, (e.g. breaking down anti-school subcultures
and gang culture);
• Male role models (either via the employment of strong male teachers or by external
mentoring schemes);
• More active learning practices (e.g. ideas to keep boys engaged);
• More ‘hands on’ workplace based learning (e.g. vocationalism);
Focus on examinations (e.g. decline of coursework/controlled assessment)
• Single sex lessons (e.g. boys/girls only to avoid distractions)
• Differential rewards for boys and girls (e.g. sports rewards for boys)
(c) Explain how informal education is different from formal education. [6]
Candidates should show an understanding of the differences between formal and informal
education.
Informal education – learning from various agencies of socialisation such as the family and
peer group. These give us very general developments in our skills and knowledge base.
Formal education – delivered in institutions specifically designed to educate people. Here a

formal curriculum is taught with courses to follow and examinations to sit.
Possible answers:
• Informal education is far more flexible and diverse than formal education
• Formal education is based on a published course structure with established assessment
objectives leading to examinations

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• Informal education can occur in a variety of different settings and circumstances, formal
education is based within an educational establishment
• Informal education is a lifelong process, formal education is limited to the time spent in
an educational system
• Informal education can occur within schools via the hidden curriculum
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how informal education is
different to formal. Responses may be short and un/under developed. Candidates may only
consider formal or informal education. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak
point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but
there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas
without using sociological language, e.g. ‘where you learn stuff with no examinations.’
Band 2 (4–6)
A clear and accurate explanation showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of
the differences between formal and informal education. Sociological terms and concepts
should be expected. Candidates may discuss e.g. ‘the learning of norms and values, the
hidden curriculum etc.’ At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow
or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-
developed way or cover several factors in less detail.
(d) Explain why girls often study different subjects to boys in school. [8]
Candidates should show understanding of the various reasons why girls often study different
subjects to boys in schools. Expect an accurate identification of the subjects typically studied
by boys and those typically studied by girls within candidates’ responses.
Possible reasons:
• Stereotypical expectations and traditional norms and values
• Typical career choices for girls and careers advice given
• Differential gender socialisation and social control
• Pressures to be masculine/feminine i.e. peer pressure
• Perceptions of certain subjects as masculine and others as feminine, often perpetuated
by the gender of the teacher and the content/representations found in textbooks
• Hidden curriculum as it relates to gender and subject choice
• Parental pressure
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why girls study different subjects
to boys. Candidates may not know which subjects are male dominated and which are female
dominated. Candidates may only discuss boys or girls. Responses may be short and
undeveloped. e.g. ‘careers advice’ without justification. Sociological terms and concepts are
Band 2 (4–6)

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Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why girls
study different subjects to boys. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range.
Answers may concentrate on just school factors such as ‘pressure from teachers or just
home factors such as pressure from parents and so be a little narrow. At the bottom of the
band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in
the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater
accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed.
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why girls
study different subjects to boys and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘Oakley’s
study clearly shows that girls and boys are socialised differently in the home and this may
lead to them believing that certain activities and subjects are feminine i.e. cooking and others
are masculine i.e. sport. This may then lead to them choosing to study different subjects at
school.’ Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be
well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the
band explanations will be clear throughout.
(e) To what extent does the type of school individuals attend affect their life
chances? [15]
Candidates should show an awareness of the various types of schools available to

individuals and how these may affect life chances.
The most likely types of schools for candidates to focus on are private/independent schools;
state schools; grammar schools; single sex schools; faith schools; academies; studio
schools; comprehensive schools.
Possible answers:
For
• Smaller class sizes and better facilities found in private schools means students are
more likely to do well in examinations
• Clear trend that certain types of schools in certain areas (i.e. state schools in middle
class areas) do better in terms of educational success in public examinations than others
• Private schooling may lead to better job opportunities via the ‘old boys network’
• Whilst only a small minority of the population attend private schooling, the elite/top jobs
are dominated by those who have been privately educated
• The newly formed academies and studio schools have more of an emphasis on
workplace links and work experience and therefore may be a good route into certain jobs
for students
• Grammar schools typically achieve better results than comprehensive schools
Against
• Compensatory education, university requirements to open up places to deprived
students even when their grades may be lower than others
• Too deterministic – not everyone conforms to the expectations of a school as we live in a
meritocratic society
• Extra resources in deprived areas i.e. educational action zones, rebuilding projects
• Some pupils from deprived areas do achieve and some students who attend private
schools do not do well
• Home factors may be more influential than school factors

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• Despite doing better in education, in employment girls are still typically not as successful
as boys – patriarchy, vertical/horizontal segregation, glass ceiling etc
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of how/why the type of school an individual attends affects their life chances. Use
of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and
one-sided e.g. 'you don’t have the same chances if you go to a state school.' Lower in the
band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks)
candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. life
chances are the opportunities people have, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of how/why the type of school an
individual attends affects their life chances. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is
list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question.
Answers may list factors of inequality and compare them with factors of privilege. There may
be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and
lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. Lower in the
band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little
development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited
development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering
both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.
Band 3 (9–12)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of how/why
the type of school an individual attends affects their life chances. Sociological terms and
There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band,
candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band,
expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Candidates may outline that
e.g. although in general children who attend private schools achieve more in education, there
are examples where state students do better so perhaps home factors are just as important
as the type of school attended.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of how/why the type
of school an individual attends affects their life chances. There will be a strong grasp of the
argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers
will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points.
Candidates may outline factors of underachievement and other factors which can
compensate for social inequality e.g. teacher expectation, gender, elitism, old boys network
etc. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the
conclusion.

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3 Crime is thought to be a big problem in modern industrial society and different people
have very different views on how to deal with it. Some sociologists believe that prison is a
deterrent to criminal behaviour. However, others think that prison does not solve the
problem of crime.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘deterrent’? [2]
Something that is intended to discourage a person from doing something seen to be

unacceptable. One mark for partial definition, e.g. something that prevents people from
committing crime.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. something that discourages people from committing
crime, such as fear of going to prison
(b) Describe two ways of dealing with crime, apart from prisons. [4]
Candidates will describe two ways of dealing with crime.
Possible answers:
• Informal agents of social control (e.g. the family, religion, media etc. )
• Socialisation processes (e.g. teaching the correct norms and values)
• The death penalty (e.g. the ultimate deterrent)
• Corporal punishment (e.g. flogging)
• Mental health orders (e.g. being hospitalised)
• Rehabilitation/reform programmes (e.g. counselling)
• Community sentencing (e.g. cleaning graffiti)
• Surveillance (e.g. CCTV/tagging/curfews)
• Fines (e.g. paying for your crime)
• Exile/deportation (e.g. being sent away)
One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
(c) Explain how sociologists use victim surveys to measure crime. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of the ways in which victim surveys are
used to measure crime. They may discuss either national or local surveys or both.
Possible answers:
• Victim surveys ask people what crimes they have been a victim of – these may not have
been reported to the police therefore revealing more of an accurate picture of crime
• Typically done on a large scale sample i.e. the British Crime Survey so good for
gathering representative and generalisable data
• Typically done using an interview method with skilled researchers to allow for a rapport
to be built up so producing rich and valid data
• Local surveys are also used to try and build up a picture of crime in a particular area or
community i.e. The Merseyside Survey/The Islington Survey
• They provide information uncovering some of the dark figure of crime not reported to or
recorded by the police

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• Provide insights into the victims of crime and their feelings and experiences. This is
particularly used by Feminist sociologists in studies of crimes such as abuse and rape.
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how sociologists use victim
surveys to measure crime. Responses may be short and un/under developed. Candidates
may be confused as to what is meant by a victim survey. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),
expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one
weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with
sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘ask people what crimes they
have been a victim of’.
Band 2 (4–6)
how sociologists use victim surveys to measure crime. Sociological terms and concepts
should be expected. Candidates may refer to the dark figure of crime, Feminism, local and
national pictures, validity etc. with examples. At the bottom of the band, the range of points
covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one
factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.
(d) Explain why there is a ‘dark figure’ of crime in society. [8]
Candidates need to identify what is meant by the term ‘dark figure’ of crime and be clear
which crimes in particular are likely to feature in here.
The dark figure of crime is a term employed by sociologists to describe the amount of
unreported, unrecorded or undiscovered crime in society.
Possible answers:
• Not all crimes appear in the official statistics, because there is at least a three-stage
process involved, which may not always be followed. The three stages are: – somebody
must be aware that a crime has taken place, that crime must be reported, the police or
other agency must accept that a law has been broken and record the crime. This often
does not happen.
• Some crimes are not reported to the police because – the public regards them as too
trivial, the victim finds the matter embarrassing, individuals are unaware that they are
victims (e.g. fraud), lack of confidence or trust in the police, a fear of reprisals, the victim
may take the law into their own hands, children may not understand they have been a
victim, victim may not want to harm the offender (e.g. domestic violence and abuse).
• Some crimes are much more likely to be reported and recorded than others – where
insurance claims for cars or household goods are involved, serious crimes are more
likely to be reported than trivial offences, media campaigns or the reporting of high-
profile cases can lead to "moral panics" and so certain crimes are more likely to be
reported.
• Police discretion can influence reporting and recording – different police forces employ
different categories and paperwork, there are campaigns that lead to crackdowns on
certain crimes or offences, such as drunk driving at Christmas, some police forces will
pay less attention to certain types of offence, such as the decision by the London Met to

PAGE 16

liberalise the policing of soft drugs in Brixton in 2002, a shift from informal or community
policing to stricter, military-style policing and zero tolerance campaigns, or vice versa,
will influence crime rates.
• Some social groups (i.e. dependent on age, gender, ethnicity, class, status) are less
likely than others to appear in the crime statistics as they are not stereotyped or thought
of as criminals i.e. white collar criminals.
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why there is a dark figure of crime
in society. Candidates may not fully understand what is meant by dark figure of crime.
Responses may be short and undeveloped. e.g. not all crimes are reported to the police.
Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),
expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one
weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why there
is a dark figure of crime in society. Candidates may say that e.g. not all crimes are reported
to the police because of victim embarrassment or a fear of reprisals. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to
use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be
beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some
aspects of the answer may only be partially developed.
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why there
is a dark figure of crime in society and will be well developed and explained. Candidates may
discuss statistical evidence of the proportion of reported/recorded/known about crimes and
the differential treatment of certain crimes such as white-collar, insurance related, sexual etc.
Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well
focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the
(e) To what extent do prisons solve the problem of crime? [15]
Candidates need to show an understanding of whether prisons solve the problem of crime
with clear examples.
Possible answers:
For
• To prevent crime – if a criminal is locked away they cannot be committing crime
• To deter others from committing crime – the fear of going to prison i.e. through negative
media representations ensures that most people do not commit crime
• To reform offenders – rehabilitation schemes, counselling, education and training are all
available inside prisons to help criminals turn their lives around
• To punish criminals – the idea of retribution, that prison life is difficult and unappealing
• To keep the public safe – some criminals are so dangerous that they need to be locked
away from society

PAGE 17

• In a society where the death penalty is not available, this may be the harshest form of
punishment that there is
Against
• Prison is seen by many to be a ‘university of crime’ where offenders soon learn how to
be better criminals
• For some groups i.e. the homeless, prison life is preferable to life on the outside
• The rates of re-offending for people who have been to prison are high, once you have
been to prison it is likely that you will go back
• Drug abuse, crime and bullying are rife in prisons
• Prison life is too soft – TV’s, X-boxes etc. mean that it is no punishment at all
• The financial costs of sending people to prison are huge so it may not be cost-effective
• Crime is still committed so therefore prisons can’t be that effective
• Other methods of punishment such as fines, community service etc. may solve the crime
problem more effectively than prisons
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether prisons are effective at solving the problem of crime. Use of
sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and
one-sided. e.g. prisons lock people away so they can’t commit crime. Lower in the band (1–2
marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer
more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. prisons lock bad people
away, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether prisons are effective at
solving the problem of crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in
nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There
may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Candidates may discuss some reasons
why prisons do work i.e. deterrence, punishment etc. but responses may be underdeveloped
and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. Lower in
the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little
Band 3 (9–12)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of whether
prisons are effective at solving the problem of crime. Sociological terms and concepts will be
used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well
developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented.
Candidates may be able to present a range of points to support the idea that prison does
work, but also be aware of some of the weaknesses i.e. drug use, recidivism etc. There will
be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates
may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a
wider range of points and clear focus on the question.

PAGE 18

Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether prisons
are effective at solving the problem of crime. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as
well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well
developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. For example,
candidates may say that as well as agreeing that prisons are necessary at controlling crime
and do so in a number of different ways, there are also other ways of doing this i.e. death
penalty, informal measures, socialisation etc. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At
the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the
band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of
the question through a focused conclusion.

PAGE 19

Section D: Media
4 The media is an increasingly important agent of secondary socialisation in modern

industrial societies. How social groups are represented in the media is therefore very
important.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘secondary socialisation’? [2]
The process of learning the correct behaviour, norms and values in a society, reinforcing
what is learnt in the primary stage. Normally thought to start from the age of approximately
5 years and to be a lifelong process.
One mark for partial definition. e.g. learning norms and values
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. learning that takes place beyond the family, developing
and reinforcing the basics learnt in the primary stage
(b) Describe two stereotypes of men often seen in the media. [4]
Candidates will describe two stereotypes of men often seen in the media, they may describe
traditional or more modern stereotypes, either are fine to credit.
Possible answers:
• Physical strength (e.g. muscly, action hero)
• Protector (e.g. hero, saviour)
• Provider (e.g. breadwinner)
• High status/professional (e.g. business man)
• Aggressive/violent (e.g. domestic abuser)
• In charge/dominant (e.g. the boss)
• Unemotional, not in touch with emotions (e.g. does not cry)
• Not bothered about appearance, (e.g. fashion or beauty)
• Gay men (e.g. camp)
• Metrosexual male (e.g. buys moisturiser)
• The hen-pecked husband (e.g. told what to do by his wife)
• House husband (e.g. stays home whilst the wife is the breadwinner)
One mark for each male stereotype correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each point developed (up to a maximum of two).
(c) Explain how working people class are represented in the media. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of the way social class affects media
representations.
Possible answers:
• May be presented in the context of ‘trouble’ i.e. strikers, rioters, criminals etc.
• As a community i.e. soap operas and traditional community values, ‘togetherness’
• As welfare scroungers, jobless, lazy
• As uneducated and poorly qualified
• Males being employed in physical/manual work, females as housewives/low status
and/or part time work
• Hard-working, loyal and honest

PAGE 20

• Stereotypical/limited/repetitious
• Invisibility (under representation of working class people in the media)
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the lower social classes are
represented in the media. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom
of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates
may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic
answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘the
working class are represented as trouble makers.’
Band 2 (4–6)
how the lower social classes are represented in the media. For example, recognising that
there are different representations depending on the type/genre of media looked at – some
being negative and some being positive but all, largely, being stereotyped. Sociological terms
and concepts should be expected. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered
may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in
a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.
(d) Explain why the media are thought to be an important agency of socialisation. [8]
Candidates should to show an awareness of the media as a secondary agent of socialisation
and an informal agent of social control.
Possible answers:
• Increasing prominence in the Postmodern media saturated world
• Shows desirable norms, values and behaviour and demonises those seen to be
undesirable
• Shows consequences for actions i.e. the good guy always wins
• Increase in social media and audience interactivity
• Access to all types of material in a variety of different formats
• Role models and stereotypes remain as important processes of socialisation
• Immediacy and instant access of the internet on a global scale
• Decline in the importance in many societies of other secondary agencies i.e. religion
• Models of media effects such as the hypodermic syringe demonstrate the power of the
media e.g. children and violence/imitation
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why the media is thought to be an
important agency of socialisation. Candidates may not understand what is meant by
socialisation, perhaps confusing it with ‘socialising’. Responses may be short and
undeveloped. e.g. ‘shows stereotypes’ without justification/explanation. Sociological terms
and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak
point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.

PAGE 21

Band 2 (4–6)
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why the
media is thought to be an important agency of socialisation. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lacking in range. Candidates may explain some of the ways the media
can socialise people e.g. role models, reinforcing norms and values. At the bottom of the
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why the
media is thought to be an important agency of socialisation and will be well developed and
explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be
well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. Candidates
may explain the idea that the media’s influence as an agency of socialisation is dependent
on the age of the audience i.e. is particularly significant for young people. At the top of the
(e) To what extent are patterns of media use determined by the age of the
audience? [15]
Candidates will need to look at a range of different age groups in their response.
Possible answers:
For:
• Older age groups typically use less social media – the digital divide
• Different types and genres of media are consumed by different age groups
• Ideas of popular/mass and high culture affecting and determining consumption
• Cost/access implications as linked to age i.e. internet/’pay-for’ media services
• Newspapers as a good example of an age divide i.e. the tabloids (red tops) for younger
people, the quality press more older age groups in the UK.
• Magazines chosen over newspapers by many younger age groups
• Internet used more by the younger generations
• Interactive media (i.e. UGC user generated content e.g blogs) more likely to be used by
younger age groups
• Young people are more likely to visit the cinema than other age groups
• The amount of TV people watch typically goes up after the age of 50
• Young people increasingly watch short videos e.g. on social media rather than traditional
films and TV programmes
Against:
• Consumption and patterns of media use is more about gender than age
• Consumption and patterns of media us e is more about social class than age
• Consumption and patterns of media use is more about level of education than age
• Consumption and patterns of media use is more about ethnicity than age
• In the postmodern world, age is no longer relevant in determining what type of media is
consumed – all about individual choice
• Many people of all ages in modern industrial societies have access to multi-media
products as a norm
• Media usage is more likely to be determined by income than age
• Access to and availability of various types of media is probably more significant than age

PAGE 22

Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether patterns of media use are determined by the age of the audience. Use
one-sided, e.g. may speak about young people using the internet. Lower in the band (1–2
more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms i.e. people of different ages
use the media in different ways in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether patterns of media use
are determined by the age of the audience. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is
There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lack range. Candidates may list differences in usage according to age.
Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. Lower in the band, the
response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development.
Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of
some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the
argument may score up to 8 marks.
Band 3 (9–12)
patterns of media use are determined by the age of the audience. Sociological terms and
Candidates may discuss the plurality of media available today and how a lot of factors, not
just age, are relevant in determining consumption patterns. There will be a two-sided
response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a
narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of
points and clear focus on the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether patterns
of media use are determined by the age of the audience. There will be a strong grasp of the
Candidates may refer to differential usage through gender, ethnicity, choice, Postmodernism
and availability but indicate that although there are general trends in usage there are
exceptions for all factors. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the
band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be
a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question through
a focused conclusion.

PAGE 23

SOCIOLOGY 2251/23
* 5 6 3 5 0 4 4 5 3 5 *

DC (FD) 110088
PAGE 24
Section A: Family
1 In modern industrial societies there are many variations of what is meant by the term family and
this often depends on factors such as culture and ethnicity. One type of family is the same sex
family.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘same sex family’? [2]
(b) Describe two alternatives to the family. [4]
(c) Explain how many of the functions of the family can now also be performed by other agencies
of socialisation. [6]
(d) Explain why in modern industrial societies marriage is seen to be less important than it was in
the past. [8]
(e) To what extent can variations in family relationships be explained in terms of ethnicity? [15]
2 Pupils involved in an anti-school sub-culture are often less successful in school than those who
are not. Sub-culture is just one of many factors that determines educational achievement.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘anti-school sub-culture’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways that pupils may rebel against the norms and values of a school. [4]
(c) Explain how a culture of masculinity amongst young males may affect their educational
achievement. [6]
(d) Explain why family background is thought to be a big influence on an individual’s educational
achievement. [8]
(e) To what extent does the education system disadvantage minority ethnic groups? [15]
© UCLES 2015 2251/23/M/J/15

PAGE 25
3 Reports about crime are frequently seen in the media and are often associated with moral panics
about the behaviour of young people. Different explanations exist as to why crime is committed by
young people and by other social groups.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘moral panic’? [2]
(b) Describe two crimes often committed by young people. [4]
(c) Explain how the media can create a distorted view of which social groups commit crime. [6]
(d) Explain why young people are more likely than other social groups to be arrested by the
police. [8]
(e) To what extent is age the most important factor in determining whether an individual commits
crime? [15]
Section D: Media
4 In the postmodern world, the media are becoming increasingly important and are all around us.
The forms that the media are taking are changing and social media are now an established part of
the lives of many individuals in modern industrial societies.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘social media’? [2]
(b) Describe two reasons why older people are less likely than younger people to use social
media. [4]
(c) Explain how the media can have a negative effect on the audience. [6]
(d) Explain why there are more opportunities today for audiences to influence the content of the
media in modern industrial societies. [8]
(e) To what extent are traditional media forms changing as a result of new media technologies?
[15]
© UCLES 2015 2251/23/M/J/15

PAGE 26

MARK SCHEME for the May/June 2015 series
2251 SOCIOLOGY
Cambridge is publishing the mark schemes for the May/June 2015 series for most

PAGE 27

Section A: Family
1 In modern industrial society there are many variations of what is meant by the term family
and this often depends on factors such as culture and ethnicity. One type of family is the
same sex family.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘same sex family’? [2]
Lesbian or gay couples living together, with or without children in civil partnerships
One mark for partial definition, e.g. gays.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. A family where the couple are both female or both male.
Candidates will be expected to describe two alternatives to the family.
Possible answers:
• Cared for children – foster families, care homes
• Communal living (communes, kibbutzism)
• Friends – the ‘new family’, families of choice
• Living alone/single person household – on the increase
• The Nayar tribe – uncertainty over biological fathers as the norm
• Shared households growing in popularity
• Orphanages
(c) Explain how many of the functions of the family can now also be performed by other
agencies of socialisation. [6]
Candidates need to show an understanding of both family functions and other agencies of
socialisation.
Possible answers:
• The regulation of sex – sex education is now taught in schools
• Reproduction – options to have children via means such as surrogacy and IVF
• Physical care – care homes, nurseries, schools can all provide this care
• Socialisation and social control – a range of other institutions can now perform these
functions i.e. education, media, religion, peer group, workplace
• Emotional support – the peer group, religion, social media and education can all today
perform this function
• Economic support – children often work part time today and bursaries, grants, welfare
benefits and scholarships are often available to help support them
• A place in society – this can equally be provided by religion, education, media, the
workplace and the peer group
Band 0

PAGE 28

Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the concepts of family functions
and agents of socialisation and may talk about e.g. children spend less time at home with the
family. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1
mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more
than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with
sociological ideas without using sociological language.
Band 2 (4–6)
of explanations of how family functions can be performed by other agents of socialisation.
Sociological terms and concepts should be expected in this band. e.g. ‘social/geographical
mobility, changing role of women, secularisation’. This would be followed by explanation of
factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow
(d) Explain why in modern industrial societies marriage is seen to be less important than
it was in the past. [8]
Candidates should show awareness of the various reasons why marriage may be seen to be
less important today than it was in the past.
Possible answers:
• A decline in the marriage rate
• An increase in the divorce rate
• More people choosing to cohabit and/or engage in serial monogamy
• Secularisation, changing norms and values
• Less emphasis/importance placed on having children
• Changing role of women in society
• Changing expectations of marriage
• Feminist critiques of marriage – the dark side
• Greater diversity in relationships in a more accepting and open society
• More people choosing to live alone
• Growth of the lone parent family
• Costs of marriage may put people off as they feel money is more usefully spent on other
things
• Taxation policies no longer favour/benefit marriage in some societies
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why marriage today may be seen
as less important than in the past. Candidates may just focus on why marriage is not
important rather than considering the element of change. A tendency to description is likely.
Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘people just live together’, stated without
explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the
band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer
more than one weak point.

PAGE 29

Band 2 (4–6)
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why
marriage today may be seen as less important than in the past. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘Religion is less important to many people than it
was so there’s less pressure to get married’. ‘Women are doing well in education and going
on to get careers so marriage and having children isn’t seen as so important anymore’. At
the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts
accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and
concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why
marriage may be seen as less important than it was in the past and will be well developed
and explained, e.g. ‘There is less pressure on people to get married today as it is no longer a
social expectation and norm. Greater choice and diversity in relationships in an increasingly
secular society means that marriage for many has become just another lifestyle choice’.
They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological
terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the
question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations
will be clear throughout.
(e) To what extent can variations in family relationships be explained in terms

of ethnicity? [15]
Candidates should show awareness of the complexity and diversity of family structures and
roles with an explicit focus on ethnicity.
Possible answers:
For
• Joint/segregated conjugal roles, different in different cultures/ethnic groups
• Cross-cultural variations i.e. polyandry/polygamy
• Civil partnerships not universally accepted
• Lone parent families more common amongst Afro-Caribbeans
• Religious and family centred cultures see more marriage, less divorce and more
traditional family structures and roles
• Extended families still the norm in many cultures
• Increase in reconstituted families in many Western cultures
• Arranged marriages still exist in many cultures
• Importance of marriage in traveller communities
• Children’s roles and relationships with other family members vary across different ethnic
groups and cultures
• Feminists may discuss patriarchal family relationships associated with different
ethnicities
Against
• Women still responsible for most childcare/housework and other caring responsibilities in
all cultures/ethnic groups
• General decline in religion has seen a change in family structure and roles in most
cultures and ethnic groups

PAGE 30

• Ethnic groups often now third generation immigrants therefore more assimilated to the
host cultures way of life
• Rise of Feminism on a global scale, particularly with the increasing access to the media,
is the main reason for variations in family roles and structure
• Social class and age may both be very relevant factors as well as ethnicity and culture in
determining family structures and roles
• Family diversity and choice in the Postmodern world
• Perhaps family relationships are more determined by economic structure and context
than ethnicity
• Family relationships may be affected more by patterns of migration leading to
geographical separation i.e. economic need to earn money so one family member
moves abroad
• Variations in family relationships are just as likely to be found within ethnic groups as
across them
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether variations in family relationships are dependent on ethnicity. It is likely
that ethnicity may be ignored with a more general response about different family types. Use
one-sided. e.g. ‘there are lots of different family types seen today’. Lower in the band (1-2
marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3-4 marks) candidates may offer
more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘variations in family
relationships means that not all families are the same’, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether variations in family
relationships are dependent on ethnicity. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is
There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are
unlikely. E.g. ‘some ethnicities do not allow people to choose who to marry’. Lower in the
Band 3 (9–12)
variations in family relationships are dependent on ethnicity. Sociological terms and concepts
will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well
Candidates may not focus explicitly on all the aspects of the question – variations, family
relationships and ethnicity – however. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘Different ethnicities
tend to have different family relationships with Asian families being typically more traditional.
For example, extended families are still popular whereas in less religious cultures lone parent
and reconstituted families are growing in popularity’. There will be a two-sided response but
this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower

PAGE 31

range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and
clear focus on the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether variations
in family relationships are dependent on ethnicity. There will be a strong grasp of the
Variations, relationships and ethnicity will all be focused on within this band. Responses will
be two-sided and balanced. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against
whether variations in family relationships are dependent on ethnicity, citing some of the
examples given. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific
conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To
what extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

PAGE 32

2 Pupils involved in an anti-school sub-culture are often less successful in school than
those who are not. Sub-culture is just one of many factors that determine educational
achievement.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘anti-school sub-culture’? [2]
A small group of pupils who do not value education and who behave and think in a way that
is totally opposite to the aims and expectations of a school.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. pupils who behave badly
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. a group of students who do not value education
(b) Describe two ways that pupils may rebel against the norms and values of a
school. [4]
Candidates will describe two ways pupils may rebel against the norms and values of a
school.
Possible answers:
• Not completing work and homework set
• Truancy, not attending lessons
• Being poorly behaved – cheeky to the teacher, not concentrating in class etc.
• Engaging in deviant behaviour i.e. smoking, drinking alcohol etc.
• Not valuing education and not being concerned about passing exams
• Not following rules and authority
• Not wearing school uniform correctly
• Existence of a counter culture
• Violence/criminal behaviour

PAGE 33

(c) Explain how a culture of masculinity amongst young males may affect their
educational achievement. [6]
Candidates should show an understanding of what is meant by a culture of masculinity and

how this may affect young males experiences of school.
Culture of masculinity – a way of life associated with typical masculine behaviour and values
Possible answers:
• Lots of pressure on males to act and seem masculine therefore they are more likely to
get into trouble at school
• Seen as ‘feminine’ to work hard therefore difficult for males to do this – peer pressure
• Teacher expectations of male students – labelling, self-fulfilling prophecy etc.
• Status frustration and gang culture likely to affect educational achievement
• Feminisation of education i.e. literacy not seen to be masculine
• Truancy and exclusion rates tend to be higher for males than females
• Media male role models typically not seen to value education
• Candidates may recognise that links between educational achievement and masculinity
may be more associated with, say, the working class than all males
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of a culture of masculinity and how
this may affect young males educational achievement . e.g. ‘it is not cool for boys to work
hard at school so they don’t’.
Responses may be short and un/under developed. Candidates may not link the culture of
masculinity with young males educational achievement or may misunderstand what is meant
by this concept therefore only partially answering the question. At the bottom of the band (1
mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more
Band 2 (4–6)
of how a culture of masculinity may affect young males educational achievement. .
Sociological terms and concepts should be expected in this band e.g. teacher expectations
and the self-fulfilling prophecy. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to
this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail.
Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover
several factors in less detail.

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(d) Explain why family background is thought to be a big influence on an individual’s

Candidates should show an understanding of the various reasons why family background is
thought to influence how well an individual does in education. Candidates may refer to
patterns of educational achievement within different social groups (i.e. linked to
money/class/ethnicity etc.) in answering the question or may adopt a more generic approach.
Possible reasons:
• Language barriers and difficulties – relating to social class and/or ethnicity
• Economic factors i.e. private education costs a lot of money – not everybody can afford
this – typically achieves better results than in state schools
• Poverty – lack of facilities, space, resources at home can all impact upon how well a
student does at school
• Money for school trips, revision courses and equipment may not be available to all
students
• Rising costs of a University education may be prohibitive
• Middle class parents typically place more value on education than working class parents
• Attendance at parents evenings/parental attitudes and expectations may be affected by
social class and/or ethnicity
• Schools seen as a middle class institution – elaborated code, hidden curriculum etc.
• Restricted and elaborated language codes – home ‘vs’ school
• Cultural capital and cultural deprivation
• Religious factors – either prioritising or de-prioritising educational success
• Inherited/natural intelligence
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the various reasons why family
background is thought to influence how well an individual does in education. Candidates may
not understand what is meant by family background or educational success. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped. e.g. ‘lack of money’, stated
without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom
of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may
offer more than one weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
family background is thought to influence how well an individual does in education.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range e.g. ‘middle class parents may
value education more than working class parents’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are
unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates
may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However,
some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained.
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why family
background is thought to influence how well an individual does in education and will be well
developed and explained e.g. Answers may show awareness of how culture, language,
money, social class and ethnicity may all combine to influence how well an individual does in
education. They can then expand on the explanation of these and other factors as
necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be

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(e) To what extent does the education system disadvantage minority ethnic
groups? [15]
Candidates should discuss a variety of reasons why minority ethnic groups may be
disadvantaged in the education system, considering perhaps both home and school factors.
Candidates may give examples of specific minority ethnic groups and their levels of
educational success from a generic picture or from their own local environment.
Possible answers:
For
• History and language lessons are often accused of being biased
• Underachievement of some minority ethnic groups in education
• Some sociologists go so far as to say that education is institutionally racist
• Representations, invisibility and stereotyped content of textbooks as it relates to minority
ethnic groups
• Ethnocentric nature of the education system – looking at other cultures from the point
of view of your own culture and ignoring other possible ways of seeing the world.
• Exclusion rates for some ethnic minorities can be a lot higher than for other students
• Lack of ethnic minority teachers and role models in education
• May link resources needed for educational success i.e. computers, revision guides,
tutors etc. with trends of some minority ethnic groups being more likely to suffer from
material deprivation
• Middle class nature of schools – cultural deprivation linked to some minority ethnic
groups
• Language barriers – may discuss elaborated ‘vs’ restricted language codes or consider
ideas that first language of ethnic minority groups may not be that spoken in schools
• School authorities may not deal with racism by other pupils against the minority group
• Teacher labelling and stereotyping (i.e. presumptions about ability and/or
motivation)leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy
• Cultural values at home may clash with those of the school (i.e. in relation to gender)
and this may impact upon a pupil’s progress
Against
• Equal Opportunities legislation
• Multiculturalism
• Increasing take up of university places by minority ethnic groups
• Ethnic minority groups may work harder to achieve well in education to resist societal
labels
• Class based reasons may be more influential than ethnicity
• Gender based reasons may be more influential than ethnicity
• Income and wealth may be more influential than ethnicity
• Other factors such as parental and teacher expectations affect ethnic minority
achievement rates, not just ethnocentrism or other school factors
• Not all ethnic minorities do poorly in education therefore achievement rates cannot be
linked to ethnocentrism or other school factors
• In some societies i.e. Zimbabwe, minority ethnic groups have more power than the
majority and this is likely to affect educational experience and achievement

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Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether the education system disadvantages minority ethnic groups. It is likely
that examples of disadvantage may be ignored with a more general response about
education seen instead. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses
may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. ‘you don’t have the same chances if you are
from a minority ethnic group’. Lower in the band (1-2 marks), expect one or two weak points.
Higher in the band (3-4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak
definition of key terms in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether the education system
disadvantages minority ethnic groups. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-
like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question.
unlikely.. Answers may list some of the reasons why ethnic minorities may not do as well as
other students in school but not really focus on the curriculum, school factors or specific
examples. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and
there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will
be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development
covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.
Band 3 (9–12)
the education system disadvantages minority ethnic groups. Sociological terms and concepts
Candidates may not focus explicitly on all the aspects of the question – disadvantage,
education system and minority ethnic groups – however. Candidates may outline that e.g.
although in general children from ethnic minorities underachieve in education there are
examples of children succeeding when other factors such as good schools and/or parental
support are in place. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the
bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At
the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether the
education system disadvantages minority ethnic groups. There will be a strong grasp of the
For example, candidates may outline factors of an ethnocentric curriculum and how/why
these may impact on achievement as well as considering the idea that this may be too
deterministic and that other factors may be equally as important. All aspects of the question
will be focused on within this band. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. Candidates
should show consideration of points for and against whether the education system
disadvantages minority ethnic groups, citing some of the examples given. At the bottom of
the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there

PAGE 37

will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question
through a focused conclusion.

PAGE 38

3 Reports about crime are frequently seen in the media and are often associated with moral
panics about the behaviour of young people. Different explanations exist as to why crime
is committed by young people and by other social groups.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘moral panic’? [2]
A wave of public concern about some exaggerated or imaginary threat to society, stirred up
by exaggerated and sensationalised reporting in the media.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. media exaggeration.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. when the media causes a group, person or situation to
become seen as a threat to society.
(b) Describe two crimes often committed by young people. [4]
Candidates will describe two crimes often committed by young people. A wide range of
possible answers could be given here, as long as it is a crime associated with youth these
should be credited.
Possible answers:
• Violence/assault
• Anti-social behaviour
• Petty crime
• Vandalism/graffiti
• Gang related behaviour i.e. tagging/violence
• Mugging/robbery
• Theft e.g. mobile phones/bikes
• Rioting/looting
• Racist bullying
• Under age crimes i.e. to do with alcohol/sex etc.
• Knife crime
• Gun crime
• Car crimes

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(c) Explain how the media can create a distorted view of which social groups
commit crime. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of the ways in which the media may
report crime and how this may distort reality.
Possible answers:
• Focus on a specific group, person or situation
• Repeated coverage/repetition
• Sensationalism
• Distortion
• Exaggeration
• Creation of a moral panic
• Stereotyping and the creation of folk devils
• Calling for action against the group, person or situation
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the media may report crime
and may talk about e.g. make it seem really bad. Responses may be short and un/under
developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-
3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency
towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological
language.
Band 2 (4–6)
of how the media may report crime. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected in
this band. E.g. candidates may refer to moral panics and folk devils with examples and
incidents of stereotyping and labelling. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered

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(d) Explain why young people are more likely than other social groups to be arrested by
the police. [8]
Candidates need to understand why young people are more likely to be arrested than other
social groups. They may consider this in the light of young people committing more crime, or
from the perspective that police presume young people commit more crime. Either way is
fine. Candidates at the top end may also link their points in with issues of gender, ethnicity
and social class but this is not essential.
Possible answers:
• Scapegoating
• Labelling and stereotyping
• Self-fulfilling prophecy
• Police targeting
• Media representing young people negatively as criminals
• Young people tend to be found in groups which can be perceived as a threat by the
community
• Young people more likely to resist and rebel against society’s core norms and values ie
youth subcultures
• Young people more likely to be found in gangs
• Stop and searches – young people more likely to be stopped than other social groups
therefore more likely to be found committing crime
• Statistics show that young people do commit a disproportionate amount of crime
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why young people are more likely
than other social groups to be arrested by the police. A tendency to description is likely.
Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘this is the group the police and the public
think are criminals’, stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely
to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-
3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
young people are more likely than other social groups to be arrested by the police.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘Stereotypes of young people
show them as criminals so the police see them and think of them in this way. This may make
the young people aggressive to the police’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are
Band 3 (7–8)
young people are more likely than other social groups to be arrested by the police and will be
well developed and explained, e.g. ‘The police target young people and arrest them because
they are labelled by society and the media to be trouble makers. They are also more likely to
be stopped and searched when out on the streets than other social groups and so are more
likely to be caught for criminal offences’. They can then expand on the explanation of this

PAGE 41

and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately
overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons
presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.
(e) To what extent is age the most important factor in determining whether an
individual commits crime? [15]
Candidates need to show an understanding of how age affects whether a person commits
crime.
Possible answers:
For
• Police targeting and labelling of young people
• Peer pressure encourages younger people to commit crime
• Subcultures and gang culture – young people more likely to be involved in these
• Lack of social control on young people
• Moral panics and folk devils representing young people as criminals
• Self-fulfilling prophecy may lead some young people to commit crime
• Status frustration may cause some young people to commit crime
• Statistics show that it is young people who are most likely to commit crime and older
people who are most likely to conform
• Boredom may be a reason for young people to commit crime
• Lack of responsibilities may be a reason for young people to commit crime
• Young people are more likely to engage in risk taking behaviour than older people
• Older people may have more to lose if they commit crime i.e. family, employment,
reputation etc.
• Less opportunities for older people to commit crime
• Older people may be more likely to commit white collar crime
• Physical weaknesses of some elderly people may prevent them from committing crime
Against
• Social class may be more significant than age
• Gender may be more significant than age
• Ethnicity may be more significant than age
• Underachievement in school leading to poor job prospects may be the key reason as to
why some people commit crime
• Lots of young people do not commit crime, lots of older people do so age may not be a
relevant factor
• Poverty and deprivation may be reasons for why crime is committed
• Idea that age and crime are linked is too stereotypical and based on inaccurate media
representations – distortion etc.
• Crime statistics are flawed and fail to take account of the dark figure of crime, white
collar crime etc.

PAGE 42

Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether age is the most important factor in determining whether an individual
commits crime. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be
short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. ‘young people commit crime because they have
nothing to do’. Lower in the band (1-2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the
band (3-4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of
key terms in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether age is the most
important factor in determining whether an individual commits crime. Alternatively, they may
offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the
issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or
concepts. Candidates may discuss some stereotypes such as ‘hoodies’, ‘folk devils’ etc but
responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-
sided responses are unlikely i.e. ‘older people don’t commit crime because they don’t want to
go to prison’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered
and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and
there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little
development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.
Band 3 (9–12)
age is the most important factor in determining whether an individual commits crime.
Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the
most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range
of points presented. Candidates may agree with the fact that young people do commit most
crime but recognise that other groups also commit crime as well. There will be a two-sided
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether age is the
most important factor in determining whether an individual commits crime. There will be a
strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and
concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a
wide range of points. For example, as well as arguing that young people do commit a lot of
crime candidates are also likely to criticise the social construction of the criminal statistics
and the reasons for young people being stereotyped and labelled as criminals. Responses
will be two-sided and balanced. Candidates should show consideration of points for and
against whether age is the most important factor in determining whether an individual
commits crime or if other factors such as class and gender are relevant, citing some of the
examples given. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific
what extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

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Section D: Media
4 In the postmodern world, the media are becoming increasingly important and are all
around us. The forms that the media are taking are changing and social media are now an
established part of the lives of many individuals in modern industrial society.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘social media’? [2]
Social media refers to the means of interaction among people in which they create, share,
and exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and being dependent on mobile
and web-based technologies.
One mark for partial definition. e.g. You can access the internet on your mobile.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. social networking sites that allow people to
communicate and interact via the internet.
(b) Describe two reasons why older people are less likely than younger people to
use social media. [4]
Candidates will describe two reasons that link with younger and older people.
Possible answers:
• Fear/mistrust of technology in the older generation
• Digital divide between the generations
• Social media now such a large part of young people’s identities
• Social media used by younger people as a means of communication, older people
typically use different means
• Social media used as a form of entertainment by younger people, other sources typically
used by older people
• Young people under more pressure to fit in by using social media
• Older people not brought up with social media

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(c) Explain how the media can have a negative effect on the audience.
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of the way the media can affect the
audience negatively. Candidates may approach this question via theory, concepts or
examples – all are fine.
Possible answers:
• Hypodermic needle approach i.e. Bobo Doll experiment and copycatting/imitation
• Cultural effects model
• Two step flow model
• Uses and gratifications model
• Advertising – materialism/consumerism
• Role models – negative i.e. gangsta rappers, size 0 models etc.
• Undermining of local cultures
• Corruption of norms, values and morals
• Dominance of western ideas/Americanisation
• TV and violence debate, particularly in regards to children
• Gaming culture and the negative messages and actions this can portray and encourage
• Propaganda/indoctrination
• Declining social/communication/literacy skills
• Desensitisation to ‘bad’ things in society
• Promotion of a ‘bling’ culture
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the media can affect the
audience negatively. Responses may be short and un/under developed. For example, they
may speak about the audience copying bad things that they see in the media. At the bottom
of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may
offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers,
engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language.
Band 2 (4–6)
how the media can affect the audience negatively. For example, how role models in the
media may encourage people to act and dress in a particular way i.e. models and the size 0
debate. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected in this band e.g. ‘imitation,
hypodermic needle, desensitisation etc’. This would be followed by explanation of factors
leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or
lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed
way or cover several factors in less detail.

PAGE 45

(d) Explain why there are more opportunities today for audiences to influence the content
of the media in modern industrial societies. [8]
Candidates need to show an awareness of the various ways that the audience can influence
media content today.
Possible answers:
• Blogging, forums, chat rooms
• Audience interaction/active audience
• User generated content
• Social network sites
• YouTube
• Citizen journalism
• Reality TV and the role of the audience in media content
• New media and internet technology
• Pluralist model of the media- audience power and choice
• Media pressure groups/lobbying affect media content i.e. feminist groups and the media
portrayal of women
• Freedom of Information Act/recent media legislation all means that the audience have to
be listened to more when it comes to media content
• Competition within the media institutions and companies means that audience
involvement in media content is crucial for the media’s success and popularity
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how/why there are more
opportunities today for the audience to influence media content in modern industrial society.
Candidates may not fully understand what is meant by influence or media content. A
tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped e.g. ‘audience
make their own videos’, stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are
band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of how/why
there are more opportunities today for the audience to influence media content in modern
industrial society. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range e.g. Candidates
may explain some of the ways the audience are influencing media content e.g. user
generated content, interactivity etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to
aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained.
Band 3 (7–8)
there are more opportunities today for the audience to influence media content in modern
industrial society and will be well developed and explained e.g. ‘There are many different
ways today that the audience can influence media content such as pressure groups, citizen
journalism, Pluralist explanation sof the need for the media to give the audience what they
want etc.’ They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary.
Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused

PAGE 46

on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band
explanations will be clear throughout.
(e) To what extent are traditional media forms changing as a result of new media
technologies? [15]
Candidates will need to accurately identify what is meant by traditional media forms (TV,
radio, newspapers etc.) and new media technologies (social networking, UGC, interactive
media etc.)
Possible answers:
For
• Convergence-media forms today are more likely to be multi-purpose i.e. a mobile phone
that can access the internet, play games, watch TV etc.
• Interactivity-media forms today are more likely to allow the audience to play an active
role in the process and to influence content
• User generated content allows for changing media forms as the audience plays a larger
and more central role in the process
• Diversification-media industries and companies today are more likely to be involved in
several different forms of media rather than just one as in the past
• Digital media-digital technology has allowed for the changes to traditional media forms
• Globalisation-media content now has a global context and content
• Portability-media products today tend to be designed to be used ‘on the move’ and to fit
into the audience’s busy lifestyle
• More democracy and audience participation in media forms today
• Widening consumer choice-competition is rife
• More access to information-easier, cheaper and quicker today
• Less opportunities for effective censorship today due to the internet
• Advertising has become increasingly important with new media technologies and the
need for finance and profit
• Digital editions of books, magazines and newspapers
• TV/Radio/Film now ‘on demand’
• Many would argue that today there has been a ‘dumbing down’ of media content i.e.
‘softer’ news seen today
Against
• Traditional forms of media still exist and sell well
• Traditional patterns of media ownership still exist
• New media technologies are not universally used but are most closely associated with
the young digital natives in society therefore the traditional form remains to meet the
needs of certain demographic groups/societies
• Media stereotypes still exist
• Censorship still exists
• Traditional media forms still largely operate on the ‘one way’ communication process
• The digital divide – for many people in society new media technologies have made
no/little difference to content due to issues such as lack of access/lack of knowledge of
how the products work/lack of money etc.
• No real increase in consumer choice – just more of the same

PAGE 47

Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether traditional media are changing as a result of new media technologies.
Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short,
undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. people can vote for their favourite acts on TV. Lower in the
band (1-2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3-4 marks) candidates
may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
in this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether traditional media are
changing as a result of new media technologies. Alternatively, they may offer an answer
which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the
question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may
be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are
unlikely. E.g. candidates may list differences in usage according to factors such as age
and/or affluence and show how traditional media is changing to give the audience a bigger
role. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there
will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be
limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development
Band 3 (9–12)
traditional media are changing as a result of new media technologies. Sociological terms and
Candidates may not focus explicitly on all aspects of the question, however. Candidates
may discuss the sociological changes in the traditional media such as globalisation,
convergence and interactivity. There will be a two-sided response but this may be
unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-
developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on
the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether traditional
media are changing as a result of new media technologies. There will be a strong grasp of
points. All aspects of the question will be focused upon in this band. Candidates may refer to
a range of ways that traditional media is changing but also recognise that differences in
availability and usage still exist i.e. in relation to age/income/education/access. Responses
will be two-sided and balanced. Candidates should show consideration of points for and
against whether traditional media are changing as a result of new media technologies, citing
some of the examples given. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a
specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment
of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

PAGE 48

SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
Paper 2 October/November 2015
* 4 8 0 5 3 5 0 7 4 1 *

DC (SLM) 116094
PAGE 49
Section A: Family
1 There are many different types of family seen in modern industrial societies today, one of which is
the beanpole family. Families perform a range of roles and functions for the individual and society.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘beanpole family’? [2]
(b) Describe two types of family, other than beanpole. [4]
(c) Explain how the family acts as an agency of primary socialisation. [6]
(d) Explain why some marriages end in divorce. [8]
(e) To what extent is family life today child-centred? [15]
2 In schools there is both an official curriculum and a hidden curriculum. Sociologists believe that
these are both important in determining life chances for individuals.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘hidden curriculum’? [2]
(b) Describe two functions of education. [4]
(c) Explain how state schools are different to private schools. [6]
(d) Explain why setting and streaming are thought to affect a person’s life chances. [8]
(e) To what extent is education meritocratic? [15]
3 New technologies are creating opportunities for new types of crime to be committed: for example,
cybercrime. Sociologists debate whether formal or informal agencies of social control are more
effective at controlling crime.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘cybercrime’? [2]
(b) Describe two agencies of social control. [4]
(c) Explain how crime is different to deviance. [6]
(d) Explain why new technologies are leading to new crimes being committed. [8]
(e) To what extent are formal agencies of social control more effective than informal agencies at
controlling crime? [15]
© UCLES 2015 2251/22/O/N/15

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Section D: Media
4 The media are all around us in many forms, one of which is the news. Certain news values are
thought to exist that may determine whether a story is considered as newsworthy and featured in
the media or not.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘newsworthy’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of news values in the media. [4]
(c) Explain how the media represent the lifestyle of young people. [6]
(d) Explain why censorship of the media may be necessary. [8]
(e) To what extent is the pluralist view of the media accurate? [15]
© UCLES 2015 2251/22/O/N/15

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MARK SCHEME for the October/November 2015 series
2251 SOCIOLOGY
Cambridge is publishing the mark schemes for the October/November 2015 series for most

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Cambridge O Level – October/November 2015 2251 22
Section A: Family
1 There are many different types of family seen in modern industrial societies today, one of
which is the beanpole family. Families perform a range of roles and functions for the
individual and society.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘beanpole family’? [2]
A narrowly extended family (vertical) often containing four or five generations.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. an extended family/kids, parents, grandparents and
great-grandparents.
Two marks for clear definition e.g. a family that is narrowly extended vertically/several
generations living together with small numbers in each generation.
(b) Describe two types of family, other than beanpole. [4]
Candidates will be expected to describe two types of family.
Possible answers:
• Extended
• Nuclear
• Lone parent
• Reconstituted
• Boomerang
• Same sex
• Cereal packet
• Symmetrical
One mark for each type correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
One mark for each type that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
(c) Explain how the family acts as an agency of primary socialisation. [6]
Candidates need to show an understanding of how the family acts as an agency of primary
socialisation.
Possible answers:
• Acts as the gatekeeper who introduces children to other agents of socialisation
• Family as the main care givers and first social group children interact with
• Learning the basics, essential skills and knowledge
• Learning social norms and values
• Negative and positive sanctions
• Deliberate instruction
• Role models and imitation
• Manipulation and canalisation

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Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the family acts as an agent
of primary socialisation e.g. teaches children how to behave. Responses may be short and
un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in
the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a
tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using
sociological language.
Band 2 (4–6)
of how the family acts as an agent of primary socialisation. Sociological terms and concepts
should be expected e.g. the family use positive and negative sanctions to teach children right
from wrong and to ensure conformity. This would be followed by an explanation of factors
leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack
detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way
or cover several factors in less detail.
(d) Explain why some marriages end in divorce. [8]
Candidates should show awareness of the various social and legal factors which may lead a
marriage to end in divorce.
Possible answers:
• Divorce rates have increased as it has become easier and cheaper to get divorced in
many societies
• Changing attitudes to divorce has made it more acceptable with less of a social stigma
• In a secular society divorce is no longer seen as a sin
• People expect more from marriage today and so are less likely to settle for an ‘empty
shell’ marriage
• Changing role of women in society means women have more independence are less
dependent on men financially and socially
• Privatisation of the family means there is less pressure from wider family to stay together
• Having fewer or no children makes divorce an easier prospect
• Longer life expectancy means people expect more from their marriage
• Women are unwilling to accept patriarchal marriages/abuse etc. – Feminism

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Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why some marriages end in
divorce. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped e.g.
‘cheap and easy’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to
be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3
marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why some
marriages end in divorce and reasons for this. Responses may be underdeveloped and
lacking in range e.g. marriages end in divorce because it is not seen as a bad thing anymore.
Divorce is easier for women because now they have jobs and their own money. At the
bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why some
marriages end in divorce and will be well developed and explained e.g. in a secular society
there is no longer any social stigma attached to divorce meaning it is easier and more
acceptable to do. Legally, divorce has never been cheaper or easier to achieve and can even
be done in a DIY fashion these days. Due to increased life expectancy people are less willing
to settle for an ‘empty shell’ marriage and have higher expectations, often fuelled by the
media. They can then expand on the explanation of these and other factors as necessary.

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(e) To what extent is family life today child-centred? [15]
Candidates should show awareness of the complexity and diversity of family life and the role
of children within families.
Possible answers:
For
• Increased rights for children in society
• A more affluent society means there is more money to spend on children i.e. toys, days
out, education etc.
• Increased parental supervision due to high levels of fear for children’s safety
• Involvement in childcare by both mothers and fathers today – more symmetrical families
• Children today now have a greater say in the decision making process
• Rise of one child families (one child policy in China) meaning lots of time can be spent
on that child
• Extending the period of childhood e.g. via increasing time spent in education
Against
• ‘Cared for children’ – children not living in a family
• Examples of non-socialised children
• The dark side of the family – child abuse, neglect etc.
• Dual worker families mean children spend less time with their parents
• Increasing number of people choosing to remain childless
• Increasing rates of divorce and separation and increasing numbers of lone parents
• Social class differences i.e. middle class children tend to be better off
• Ethnic differences i.e. children in Asian communities are more likely to be part of
extended families
• Gender differences i.e. belief in some societies that female children are not as valued as
male children

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Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether family life today is child-centred. Use of sociological terms or concepts
is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided e.g. more money is
spent on children today. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points.
Higher in the band (3–4 marks), candidates may offer more than two points or provide a
weak definition of key terms, e.g. child-centred is where the child is the most important thing
in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether family life today is child-
centred. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no
real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of
sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers
may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. children today have more of a
voice in family life and are given responsibilities in the home i.e. housework. Lower in the
Band 3 (9–12)
family life today is child centred. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater
accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on
the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g.
Children are seen to be vulnerable and in need of protection and so are heavily supervised
by their parents, particularly in the light of media moral panics. However, child abuse also
occurs in some families. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At
the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points.
At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether family life
today is child centred. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and
frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly
focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided
and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific
what extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show
consideration of points for and against the debate, citing some of the examples given.

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2 In schools there is both an official curriculum and a hidden curriculum. Sociologists

believe that these are both important in determining life chances for individuals.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘hidden curriculum’? [2]
Attitudes and behaviour which are taught through the school’s organisation and teachers’
attitudes but which are not part of the formal time-table and not planned.
One mark for partial definition e.g. what you learn when you’re not in lessons.
Two marks for clear definition e.g. the learning of society’s norms and values, respect for
authority, punctuality and gender roles.
(b) Describe two functions of education. [4]
Candidates will describe two different functions of education.
Possible answers:
• To help individuals achieve qualifications and so go into appropriate careers
• Functionalists believe that education is crucial in order to have a smooth running society
• The economic role – schools teach the skills and knowledge needed in society
• The socialisation role – schools teach children the norms and values of society
• The selective role – education sorts out which people should be doing which role/job in
society so that the best people are doing the most important jobs
• The social control role – schools teach discipline, respect and punctuality to students
• Marxist view – to perpetuate capitalism through the unequal class structure and
hierarchy
• Feminist view – to perpetuate patriarchy through teaching of traditional gender roles
• To facilitate social mobility e.g. a working class student able to attend university and get
a well-paid job

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(c) Explain how state schools are different to private schools. [6]
Candidates should show an understanding of the difference between state and private
schools.
Possible answers:
• State schools are funded by the Government, private schools are paid for by parental
fees
• Class sizes tend to be smaller in private schools than state schools
• Exam results are typically better in private schools than state schools
• State schools are typically open to all (comprehensive), private schools often select
students based on academic ability and/or ability of parents to pay for an education
• State schools are regulated by the Government, private schools have more freedom in
terms of what they deliver, how they do so and the curriculum they follow
• An extensive range of extra-curricular activities are typically available at private schools
which students would be unlikely to be able to access in state schools i.e. rowing
• With more money coming in, private schools are likely to have better and more up to
date facilities than state schools
• Uniform is often much stricter and more traditional in private schools
• Some private schools may have their students boarding there (living there in term time) –
this does not usually happen in state schools
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how state schools are different to
private schools e.g. you have to pay to go to private schools. Responses may be short and
underdeveloped or undeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point.
Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there
may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without
using sociological language.
Band 2 (4–6)
how state schools are different to private schools. Sociological terms and concepts should be
expected e.g. teacher expectations, hierarchy, elitism etc. This would be followed by
explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered

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(d) Explain why setting and streaming are thought to affect a person’s life chances. [8]
Candidates should show understanding of the various reasons why setting and streaming
may affect life chances. They will probably consider educational achievement in doing so.
These affects may be either positive, negative or both. Candidates do not have to discuss
setting and streaming individually within their responses.
Possible answers:
• Allows the brightest students to be stretched and challenged to achieve the highest
grades and thus access the ‘top’ jobs
• Those in the lower sets (often the working class and ethnic minorities) typically do not
perform well which limits their life chances
• Teacher expectations and labels according to the set/stream of the student – self-
fulfilling prophecy will affect life chances either positively or negatively
• Middle class/ethnic majority students typically end up in the higher sets and thus have
better life chances
• High flyers are held back in mixed ability classes which may affect their life chances
• Further and higher education places are dependent on grades achieved at school and
thus if being in lower/higher sets or streams has affected this then life chances will be
similarly affected
• Behaviour is often worse in the lower sets and streams and this may hamper learning
and progress and so affect life chances
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why setting and streaming may
affect educational achievement. Candidates may not understand what is meant by setting
and/or streaming. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and
undeveloped e.g. splitting students up stated without explanation. Sociological terms and
concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point.
Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
setting and streaming may affect educational achievement and reasons for this. Responses
may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. Answers may concentrate on factors such as
matching teaching to ability and to jobs later on. At the bottom of the band, candidates are
Band 3 (7–8)
setting and streaming may affect educational achievement and will be well developed and
explained e.g. answers may show awareness of teacher expectations, labelling, self-fulfilling
prophecy, selection etc. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as
necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be

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(e) To what extent is education meritocratic? [15]
Candidates should show an awareness of the various factors that may make education
meritocratic.
Meritocracy – social and occupational positions in society are achieved through hard work
and merit i.e. educational qualifications, talent and skill.
Possible answers:
For
• Functionalist arguments that education allows individuals to reach the level they deserve
e.g. if you work hard you will succeed
• Equal opportunities legislation (gender, ethnicity, class, disability)
• National curriculum means all students follow the same curriculum and have the same
opportunities to do well
• Compensatory education to make up for any social inequalities
• Extra resources in deprived areas
• Some pupils from deprived areas achieve really well in education
• Possibilities for social mobility mean students can move up or down the social hierarchy
• Comprehensive schools are for students of all abilities and social backgrounds
Against
• Marxist arguments that schools merely reproduce ascribed inequalities
• Discussion of elements of the hidden curriculum that may reinforce inequalities e.g.
gender roles and stereotypes
• Other factors such as parental and teacher expectations affect how well a student does
in education
• Quality of the school and the teaching affects educational performance of students
• The higher your social class position, the better a student does in education
• Some ethnic minority groups do not do well in education
• Gender differences in educational achievement and opportunities
• Private schools offer social privileges and a better education to students via an elite
education
• Top universities are still dominated by students from the top private schools

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Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether education is meritocratic. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very
unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. you don’t have the
same chances if you are born poor. The term ‘meritocracy’ may not be understood. Lower in
the band (1–2 marks) expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks),
candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g.
education is equal for everyone in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether education is
meritocratic. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will
be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some
use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range.
Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely – answers may list factors
of equality or inequality e.g. everyone studies the same subjects at school, the results a
person gets depend on how hard they work at school etc. Lower in the band, the response
will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the
band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points.
Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument
may score up to 8 marks.
Band 3 (9–12)
education is meritocratic. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy
and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question
and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may outline that e.g. equal
opportunities legislation means that everyone has the same chances to be successful in
education, therefore how well a student does is down to their efforts and hard work. However
some social groups such as the higher classes still do better than others. There will be a two-
sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may
provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider
range of points and clear focus on the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether education
is meritocratic. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent
use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on
the question and discuss a wide range of points. Candidates may outline factors of
underachievement and other factors which can compensate for social inequality e.g. teacher
expectations, nature of the school, private versus state schools, setting, Functionalism,
Marxism etc. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13
marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear
attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question through a
focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the
debate, citing some of the examples given.

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3 New technologies are creating opportunities for new types of crime to be committed: for
example, cybercrime. Sociologists debate whether formal or informal agencies of social
control are more effective at controlling crime.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘cybercrime’? [2]
Crime committed using a computer and the internet or network to steal a person's identity,
sell fake goods, stalk victims, steal state secrets or spread computer viruses.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. crime using a computer/new technologies.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. any crime committed using a computer or new
technologies such as the internet or hacking.
(b) Describe two agencies of social control. [4]
Candidates will describe two agencies of social control, these could be formal, informal or a
mixture of both.
Possible answers:
• Police
• Prisons
• Armed forces
• The judiciary/courts
• The Government
• Family
• Media
• Education/schools
• Peer group
• Workplace
• Religion
(c) Explain how crime is different to deviance. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of how crime and deviance are different.
Possible answers:
• Crime is an act that breaks the law
• Deviance is the breaking of social norms and values
• Not all crimes are deviant and not all acts of deviance are criminal
• Crime is seen to be more serious than deviance
• Criminal acts tend to have more severe sanctions associated with them than acts of
deviance

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Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how crime is different to deviance
e.g. crime breaks the law. Responses may be short and undeveloped or underdeveloped. At
the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks),
candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards
simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language.
Band 2 (4–6)
how crime is different to deviance. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected, e.g.
candidates may refer to: acts of crime and deviance with examples and refer to concepts
such as conformity, sanctions, norms and values. This would be followed by explanation of
(d) Explain why new technologies are leading to new crimes being committed. [8]
Candidates need to identify relevant new technologies such as the internet and consider how
they are leading to new crimes being committed.
Possible answers:
• No face to face interaction so greater possibilities for deception and less guilt involved
• Technology is global so therefore the range of possible victims is vast
• Money laundering and fraud is made easier by new technologies that allow accounts
and identities to be hacked into
• New technologies allow protective measures to be broken down (censorship or security
measures) so certain crimes can flourish i.e. in relation to trafficking, pornography etc.
• New technologies make new types of crimes possible i.e. spyware, hacking, spamming,
identity theft, illegal downloading of music/films etc.
• Mobile phones, texts, e-mails, instant messaging etc. allow for ease of communication
meaning that criminal activity is easier to maintain and organise i.e. from inside prison
• As technology changes so do the definitions of what is seen to be a crime e.g.
cybercrime, use of social media
• The invisibility of much internet based crime means victims are unaware that they are
victims of crime

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Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why new technologies are leading
to new crimes being committed. Candidates may not understand what is meant by new
technologies. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped
e.g. the internet causes lots of crimes, stated without explanation. Sociological terms and
concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why new
technologies are leading to new crimes being committed and reasons for this. Responses
may be underdeveloped and lacking in range e.g. the internet and associated digital
technologies makes communication quicker, cheaper and easier and so crime goes on. At
the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why new
technologies are leading to new crimes being committed and will be well developed and
explained e.g. candidates may discuss statistical evidence or examples of the rise in new
internet/cybercrimes occurring. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other
factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall.
Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented.
At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.

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(e) To what extent are formal agencies of social control more effective than informal
agencies at controlling crime? [15]
Candidates need to show an understanding of how formal and informal agencies control
crime and which are more effective. These are likely to be different in different cultures and
so examiners should be sensitive to this when marking. For example, tribal/family ties may
be more important than government in some societies.
Possible answers:
For
• Formal agencies are perceived to be more serious and severe than informal ones
• Sanctions given out by formal agencies can be very severe – imprisonment, removal of
freedom and even the death penalty in some societies
• Formal agencies are backed up by the law
• The police have the power of arrest
• Prisons can take away freedom and restrict movement
• Courts and the judiciary have the power to sentence people and decide if they are
innocent or guilty
• The armed forces have the power to use physical force and weaponry
• Governments make the law and decide what is legal and illegal
Against
• Informal agencies are around a person far more frequently than formal ones and so
have more day-to-day influence
• Family is a primary agent of socialisation and so is the first institution a person comes
into contact with
• Media is increasingly prevalent in society and has a lot of control over individuals
through the use of role models, imitation and stereotyping
• Education can control individuals through the hidden curriculum
• Workplace controls people through negative sanctions such as the fear of losing a job
and positive sanctions such as a promotion
• The peer group controls people through peer group pressure and conformity
• Religion controls people through dress codes, beliefs and rules

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Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether formal agencies are more effective than informal ones. Use of
one-sided, e.g. you don’t want to go to prison so you don’t commit crime. Lower in the band
(1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks), candidates
may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. formal
agencies are police and prisons in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether formal agencies are
more effective than informal agencies at controlling crime. Alternatively, they may offer an
answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised
by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-
sided responses are unlikely e.g. candidates may discuss some agencies of social control
but not be very clear which are formal and which are informal and the differences between
them. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there
will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be
limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development
Band 3 (9–12)
formal agencies are more effective than informal agents at controlling crime. Sociological
terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part,
answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points
presented. Candidates may agree that formal agencies are more effective at controlling
crime, perhaps because they have more severe sanctions but also state how informal
agencies can control crime i.e. through the hidden curriculum in education. There will be a
two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether formal
agencies are more effective than informal ones at controlling crime. There will be a strong
grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and
wide range of points. For example, as well as discussing both formal and informal agencies
candidates will also focus on the specific processes used by these agencies and how
effective these are at controlling crime. Awareness may well be shown that effectiveness is
not universal and different social groups may react differently. Responses will be two-sided
consideration of points for and against the debate, citing some of the examples given.

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Section D: Media
4 The media are all around us in many forms, one of which is the news. Certain news values
are thought to exist that may determine whether a story is featured in the media or not.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘newsworthy’? [2]
Those items selected by editors and journalists as being important and popular with the
audience and thus which should be broadcast or published.
One mark for partial definition e.g. things in the media that will sell
Two marks for clear definition e.g. the factors in a news story that make it popular with an
audience and so are included in news stories and reports.
(b) Describe two examples of news values in the media. [4]
Candidates will describe two examples of news values.
Possible answers:
• Extraordinariness
• Events considered as important
• Human emotion and interest
• Dramatic events and conflict
• Unexpectedness
• Shock tactics
• Recency and immediacy
• Celebrity based
• Easily understood

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(c) Explain how the media represent the lifestyle of young people. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of how the media represent young

people’s lives.
Possible answers:
• Stereotyping young people as a problem – trouble makers, violent etc.
• Exaggerating occasionally deviant behaviour of young people and presenting it as the
norm
• Folk devils and moral panics – sensationalism
• Distortion – manipulating the representations of young people, usually in order to sell
• Repetition – the same type of representation seen over and over again until it becomes
seen as the norm
• Lack of responsibilities, freedom and party lifestyles – the TV show ‘Skins’ phenomenon
• Criminal and deviant behaviour i.e. under age sex, alcohol, drug taking etc.
• Globalisation presents a less traditional and more Western representation of young
people and their lifestyles
• Young people suffering from homelessness, unemployment, marginalisation etc.
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the media represent the
lifestyle of young people e.g. young people are shown doing bad things. Responses may be
short and underdeveloped or undeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one
weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point,
but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas
Band 2 (4–6)
how the media represent the lifestyle of young people. Sociological terms and concepts
should be expected. For example, a range of different representations will be discussed
including processes such as distortion, repetition and stereotyping. This would be followed by
explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered

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(d) Explain why censorship of the media may be necessary. [8]
Candidates need to show an awareness of why censorship of the media may be necessary
and may use contemporary examples in their discussion.
Possible answers:
• The increasing prevalence of the internet means explicit and undesirable content is
becoming more easily and widely available and so makes censorship necessary
• Children need to be protected from ‘adult’ material in the media e.g. pornography,
violence
• Lack of controls and regulation of certain aspects of the media means censorship is
needed
• Offensive material such as that which is racist, sexist or homophobic should not be seen
in the media
• The media can spread lies or insults about people which could ruin their reputation if
there was no censorship (law of libel, slander etc.)
• During times of war some military information needs to remain confidential in order to
protect the nation (DA Notice, Official Secrets Act)
• Self-censorship is not always effective
• Some information about the Government and its workings could damage society if it
were to become common knowledge
• In totalitarian regimes censorship is necessary in order to maintain power and control
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why censorship of the media is
necessary. Candidates may not understand what is meant by censorship. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped e.g. ‘violence and
pornography’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be
used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3
Band 2 (4–6)
censorship of the media is necessary and reasons for this. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lacking in range. Candidates may explain some of the reasons such as
to protect children, for national security etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are
Band 3 (7–8)
censorship of the media is necessary and will be well developed and explained e.g.
candidates may discuss different forms of the media, different genres and the difficulties of
censoring the new media. Specific acts of censorship may be mentioned such as The Official
Secrets Act and the DA-Notice. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other
factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall.
Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented.
At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.

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(e) To what extent is the Pluralist view of the media accurate? [15]
Candidates will need to accurately identify what is meant by the Pluralist view and how
accurate this is.
Pluralists believe that the audience have control of today’s media content in contrast to the
Marxists, who believe that who owns the media is vital in determining output.
Possible answers:
For
• Increased levels of audience interactivity means that the audience effectively decide
upon media content and outcomes
• Possibilities for user generated content through, for example, social media sites blogging
sites means that the audience determine media content today
• New media offers such a vast array of choice to a global audience that no single group
or class can impose its views onto others making the media more democratic
• The media today covers all kinds of interests and points of view
• New technologies means that ordinary people have the opportunities to create their own
media products and distribute them around the world
• Today’s media has to cater for all kinds of tastes and interests – if the audience doesn’t
like it then they will quite simply not consume it and choose something else instead
• Freedom of speech is allowed in most of the world’s media
• The media gives an unbiased account of news as TV news, for example, has to be
impartial in the UK
• Media effects theories such as uses and gratifications and active audience models
Against
• Marxists believe the content of the media reflects the views of the media owners and the
most powerful people in society
• Not all groups have the same levels of access and opportunity to get their views across
in the media – factors such as class, affluence, ethnicity and gender are all relevant here
• Ideas or groups who threaten the ‘status quo’ are typically ignored, criticised or ridiculed
in the media
• There may be more media products to choose from but is there actually any more
content or is it just more of the same?
• News values and definitions of newsworthiness means that only certain stories and
events receive media coverage
• The media aim to manipulate public opinion not merely reflect it i.e. spin doctors
• Media effects theories such as the hypodermic syringe and passive audience models

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Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether the Pluralist view of the media is accurate. The Pluralist view of the
media may not really be understood. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely.
Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided e.g. we can choose from lots of TV
channels now. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the
band (3–4 marks), candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of
key terms, e.g. everyone can make media today.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether the Pluralist view of the
media is accurate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there
will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be
limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and
lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. Candidates
may list ways that the audience can affect media content i.e. upload content, vote for who
they like in a talent show etc. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the
points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be
covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer
with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.
Band 3 (9–12)
the Pluralist view of the media is accurate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with
greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed,
focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may
discuss the reasons why the Pluralist view may be correct particularly with developments in
new technologies but also consider some reasons why it is not accurate. There will be a two-
sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may
Band 4 (13–15)
Pluralist view of the media is accurate. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well
as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well
developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Candidates
may refer to differential usage due to age, access and affluence but point to the overall trend
that the audience are able to be more involved and more influential in the content of the
media than ever before. Concepts such as interactivity, citizen journalism, convergence and
user generated content may all be discussed alongside the view that ownership of the media
is still a major factor in determining content. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At
the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points
for and against the debate, citing some of the examples given.

PAGE 72

SOCIOLOGY 2251/23
* 2 6 4 2 3 8 7 1 0 1 *

DC (SLM) 116095
PAGE 73
Section A: Family
1 Not everyone agrees that family life is a positive experience. Some sociologists, such as feminists,
believe that there are negative aspects to family life and they talk about the ‘dark side’ of the family.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘dark side of the family’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways in which family life may be negative. [4]
(c) Explain how divorce may affect family life. [6]
(d) Explain why the nuclear family is thought by many sociologists to be in decline. [8]
(e) To what extent does family life benefit males more than females? [15]
2 Education is an important agency of socialisation and social control. Some sociologists believe
that what happens in schools determines educational achievement, whilst others believe that
home life has more influence.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘educational achievement’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways that education acts as an agency of socialisation. [4]
(c) Explain how schools can use sanctions to control pupils. [6]
(d) Explain why education is thought to be an important part of a meritocratic society. [8]
(e) To what extent are school factors more influential than home factors in determining educational
achievement? [15]
3 Definitions of crime and deviance vary between societies. However, in all societies law enforcement
agencies try to control the level of crime through strategies such as police targeting. These
strategies are not always effective.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘law enforcement agencies’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of how definitions of deviance may vary between societies. [4]
(c) Explain how the pressure to be seen as masculine may lead some males to commit crime.
[6]
(d) Explain why sociologists may question the accuracy of official crime statistics. [8]
(e) To what extent does a lack of opportunity to be successful in life explain why some social
groups commit crime? [15]
© UCLES 2015 2251/23/O/N/15
PAGE 74
Section D: Media
4 Distortion is often used by the media in their reporting of social groups and issues. Some
sociologists believe that the media have a huge influence over an individual’s thoughts, values
and behaviour. This means that how social groups are represented by the media may be very
important in the socialisation process.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘distortion’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of citizen journalism. [4]
(c) Explain how the media represent disabled people. [6]
(d) Explain why the media are used by political parties and politicians. [8]
(e) To what extent can the hypodermic-syringe model of media effects explain why some children
commit acts of violence? [15]
© UCLES 2015 2251/23/O/N/15

PAGE 75

MARK SCHEME for the October/November 2015 series
2251 SOCIOLOGY

PAGE 76

Section A: Family
1 Not everyone agrees that family life is a positive experience. Some sociologists, such as
feminists, believe that there are negative aspects to family life and talk about the ‘dark
side’ of the family.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘dark side of the family’? [2]
A situation in which family life damages its members.
One mark for partial definition e.g. bad things in the family.
Two marks for clear definition e.g. negative aspects of family life such as abuse or neglect.
(b) Describe two ways in which family life may be negative. [4]
Candidates will be expected to describe two negative aspects of family life.
Possible negative aspects:

• Domestic violence/abuse
• Child abuse
• Elder abuse
• Critical perspectives of the family i.e. privatised families can lead to increasing emotional
stresses as members are isolated from wider kin
• Feminist criticisms of the family i.e. gender inequalities in domestic labour and emotional
work
• Family as a primary agent of gender socialisation which leads to gender inequalities in
social lives and paid work
One mark for each negative aspect identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each description (up to a maximum of two).
(c) Explain how divorce may affect family life. [6]
Candidates need to show an understanding of the relationship between divorce and family
life. Answers may focus on the adult partners, the children or the wider kin/community.
Possible answers:
• Negative effects on children of divorced parents i.e. emotional stress/conflicts of deciding
who to live with
• Adults and children having to negotiate new partners, siblings and reconstituted
relationships
• Children from divorced homes more likely to truant from school, commit crime and turn
to alcohol and drugs
• For adults stresses involving the dividing up of property/possessions/custody of children
• Financial difficulties due to the loss of income
• Social stigma in some cultures

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(0)
(1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the consequences of divorce for
family life and may talk about e.g. kids can’t live with their mum and dad anymore.
Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the top of the band, there may be a
sociological language. Alternatively, candidates may offer a wider range of weak points.
(4–6)
of the relationship divorce and family life. Sociological terms should be expected in this band
e.g. Adults may suffer from social stigma because divorce is seen as something shameful in
society OR divorce has a lot of negative consequences for children as they have to adapt to
new family situations, step parents and possible conflict between their parents. This would be
followed by development and explanation of such ideas. At the top of the band candidates
will use sociological terms and concepts, referring to a range of factors.
(d) Explain why the nuclear family is thought by many sociologists to be in decline. [8]
Candidates should show awareness of the various social factors which may lead to fewer
nuclear families in society. Consideration may also be given to different cultures.
Possible answers:
• Statistically the number of nuclear families is falling
• Increased rates of cohabitation
• Increasing divorce rates
• Less people getting married
• Fewer people having children with many now choosing to stay childless
• The rise in singletons
• Secularisation leading to many seeing marriage as a choice not a necessity today
• Changing role and greater independence of women
• Diversity of family types now accepted within society i.e same sex families
• Ageing populations leading to increased number of beanpole/modified extended families
(0)
(1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why the nuclear family may be in
decline. Candidates may not understand what is meant by a nuclear family. Responses may
be short and undeveloped e.g. ‘less people get married’ without justification. Sociological
terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the top of the band, candidates may offer

PAGE 78

(4–6)
nuclear family may be in decline. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use
sociological terms and concepts accurately. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking
in range e.g. more family types are acceptable today meaning there is less pressure to be in
a nuclear family, etc. At the top of the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological
terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only
be partially developed.
(7–8)
nuclear family may be in decline and will be well developed and explained. Sociological
terms and concepts will be used accurately. Answers will be well focused on the question
and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be
clear throughout e.g. In the Postmodern world people have greater freedom and choice and
so greater diversity is seen in family life. With an ageing population the traditional nuclear
family no longer meets the needs of many people meaning that arrangements such as
beanpole families are becoming more frequent. This can provide care for elderly relatives
and also enables grand-parents to help out with childcare. They can then expand on the
explanation of this and other factors.
(e) To what extent does family life benefit males more than females? [15]
Candidates should show awareness of the complexity and diversity of male and female roles
in the family and of the variety of family types available.
Possible answers:
For
• Segregated conjugal roles
• Women still responsible for most childcare and other caring responsibilities
• Women still responsible for housework
• Most women spend more time at home
• Women more likely to work part-time
• Women more likely to be out of the workforce during child-rearing years
• Domestic violence and abuse
• Men still more likely to be in charge of finance and decision making
Against
• Joint conjugal roles/symmetrical families
• Decision making more equal
• Power and status more equal
• Time at home – fathers more involved in childcare
• Increase in different family types means that patriarchy may no longer be relevant i.e.
lone parents/same sex families
• Increase of domestic violence with male victims
(0)

PAGE 79

(1–4)
knowledge of whether family life today is patriarchal. Use of sociological terms or concepts is
very unlikely. Patriarchy may not be fully understood. Responses may be short, undeveloped
and one-sided e.g. Men and women are more equal now as they both go out to work.
(5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether family life today is
patriarchal. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be
no real attempt to address the issues raised by the question. There may be limited use of
sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers
may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. At the top of the band, candidates
may address aspects of equality or inequality in the family. e.g. More women are in paid work
and men are more involved in housework and childcare. Some men still make the big
decisions, etc.
(9–12)
family life today is patriarchal. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater
the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g.
despite more equality women still do most of the housework and childcare. They may also
look at how family life isn’t so patriarchal i.e. more joint decision making is the norm in family
life today. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of
the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of points. At the top of the band, expect
a wider range of points and clear focus on the question.
(13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether family life
today is patriarchal. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and
and balanced. At the bottom of the band, some attempt at a conclusion will be made. At the
top of the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what
extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.
Candidates should show consideration of points for and against whether family life today is
patriarchal, citing some of the examples given.

PAGE 80

2 Education is an important agency of socialisation and social control. Some sociologists

believe that what happens in schools determines educational achievement, whilst others
believe that home life has more influence.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘educational achievement’? [2]
The methods used during the socialisation process to make sure individuals conform to the
expected and acceptable norms and values in society.
One mark for partial definition e.g. people are made to do things.
Two marks for clear definition e.g. a way of making people conform to accepted norms and
values.
(b) Describe two ways that education acts as an agency of socialisation. [4]
Candidates will describe two ways education acts as an agency of socialisation.
Possible answers:
• Teaches norms and values
• Prepares pupils for the workplace
• Hidden curriculum
• Teaches independence and responsibilities/PSHE/Citizenship
• Gender roles/subject choice
• Consensus theorists/Functionalists believe schools teach shared values from one
generation to the next
• Teaches pupils to develop relationships with one another and helps with communication
skills
One mark for each way identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each description of a way (up to a maximum of two).
(c) Explain how schools can use sanctions to control pupils. [6]
Candidates should show an understanding of the various rewards and sanctions used in
schools to control pupils.
Possible answers:
• Children in top sets/streams may have different choices to children in lower sets/streams
• Children in lower sets/streams may develop low self-image and develop anti-school
culture
• Teachers may view children in different sets/streams differently leading to self-fulfilling
prophecy
• Working class groups tend to be in lower sets. This may determine the level of
qualification and therefore what they can do on leaving school

PAGE 81

(0)
(1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how rewards and sanctions can
be used to control pupils. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the top of the
band, there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas
without using sociological language. Alternatively, candidates may offer a wider range of
weak points. e.g. Detentions stop pupils behaving badly.
(4–6)
how rewards and sanctions can be used to control pupils. Sociological terms should be
expected and in this band how the reward/sanction controls pupils should be discussed i.e.
deterrent/prevention/changes or encourages certain behaviour, etc. Candidates may discuss
e.g. Rewards such as positive letters home can be used in schools to encourage pupils to
behave in a particular way and to conform to school rules. At the top of the band candidates
will use sociological terms and concepts, referring to a range of factors and must discuss
both rewards and sanctions.
(d) Explain why education is thought to be an important part of a meritocratic

society. [8]
Candidates should show understanding of what is meant by the term meritocratic and how
education is a part of this kind of society.
Meritocracy: a society where a person’s ability determines how well they do in life.
Possible reasons:
• Equal opportunities-class, gender, ethnicity, disability, etc.
• Social mobility
• Achievement not linked to status/wealth but to effort and ability
• Different forms of education and schools i.e. vocationalism/faith schools offers
something for everyone
• Education is free
• Gender factors
• Policies to create equality of educational opportunity for all i.e. Sure Start/Educational
Action Zones, etc. in deprived areas
(0)
(1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why education is thought to be an
important part of a meritocratic society. Candidates may not understand what is meant by
meritocratic. Responses may be short and undeveloped. e.g. lets you get good jobs without
justification. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the top of the band,
candidates may offer more than one weak point.

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(4–6)
education is thought to be an important part of a meritocratic society. At the bottom of the
band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Responses
may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. Answers may concentrate on factors such as
equality, choice, effort/talent. At the top of the band, candidates may be beginning to use
sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the
answer may only be partially developed.
(7–8)
education is thought to be an important part of a meritocratic society and will be well
developed and explained. Answers may show awareness of the increase in the number of
individuals going into higher education, equal opportunities and social mobility. Sociological
terms and concepts will be used accurately. Answers will be well focused on the question
and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be
clear throughout.
(e) To what extent are school factors more influential than home factors in determining
educational achievement? [15]
Candidates should show an awareness of the various home and school factors which may
determine educational achievement, either positively or negatively.
Possible answers:
For
• Poor schools/teaching/resources/facilities in poor areas
• Teacher labelling and the self-fulfilling prophecy
• Setting and streaming
• Subject choice i.e. by gender
• Ethnocentric curriculum
• Private ‘vs’ free education and differences in exam results
• Class sizes
• Anti-school subcultures
• Truancy
• Racism/sexism
• Middle class nature of schooling
• Lack of role models for ethnic minority/lower class pupils
• Compensatory education
Against
• Language barriers
• Elaborated and restricted codes
• Gang culture
• Parental attitudes, values and expectations
• Material deprivation (tutors, ICT, etc.)
• Cultural deprivation (museums, galleries, books, etc.)
• Greater social control of girls than boys giving them more time to study
• Conditions at home i.e. study space/damp/overcrowding, etc.

PAGE 83

(0)
(1–4)
knowledge of whether school factors are more influential than home factors in determining
educational achievement. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses
may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. Poor people don’t do very well at school.
(5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether school factors are more
influential than home factors in determining educational achievement. Alternatively, they may
offer an answer which is list-like in nature. Answers may list factors of inequality and
compare them with factors of privilege and may consider factors such as
gender/ethnicity/social class. There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. At
the top of the band expect some under-development of points rather than just
lists/description.
(9–12)
school factors are more influential than home factors in determining educational
achievement. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or
frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and
there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but this may be
unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of points.
Candidates may outline that e.g. teacher labelling and stereotypes means that children form
lower classes may be thought of as being less intelligent than pupils from the higher classes.
This mean they may be put into lower sets and not do well due to the self-fulfilling prophecy.
(13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether school
factors are more influential than home factors in determining educational achievement. There
will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological
terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and
discuss a wide range of points. Candidates may outline factors of underachievement and
other school factors which can compensate for social inequalities at home e.g. teacher
expectation; ethnocentric curriculum, setting and streaming, etc. as well as considering home
factors such as material/cultural deprivation and parental values. Responses will be two-
sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band, some attempt at a conclusion will be made.
At the top of the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what
extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

PAGE 84

3 Definitions of crime and deviance vary between societies. However, in all societies law
enforcement agencies try to control the level of crime through strategies such as police
targeting. These strategies are not always effective.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘law enforcement agencies’? [2]
When the police focus on a particular group of people, believing them to be more likely to be
involved in criminal behaviour than other groups.
One mark for partial definition e.g. police picking on a certain group of people.
Two marks for clear definition e.g. when the police focus on groups such as ethnic minorities
because they think they commit most crime.
(b) Describe two examples of how definitions of deviance may vary between societies. [4]
Candidates will describe two examples to show the relativity of deviance focusing on societal
factors. There are lots of potential answers to the question but the examples must be
different and must compare different societies to be credited.
Possible answers:
• Societal deviance – something that is deviant only in certain societies/cultures i.e.
consuming alcohol is often seen as deviant in many Islamic countries but seen as
normal in other societies
• Candidates will need to make a comparison in their examples in order to score the full 2
marks as otherwise the question is only being partially answered
• Candidates may compare deviance in societies today with societies in the past
• Candidates may refer to crimes and/or legislation
• Possible topic areas – role of women, homosexuality, marriage, clothing, religion, etc.
One mark for each example identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each description of the example identified (up to a maximum of two).
(c) Explain how the pressure to be seen as masculine may lead some males to commit
crime. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of how pressure on males to be seen as

masculine may lead some of them to commit crime.
Possible answers:
• Peer pressure
• Conformity
• Status frustration
• Negative sanctions
• Labelling
• Gang culture

PAGE 85

(0)
(1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the pressure for males to be
seen as masculine may lead some of them into crime. Responses may be short and
un/under developed. At the top of the band, there may be a tendency towards simplistic
answers e.g. need to be seen as tough and macho, engaging with sociological ideas without
using sociological language. Alternatively, candidates may offer a wider range of weak
points.
(4–6)
how the pressure for males to be seen as masculine may lead some of them into crime.
Sociological terms should be expected. Candidates may refer to concepts such as status
frustration, negative sanctions, peer pressure, labelling, conformity, etc. At the top of the
band candidates will use sociological terms and concepts, referring to a range of factors.
(d) Explain why sociologists may question the accuracy of official crime statistics. [8]
Candidates need to be clear on key patterns of crime and consider the problems and validity
with the patterns seen in the official crime statistics.
Possible answers:
• Patterns of crime that may be discussed are higher rates of offending for certain ethnic
minorities/males/younger people/the lower social classes
• The crime statistics are a social construction rather than a picture of reality
• Not all crimes are reported to the police i.e. through embarrassment/fear of
retribution/mistrust of the police, etc.
• Not all crimes are recorded by the police – considered as a domestic issue/too petty/not
solvable, etc.
• The dark/hidden figure of crime
• Gender bias – chivalry thesis/leniency towards female offenders
• Racism/ethnocentrism
• Police targeting/labelling/stereotyping
• Alternative methods of measuring crime such as Victim Surveys and Self Report Studies
show a different picture of crime and many believe these to be more valid
• Under-representation of white-collar crime
(0)
(1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why sociologists do not always
believe the patterns of crime scene in the official crime statistics. Candidates may not
understand what is meant by official crime statistics. Responses may be short and
undeveloped. e.g. Statistics don’t tell the truth. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely
to be used. At the top of the band, candidates may offer more than one weak point.

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(4–6)
sociologists do not always believe the patterns of crime scene in the official crime statistics.
Candidates may say that e.g. other ways of measuring crime show a different picture or not
all crimes are reported to the police. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use
sociological terms and concepts accurately. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking
in range. At the top of the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and
developed.
(7–8)
sociologists do not always believe the patterns of crime scene in the official crime statistics
and will be well developed and explained. Candidates may discuss under-reporting and
recording of certain crimes and reasons for this, police targeting and labelling of certain
social groups, victim surveys/self-report studies. Sociological terms and concepts will be
used accurately. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of
reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.
(e) To what extent does a lack of opportunity to be successful in life explain why some
social groups commit crime? [15]
Candidates need to show an understanding of relevant social groups and their lack of
opportunities i.e. social class/ethnicity/gender/age.
Possible answers:
For
• Poverty/material deprivation/unemployment
• Racism/sexism in education/the workplace
• Status frustration
• Cycle of crime
• Gang culture
• Illegitimate opportunity structure
Against
• Labelling, self-fulfilling prophecy and police targeting
• Media imitation and role models e.g. gangsta rappers
• Poor socialisation
• Underachievement in school
• Folk devils, moral panics
• Not all crimes are instrumental – lack of opportunity doesn’t explain expressive
crimes/crimes with no financial gain
• Boredom/excitement/thrill seeking behaviour
• Lack of social control
(0)

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(1–4)
knowledge of whether a lack of opportunity explains why some social groups commit crime.
undeveloped and one-sided e.g. people who are poor have to steal to get food.
(5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether a lack of opportunity
explains why some social groups commit crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer
which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to address the issues raised by the
question. There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Candidates may
discuss different social groups who suffer from a lack of opportunities in society but
responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-
sided responses are unlikely. At the top of the band expect some under-development of
points rather than just lists/description.
(9–12)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of whether a
lack of opportunity explains why some social groups commit crime. Sociological terms and
Candidates may show that some social groups commit crime due to a lack of opportunity i.e.
due to material deprivation and unemployment, but also show that there are other reasons
for crime too such as crimes of passion, children being poorly socialised, lack of social
control, etc. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of
the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of points. At the top of the band, expect
a wider range of points and clear focus on the question.
(13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether a lack of
opportunity explains why some social groups commit crime. There will be a strong grasp of
points. For example, as well as agreeing that lack of opportunity in various ways may explain
the criminal behaviour of some social groups, there are many other factors such as the
illegitimate opportunity structure, police targeting and gang culture which are also relevant to
it. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band, some attempt at a
conclusion will be made. At the top of the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an
assessment of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

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Section D: Media
4 Distortion is often used by the media in their reporting of social groups and issues. Some
sociologists believe that the media has a huge influence over an individual’s thoughts,
values and behaviour. This means that how social groups are represented by the media
may be very important in the socialisation process.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘distortion’? [2]
When information in the media passes through a filter and ideas/images are changed to give
the audience a particular point of view.
One mark for partial definition e.g. content/representations are changed in the media.
Two marks for clear definition e.g. Information and ideas in the media are presented in order
to give a certain view.
(b) Describe two examples of citizen journalism. [4]
Candidates will describe two examples of citizen journalism. This is where members of the
public report and spread news stories and information. Candidates may describe the
technology used for citizen journalism i.e. social media, or examples of when it’s been seen
in the media. Either approach is creditable.
Possible answers:
• Mobile phones – cameras, videos
• Social media sites
• Internet/digital media
• Amateur footage of events such as the Twin Towers terrorist attack
• Fly on the wall footage
• Blogs/comment boxes/forums
• Any other user generated content
One mark for each example of citizen journalism identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each description (up to a maximum of two).
(c) Explain how the media represent disabled people. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of how disabled people are represented

in the media.
Possible answers:
• Invisibility of disabled people i.e. rarely seen
• Repetition of particular images/ideas
• Distortion – a particular view of disabled people is seen i.e. as weak
• Stereotypically i.e. as dependent, lower status, etc.
• More positively i.e. disabled role models/actors/TV characters, etc.

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(0)
(1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the media represent disabled
people. Responses may be short and un/under developed. For example, they may speak
about disabled people being in a wheelchair. At the top of the band, there may be a tendency
language. Alternatively, candidates may offer a wider range of weak points.
(4–6)
how the media represent disabled people. For example, negative and/or positive
representation may be discussed either in the traditional and/or the new media. Terms such
as distortion, stereotypes, etc. may be used. Sociological terms should be expected. At the
top of the band candidates will use sociological terms and concepts, referring to a range of
factors.
(d) Explain why the media is used by political parties and politicians. [8]
Candidates need to show an awareness of the different ways traditional and/or new media is
used by political parties and politicians and reasons for this.
Possible answers:
• Ability to reach a wide, global audience quickly and easily
• Audience interaction/active audience allows for discussion of ideas and feedback
• Lack of controls and regulation
• Social media and the internet means content can be shared and liked and commented
on instantly in a global context
• Media is thought by many to influence the audience (i.e. hypodermic-syringe theory)
• Variety of different forms of media means that all kinds of audience members can be
effectively communicated with
• Spin doctors enable politicians and policies to be represented in a particular way
• The media is thought to influence voting patterns e.g. media owners supporting a
particular political party/taking a particular political stance
• Using the media as a means of control e.g. propaganda/censorship
(0)
(1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the different ways traditional
and/or new media is used by political parties and politicians and reasons for this. Candidates
may not fully understand the question. Responses may be short and undeveloped.
Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. e.g. ‘influence voters’ without
justification. At the top of the band, candidates may offer more than one weak point.

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(4–6)
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of the
different ways traditional and/or new media is used by political parties and politicians and
reasons for this. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms
and concepts accurately. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range.
Candidates may explain some of the reasons politicians and political parties use the media
e.g. directly influences audience views, ability to reach a global audience instantly. At the top
of the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with
greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed.
(7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the
different ways traditional and/or new media is used by political parties and politicians and
reasons for this and will be well developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts
will be used accurately. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a
range of reasons presented. Candidates may consider both traditional and new media and
ideas about spin doctors, image manipulation, media effects theories and interactivity. At the
top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.
(e) To what extent can the hypodermic-syringe model of media effects explain why some
children commit acts of violence? [15]
Candidates will need to accurately discuss the hypodermic-syringe model (also sometimes
referred to as the magic bullet theory) and link it to why some children commit violent acts.
Specific examples i.e. the Jamie Bulger case, imitation of computer games such as Grand
Theft Auto, High School killings, etc. may be discussed.
Possible answers:
For
• Evidence suggests that the media does influence the audience
• Hypodermic syringe model talks about direct effects
• Children are more vulnerable and believing than other consumers therefore more likely
to be effected
• If media content didn’t effect children then there wouldn’t be censorship legislation
• Passive nature of the audience
• Moral panics and folk devils and deviancy amplification
• Copycatting and imitation/media role models/desensitisation
Against
• Audiences are not passive they are active consumers who select what they are exposed
to and what they retain
• Studies, such as the British Broadcasting Standards Commission 2003 report for
example, show that children are able to recognise the difference between fiction and
reality in the media
• Not all children have access to the media yet some will still commit violent acts
• Much new media content cannot be effectively censored but still most children do not
commit acts of violence
• Catharsis/Sensitisation
• Alternative media effects theories such as cultural effects/two-step flow/uses and
gratifications

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• Other agencies of socialisation e.g. the family/the peer group, may have more of an
effect on children than the media
• Social factors such as class, gender and ethnicity may also be contributing factors in
determining whether children are influenced to commit acts of violence by the media i.e.
not just the media
(0)
(1–4)
knowledge of whether the hypodermic-syringe model of media effects explains why some
children commit acts of violence. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely.
Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided e.g. children watch too much violence
in the media.
(5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether the hypodermic-syringe
model of media effects explains why some children commit acts of violence. Alternatively,
they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature. There may be limited use of sociological
terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Candidates may list
examples of children being affected by the media or examples of violence. Answers may be
simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. At the top of the band expect some under-
development of points rather than just lists/description.
(9–12)
the hypodermic-syringe model of media effects explains why some children commit acts of
violence. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or
frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and
there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may discuss ideas about children being
particularly vulnerable, passivity, imitation and role modelling. In evaluation, other media
effects models may be considered. There will be a two-sided response but this may be
unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of points.
(13–15)
hypodermic-syringe model of media effects explains why some children commit acts of
violence. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use
of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the
question and discuss a wide range of points. Candidates may refer to differential usage and
effects amongst children, the influence of other agencies of socialisation, lack of evidence,
selectivity, censorship, etc., perhaps emphasising that ‘children’ as a social group cannot be
generalised about and neither can the media. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At
the bottom of the band, some attempt at a conclusion will be made. At the top of the band,
there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the
question through a focused conclusion.

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
* 1 5 0 2 5 1 0 0 5 3 *

DC (CW) 122310
PAGE 93
Sociology
Section A: Family
1 In modern industrial societies there are many views on the role of the family. Some sociologists
see it as performing essential functions for both individuals and society. Others, however, point to
the negative aspects of family life such as domestic violence.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘domestic violence’? [2]
(b) Describe two functions that the family may no longer perform in modern industrial societies.
[4]
(c) Explain how the family can be said to be patriarchal in modern industrial societies. [6]
(d) Explain why some sociologists believe that the family is essential for society and the individual.
[8]
(e) To what extent can living in a single-parent family affect family life? [15]
2 Education and schools are thought to be important agencies of socialisation. Not everybody
agrees, however, that education is a good thing and some social groups seem to do much better
than others. Some sociologists believe that schools have a big influence on the educational
performance of students.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘socialisation’? [2]
(b) Describe two aspects of the hidden curriculum, apart from socialisation. [4]
(c) Explain how sanctions can be used by schools to make students conform. [6]
(d) Explain why school factors may be the biggest influence on a child’s educational performance.
[8]
(e) To what extent are the functions of education positive? [15]
© UCLES 2016 2251/22/M/J/16

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3 How we define crime and deviance varies across time, society and culture. It is often associated
with youth sub-cultures. What is agreed, however, is the existence of agencies of social control,
both formal and informal.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘agencies of social control’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of crimes that vary across time. [4]
(c) Explain how informal social control is different to formal social control. [6]
(d) Explain why criminal youth sub-cultures exist in modern industrial societies. [8]
(e) To what extent do the media influence ideas about crime? [15]
Section D: Media
4 The contemporary media is all around us, leading to increased opportunities for imitation by the
audience. Media representations, however, are still thought by many to be very stereotypical. This
is one of the reasons why many sociologists are critical of media content.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘imitation’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of how older people are represented in the media. [4]
(c) Explain how folk devils are created in the media. [6]
(d) Explain why Marxist sociologists believe that the media play a negative role in society. [8]
(e) To what extent does violence on television lead to increased levels of violence in society?
[15]
© UCLES 2016 2251/22/M/J/16

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
This mark scheme is published as an aid to teachers and candidates, to indicate the requirements of the
examination. It shows the basis on which Examiners were instructed to award marks. It does not indicate the
details of the discussions that took place at an Examiners’ meeting before marking began, which would have
considered the acceptability of alternative answers.
Mark schemes should be read in conjunction with the question paper and the Principal Examiner Report for
Teachers.
Cambridge is publishing the mark schemes for the May/June 2016 series for most Cambridge IGCSE ®,
Cambridge International A and AS Level components and some Cambridge O Level components.
This document consists of 25 printed pages.

PAGE 96

Section A: Family
1 In modern industrial societies there are many views on the role of the family. Some
sociologists see it as performing essential functions for both individuals and society.
Others, however, point to the negative aspects of family life such as domestic violence.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘domestic violence’? [2]
Violence, abuse (psychological, emotional, physical or sexual) or threatening behaviour by

men or women against their partners or other family members.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. man hitting his wife.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. threatening behaviour committed by a family member
against another family member.
(b) Describe two functions that the family may no longer perform in modern industrial
societies. [4]
Candidates will be expected to describe two functions that the family in modern industrial
societies may no longer perform.
Possible changing functions:

• Reproduction – Increasing numbers of children are now being born outside of marriage
meaning reproduction is no longer necessarily a function of the family
• Modern families are less dependent on relatives for help with family life with the
availability of welfare benefits
• The state is starting to share/take over care of the old/young/sick
• Socialisation-The family do still socialise children, but the increase in pre-school
education, children’s centres and specialist media for young children, means that
primary socialisation is no longer just family based
• The growth in singlehood and adults choosing not to have children means that traditional
functions of family that relate to children may no longer be relevant
• Education is no longer the sole responsibility of the family, with formal education
becoming an ever important part of society
• Social control – this has been undertaken by agencies other than the family,
education/peers/formal agencies etc.

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(c) Explain how the family can be said to be patriarchal in modern industrial
societies. [6]
Candidates need to show an understanding of what is meant by the term ‘patriarchal’ (males
having more power in the family than females) and be able to apply this to the institution of
the family.
Possible answers:
• Feminists such as Ann Oakley show that conjugal roles in the family are unequal with
women still feeling that housework and childcare were their responsibility
• Increased need for both partners to work in order to be able to financially support the
family means that a lot of women suffer from the ‘dual burden’ – as well as being in
employment, they are also responsible for domestic work
• The triple shift – women often have to do paid work, childcare and housework plus
emotion work for their husband/partner
• Feminists acknowledge that men today are more involved with family life than they were
in the past but that they merely ‘help’ their partners, they do not take responsibility for
these domestic tasks and roles
• Edgell studied decision making in families and found that those decisions deemed to be
most important were still typically made by men
• Men still tend to earn more money than women and so have often controlled the family’s
finances – typically gives them more power
• Dark side of the family – domestic violence and abuse is more likely to be committed by
men against women
• Honour based violence/forced marriages – in some communities these practices are still
found and typically negatively affect women
• Religion enforces patriarchal ideologies in some societies
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the concept of patriarchy in the
family and may talk about e.g. ‘families being unfair’. Responses may be short and un/under
developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band
(2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency
language.
Band 2 (4–6)
of the relationship between patriarchy and family life. Sociological terms and concepts should
be expected e.g. ‘Despite women now typically being employed in the workplace, domestic
duties and responsibilities still tend to fall to them resulting in a dual burden.’ This would be
followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of

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(d) Explain why some sociologists believe that the family is essential for society and
the individual. [8]
Candidates should show awareness of the various reasons some sociologists would give to
explain why the family is such a vital institution for both society and the individual.
Candidates are likely to use a wide range of different points that reflect their different cultural
experiences and these should be credited.
Possible answers:
• Functionalists believe that for society to run smoothly and effectively, certain functions
are essential and the family is central to this
• Reproduction – new generations are crucial for society to survive and family life
encourages this reproduction
• Socialisation – primary socialisation in the family teaches children society’s core norms
and values. The family can then reproduce and transmit these to other members
• Social Control – families use sanctions and rewards to teach their children right and
wrong which then carries through into society
• Regulation of sexual behaviour – families support and reinforce the idea that children are
born to people in a socially approved sexual relationship
• Care of children – it is the family’s responsibility to emotionally and financially support
children and to care for their needs
• Marxist functions i.e. reinforcing ruling class power
• Warm bath theory – family ensures workers are sufficiently cared for and nurtured to
work hard and effectively in the workplace
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why some sociologists believe
that the family is essential for society and the individual. A tendency to description is likely.
Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘families can love one another’ stated
without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom
of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates
may offer more than one weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
sociologists believe that the family is essential for society and the individual. Responses may
be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘Families have a responsibility to look after
children and no one else can do it as well.’ ‘Families are the best places to socialise and
control children’ etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological
terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use
answer may only be partially developed/explained.

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Band 3 (7–8)
sociologists believe that the family is essential for society and the individual and will be well
developed and explained. e.g. ‘The family is crucial for society because it ensures its smooth
running through the teaching and transmission of key norms and values. No other institution
performs this function as well as the family does through a range of rewards and sanctions
and processes such as imitation and positive role modelling’. They can then expand on the
explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be
used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a
(e) To what extent can living in a single-parent family affect family life? [15]
Candidates should show awareness of a range of different arguments that illustrate how
living in a single parent family can affect family life. These may be positive or negative factors
or a combination of both. They should also consider points that refute this idea. Candidates
may, as an alternative route into the question, construct their debate around the positives vs
negatives of the single family. This type of answer should also be credited as a reasonable
debate is being made. There is likely to be a focus on how family types have changed over
time and the increasing presence of single parent families in society. The diversity of single
parent families is also likely to be recognised by some candidates. There are no clear cut
arguments for and against the question and thus what is more important when marking here
is what the candidate does with the points made and how they formulate their arguments.
Possible answers:
For
• New Right thinkers believe that the lack of a father figure in single parent families leads
to inadequate socialisation/lack of discipline for children, particularly boys
• Functionalists believe that a family needs two adults to be most effective, one as
breadwinner and one in the nurturing role, therefore single parent families are seen to be
‘broken’ and likely to create problems for both children and society
• Single parent families are associated by New Right thinkers such as Charles Murray with
a child’s underachievement at school, criminal and anti-social behaviour
• The media and some political thinkers may demonise single parents, particularly young
single teenage mothers, as welfare scroungers who are only interested in benefits not
raising a child
• Single parent families are more likely to suffer from poverty and can thus be seen to be a
burden on the state
• Many Functionalist writers believe that single parent families have become an
underclass in society who reproduce without thought for the consequences, without a
moral framework and then inadequately socialise their children
• Single parent families are often the result of divorce and thus all the negatives that this
brings i.e. short term distress for children, financial insecurity etc.
• Children may be split between two homes, due to a relationship breakdown, and thus
lack a clear sense of security and belonging

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Against
• Are Functionalists correct to say that two parents are essential? Lots of single parents
have family and friendship networks that enable them to support their children both
financially and emotionally
• Being in a single parent family is likely to be far better for the child/children than living in
an unhappy home or an empty-shell relationship characterised by arguments and
sadness
• Many children brought up by single parents experience no issues or problems
whatsoever
• Children brought up by two parents do not always experience no problems and can also
be dysfunctional as adults despite having two parents
• Single parent families may be the result of escaping from domestic violence, threatening
behaviour or abuse. Being in a single parent family situation is clearly preferable
• Increasing support from the state via welfare benefits, child policies, education and key
professionals means that bringing up children as a single parent need not be
problematic and is increasingly seen as ‘normal’
• Reasons/effects may be nothing to do with family type and structure but to do with social
factors such as class and poverty instead
• Feminists believe that women have the right to choose how they wish to raise children
and if they decide to do so alone they should be praised and supported
• Many children in single parent families have regular contact with both parents and are
not affected by their family structure
• Being a single parent family is often a temporary stage in life as many lone parents go
on to re-marry or begin another relationship
• Other types of families may affect family life more than a single parent family i.e.
reconstituted etc.
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of the extent to which living in a single parent affects family life. Use of
one-sided. e.g. Single parents aren’t very good for children because there’s only one parent
to do all the work. OR Single parent families don’t have much money. Lower in the band (1–2
more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘affects family life’ may
mean either financially or emotionally, in the question.

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Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which living in a
single parent affects family life. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in
nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There
may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
unlikely e.g. Children brought up in single parent families are lacking a male role model
because they typically live with their mother. In a single parent family only one wage will be
coming into the household meaning that there might be financial problems to deal with etc.
Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be
little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited
Band 3 (9–12)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent
to which living in a single parent affects family life. Sociological terms and concepts will be
Candidates may say that e.g. despite some single parent families seemingly being
dysfunctional for their members, this is not true of them all and for lots of children brought up
by just one parent they have no problems at all. Or Single parent families may be the result
of choices made by women to raise children without a male presence. These women are
often middle class professionals and suffer no financial hardships or emotional neglect.
expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
living in a single parent affects family life. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as
developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses
will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a
of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates
should show consideration of points for and against the idea of whether living in a single
parent affects family life, citing some of the examples given.

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2 Education and schools are thought to be important agencies of socialisation. Not

everybody agrees, however, that education is a good thing and some social groups seem
to do much better than others. Some sociologists believe that schools have a big
influence on the educational performance of students.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘socialisation’? [2]
The learning of socially acceptable behavior that takes place in both the primary and the
secondary phase in order to teach essential norms and values.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. being taught to behave.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the learning of acceptable behaviour by agents such as
the peer group, family and the workplace.
(b) Describe two aspects of the hidden curriculum, apart from socialisation. [4]
Candidates will describe two different aspects of the hidden curriculum.
Possible answers:
• Functionalists believe that schools teach children to conform resulting in the smooth
running of society
• Marxists believe that schools teach children their place in the social hierarchy,
reinforcing inequalities and the acceptance of capitalism
• Social Control – children learn that if they do not follow the rules then there will be
consequences in the form of sanctions. If you do conform, however, then you will be
rewarded and praised
• Selection – students learn what kind of employment they are best suited to through the
process of competition, setting and streaming
• Lack of power – schools pass on to students a wide range of expectations, norms and
values which children are unlikely to question – that young people have a lack of power
when compared to those in positions of authority, for example
• Gender roles – differential subject choice, uniform, segregation and teacher expectations
all demonstrate to children that males and females have different parts to play in society
• Learning to accept boredom – schools train students in how to deal with boredom in
order to prepare them for this in their later working life
• Recognising the importance of punctuality which is essential in the workplace

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(c) Explain how sanctions can be used by schools to make students conform. [6]
Candidates should show an understanding of different types of sanctions used by schools.

These are likely to be negative but positive sanctions (praise etc.) should also be credited.
How these sanctions lead to student conformity (following the rules, doing what’s expected
etc) should also be discussed. Examples are likely to be seen.
Possible answers:
• Informal sanctions such as glares, warnings and body language let children know
whether their behaviour and actions are approved or disapproved of
• Formal sanctions such as exclusions and detentions teach children that there are
negative consequences to their actions
• Fear – students may conform in education because they are afraid of not following the
rules, particularly if corporal punishment is legal
• Rewards – children like to receive praise and therefore may do as they’re told by
teachers in order to receive stickers, positive contact with home, merit rewards etc.
• Wanting to fit in – by following the rules and conforming, children do not stand out from
the crowd and do not appear ‘different’. This may be another reason for conformity;
• Primary socialisation has already ‘trained’ children in the idea that they should do as they
are told (respect authority) therefore it is not surprising that this continues into education;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how sanctions can be used in
schools to make children conform. Responses may be short and un/under developed.
Candidates may only consider describing punishments with no link to conformity. At the
bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks),
simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g.
‘Students don’t want to get told off so they do what the teacher says.’
Band 2 (4–6)
how sanctions can be used in schools to make children conform. Sociological terms and
concepts should be expected. Candidates may discuss e.g. ‘the learning of norms and
values, authority, socialisation, exclusion etc.’ At the bottom of the band, the range of points
covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one

PAGE 104

(d) Explain why school factors may be the biggest influence on a child’s
educational performance. [8]
Candidates should show understanding of the various reasons why school factors may be
the biggest influence on a child’s educational performance. Expect an accurate identification
of different school factors within the response. Candidates may talk about trends to do with
ethnicity, gender and social class and educational performance (either negatively or
positively) or may approach the question in more general terms.
Possible reasons:
• Private schools have smaller class sizes and better facilities than state schools which
may advantage the students there in terms of educational achievement;
• Teacher expectations – teachers may hold stereotypes of certain students which may
advantage or disadvantage them in schools
• Children are at school for several hours most days of the week, meaning that education
is an important agent of secondary socialisation and so affects educational performance
• Peer pressure in schools is often a key reason for the educational performance of
students – may lead to anti-school and/or pro-school subcultures forming
• Setting and streaming are often very influential in terms of the achievements of students,
categorising some as ‘winners’ and some as ‘losers’
• Teacher labelling (positive or negative) may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy for students
e.g. racism/sexism or the ‘halo effect’
• Subject choices – for males and females particularly – there are still trends of students
choosing very different subjects which can lead to different levels of performance
• The curriculum – this is thought by many to be middle class and white biased
(ethnocentric curriculum) and thus may account for differential performance of students
• School resources – how much money a school has, the resources it has available for
students, the facilities on-site, ICT provision etc. may all affect educational performance
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why school factors may be the
biggest influence on a child’s educational. Candidates may not be able to identify different
school factors, being unclear what this means. Responses may be short and undeveloped.
e.g.‘teachers being unfair’ without justification. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely
to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band
(2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
school factors may be the biggest influence on a child’s educational performance.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. Answers may concentrate on only
a few school factors such as ‘how good or bad the teachers are’ or ‘teacher labelling and
stereotypes’ and so be a little narrow. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to

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Band 3 (7–8)
school factors may be the biggest influence on a child’s educational performance and will be
well developed and explained, e.g. ‘Clear trends in educational performance relating to
ethnicity, gender and social class are clear to see which suggests school factors have an
important role to play in this. Private schools, for example, are funded by parents meaning
that the schools have a lot of money and can afford to provide small class sizes for their
students. This can lead to better educational performance as students have more one-to-one
attention. The middle class nature of the school curriculum also favours some students with
cultural capital over those without and hence may explain the better performance in schools
of those from the higher social classes’. Sociological terms and concepts will be used
accurately, overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of
(e) To what extent are the functions of education positive? [15]
Candidates should show an awareness of the various functions of education and whether
these are positive for individuals and/or society. It is likely that students will engage with the
Functionalist/Marxist (consensus/conflict) debate, although they need not use these terms
explicitly.
Possible answers:
For
• Functionalist points and approaches are likely to be seen here in terms of the role that
education plays in ensuring the smooth running of society and well balanced individuals
• The economic role – schools teach students the skills and knowledge needed to develop
into productive workers and contribute positively to society
• The socialisation role – schools teach students expected norms and values resulting in
social integration (belonging)
• The selective role – schools help to sort out which people should be doing which jobs,
ensuring the best for society and the individual. This is done through such processes as
examinations, setting and streaming
• The social control role – schools teach students to obey the rules allowing them to fit
smoothly into society knowing that to succeed they need to conform

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Against
• Marxist points and approaches are likely to be seen here in terms of the key functions of
education being negative for individuals and society
• The economic role – the existence of private schools, high performing schools, sets and
different choices of subjects means that all students are not being taught the same in
schools. This means that not everyone has the same opportunities to learn skills and
knowledge preparing them for very different jobs
• The socialisation role – schools remove individuality from students and use the
secondary socialisation process to control and ‘brainwash’ them
• The selective role – students do not get equal opportunities in schools, opportunities
depend upon gender, social class, ethnicity and income. Regardless of their abilities and
talents some students are likely to do better than others in education
• The social control role – the sanctions system used in schools encourages children to
accept what others in authority tell them without question. This enables the powerful
people to continue making decisions that benefit them
• The hidden curriculum – gender roles are reinforced in education and are often
stereotypical resulting in different opportunities and life chances for males and females.
This may be as a result of teacher labels and subject choices
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether the functions of education are positive for the individual and/or society.
undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. ‘education helps students learn’. Lower in the band (1–2
more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. functions of education
are the things that schools offer students to prepare them for later life’, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether the functions of
education are positive for the individual and/or society. Alternatively, they may offer an
by the question. Answers may list positive factors of education and compare them with
negative factors of education. There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-
sided responses are unlikely. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the
covered and there will be limited development of some points, for example ‘education
teaches students lots of skills that they can then use to get a job’. Alternatively, a list-like
answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.

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Band 3 (9–12)
the functions of education are positive for the individual and/orsociety. Sociological terms and
expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Candidates may outline that
e.g. ‘there are different opinions within sociology as to whether functions of education such
as selection and social control are negative or positive for students. Marxists see education
as a means for the elite to keep their powerful positions in society whereas Functionalists
believe education is available equally to all’.
Band 4 (13–15)
functions of education are positive for the individual and/or society. There will be a strong
wide range of points. Candidates may outline and discuss different functions of education
both positively and negatively e.g. ‘hidden curriculum, socialisation, economic, gender roles’
etc. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the
whether the functions of education are positive for the individual and/or society, citing some
of the examples given.

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3 How we define crime and deviance varies across time, society and culture. It is often
associated with youth sub-cultures. What is agreed, however, is the existence of agencies
of social control, both formal and informal.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘agencies of social control’? [2]
The various groups, organisations and institutions, both formal and informal, that control
individuals’ behaviour.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. family and peer group.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. this can be either a group that exists just to control
individuals such as the police, or a group that also socialises us, such as the family.
(b) Describe two examples of crimes that vary across time. [4]
Candidates will describe two examples of crimes that vary across time. Examiners will need
to credit a wide variety of examples here that reflect the diversity of candidates experiences.
The key is that candidates demonstrate how laws and definitions have changed over time
through comparisons of two different periods in time.
Possible answers:
• Sexual crimes – rape within marriage, for example, has only recently been criminalised;
• Crimes relating to health and safety legislation
• Crimes relating to anti-social behaviour such as smoking in public places
• Crimes relating to discrimination such as sexism, racism and ageism
• Crimes that have been subject to standardisation, such as via the European Union or the
Human Rights commission
• Crimes involving the ages of the participants, such as in the UK children now having to
stay in education until they are 18
• New crimes such as those to do with technology and the internet – cybercrimes
• Crimes that come about due to shifting social values such as the exploitation of children
or the elderly
• Crimes that are now perceived as negative, many sexual crimes that perhaps were
previously tolerated/ignored
• New crimes involving new technologies such as cyber-crimes and identity theft

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(c) Explain how informal social control is different to formal social control. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of the ways in which informal social

control is different to formal social control. They may discuss either agents or methods of
social control or a mixture of both within their answer. Expect discussion of how the
agents/methods identified control individuals.
Possible answers:
• Informal agents of social control (family, media etc.) exist to both control and socialise us
• Formal agents of social control (police, prisons etc.) exist solely to control us, this is their
primary role
• Informal social control tends to occur in everyday situations and typically with less
serious consequences than formal
• Formal social control happens less frequently than informal but typically has more
serious consequences
• Formal social control is based on written rules and laws whereas informal social control
tends to be unwritten and more flexible/less standardised
• Formal social control may be to do with aims such as public safety, protection of the
public, deterrence etc.
• Informal social control may be associated with processes such as role models, imitation,
sanctions, rewards, manipulation, peer pressure, hidden curriculum etc.
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how informal social control is
different to formal social control. Responses may be short and un/under developed.
Candidates may be confused as to what is meant by social control and/or confused by the
differences between formal and informal control. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect
one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak
point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological
ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘ways of making people do what’s expected of
them’.
Band 2 (4–6)
how informal social control is different to formal social control. Sociological terms and
concepts should be expected. Candidates may refer to agents, methods, processes etc. with
examples. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack

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(d) Explain why criminal youth sub-cultures exist in modern industrial societies. [8]
Candidates need to be clear what is meant by the term ‘criminal youth sub-culture’ and
explain why these are found in modern industrial societies. Some candidates may talk about
youth generally having a different culture to their parents, e.g. rebellion. Others may talk
about specific criminal youth sub-cultures such as gangs or delinquent groups such as
‘Chavs’/’Skins’. Either approach should be credited.
Possible answers:
• Youth sub-cultures offer young people an opportunity to develop and create their own
distinct set of norms and values to mark them out as different to the older generation –
committing crime is one way to do this.
• Increasing role of a global media in society means that a wide variety of images and
definitions of deviant/criminal youth can be seen, resulting in imitation and role modelling
amongst young people i.e. copying criminal behaviour that is seen;
• Status frustration – criminal youth sub-cultures may exist in order for some young people
to gain the status they crave in a society where they don’t feel they get much status. This
could be linked to ideas about youth unemployment, lack of money, gang culture etc.
• Sociologist, David Matza, talks about young people ‘drifting’ into criminal sub-cultures.
The idea that this is a phase in their life when they have few responsibilities and so can
experiment with new norms and values in this stage of transition – crime being one such
thing.
• Resistance and rebellion – criminal youth sub-cultures are typically dominated by
working class ethnic minority males and have been explained by Marxist sociologists as
an opportunity for these disadvantaged youths to express their dis-satisfaction with
society and all the pressures to consume that it places upon them through crime.
• Excitement – Postmodern sociologists in particular talk about young people joining
criminal sub-cultures in order to engage in thrill seeking and risk talking behaviour i.e.
joy-riding.
• Culture of masculinity – young males are socialised through several agencies into the
need to prove their masculinity – criminal behaviour is one way to do so.
• Labelling theory – young people are stereotyped as criminals and targeted by the police
and thus this may become their master status via a self-fulfilling prophecy.
• Peer group pressure – young people may be pressured into criminal behaviour and
activities by their peer group.
• Criminal socialisation – young people in certain localities and environments may grow up
learning criminal norms and values i.e. the illegitimate opportunity structure.
• Unemployment/lack of legitimate opportunity- young people may find it hard to get work
and thus turn to crime for the money they need.
Band 0

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Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why criminal youth sub-cultures
exist in modern industrial societies. Candidates may not fully understand what is meant by a
criminal youth sub-culture. Responses may be short and undeveloped. e.g. ‘young people
want to have fun together committing crime’. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to
Band 2 (4–6)
criminal youth sub-cultures exist in modern industrial societies. Candidates may say that e.g.
‘criminal youth sub-cultures are places where young people can feel important and use crime
as a way to achieve status’. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the
bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts
developed.
Band 3 (7–8)
criminal youth sub-cultures exist in modern industrial societies and will be well developed
and explained. Candidates may discuss specific examples of criminal youth sub-cultures and
therefore different reasons for their existence i.e. resistance and rebellion associated with the
Skinheads, alternative norms and values with gangs etc. Sociological terms and concepts
will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will
be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear
throughout.

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(e) To what extent do the media influence ideas about crime? [15]
Candidates need to show an understanding of whether the media affects how we think about
crime and how it might do this. Candidates may focus on the acts of crime and/or criminals.
Either approach should be credited.
Possible answers:
For
• The media provide knowledge about crime and deviance for most people in society, from
the government to the police to the public so are clearly influential
• The media is selective in its crime coverage often resulting in an exaggerated and
distorted picture which may make people fear certain crimes more than others i.e.
murder, sexual crimes and physical attacks are all over-reported
• The media label and stereotype some groups and behaviours as criminal and deviant,
portraying them as folk devils and thus creating a moral panic i.e. teenage muggers
• The formal agents of control such as the police and the courts may be influenced by
what they see in the media and feel that they should take harsh measures against
certain groups and activities
• Those negatively labelled by the media may react with a self-fulfilling prophecy and live
up to the negative stereotypes that have been created of them
• Official crime statistics do not show a true picture of crime but are regularly discussed
and presented in the media hence affecting public perception
• Most of us are unlikely to be victims of very serious crimes and so our understanding of
these crimes and who commits them are likely to come from the media, particularly in
this global age
Against
• Just because we see or read something in the media doesn’t mean that we necessarily
believe it, most people today are aware of media bias and distortion
• Police activities such as stop and search rates and targeting are more likely to influence
how crime is thought of than the media
• The courts and judicial systems sentence criminals and thus have a lot more power than
the media in terms of deciding how serious or not a crime is
• The media merely reports crime stories based on facts and statistics – it is these that
influence ideas about crime, not the media itself
• The media does report in white collar crime and therefore its crime reporting is not
simply stereotyping, it is more diverse than this
• Just because a particular social group is labelled as a criminal by the media doesn’t
mean that a moral panic or a self-fulfilling prophecy will occur
• The Government puts pressure on both the courts and the police in terms of crime policy
and therefore it is they, not the media, that affects how crime is thought about
• Other agents of social control may have more of an impact on our ideas about crime
than the media – family/peer group etc.
Band 0

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Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether the media influence ideas about crime. Use of sociological terms or
concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. the
media tells us who the criminals are. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak
points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide
a weak definition of key terms, e.g. how the media present certain people and actions affects
how we think about them, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether the media influence
ideas about crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but
there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be
limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Candidates may discuss some reasons why
the media do influence ideas about crime i.e. stereotypes, moral panics etc but responses
may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided
responses are unlikely. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points
A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks
Band 3 (9–12)
the media influence ideas about crime. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with
focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may be
able to present a range of points to support the idea that the media do influence ideas about
crime, but also be aware of some of the arguments against this i.e. police powers, role of the
courts etc. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of
the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of
the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether the media
influence ideas about crime. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate
and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly
focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. For example, candidates may
say that the media has a large role to play in determining what we think of as crimes and who
we think of as criminals. Processes such as labelling may stereotype certain groups as
criminal leading to people believing this to be true. The group in question may then live up to
their label through a self-fulfilling prophecy. However, most people are aware that the media
exaggerates the picture of crime through its sensationalist reporting and therefore are
unlikely to believe everything that they see and read etc. Responses will be two-sided and
balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion.
Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what
extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show
consideration of points for and against the idea of whether the media influence ideas about
crime, citing some of the examples given.

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Section D: Media
4 The contemporary media is all around us, leading to increased opportunities for imitation
by the audience. Media representations, however, are still thought by many to be very
stereotypical. This is one of the reasons why many sociologists are critical of media
content.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘imitation’? [2]
Imitation refers to the way audience members see and copy behaviour, language, style or
identities seen in the media. This is often linked with media role models who are often
imitated by the audience.
One mark for partial definition. e.g. copying

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. when behaviour or style shown in the media is seen and
copied by the audience (i.e. giving an indication of what might be copied by the audience).
(b) Describe two examples of how older people are represented in the media. [4]
Candidates will describe two representations of older people often seen in the media, they
may describe traditional or more modern representations, either are fine to credit.
Representations discussed may be positive or negative.
Possible answers:
• Under-representation/invisibility – older people are rarely seen in lead roles and parts in
the media
• Negatively stereotyped as being frail, weak and helpless – dependent on others
• Represented as being confused/forgetful/mentally slow/grumpy
• Old age is shown negatively via the advertising of ‘stay young’ beauty products and
cosmetic surgery
• The more modern representation of the rebellious older person, refusing to conform to
restrictive social expectations
• The wise and learned older person is a more positive representation seen in the media

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(c) Explain how folk devils are created in the media. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of the way folk devils are created in the
media. Candidates may talk generally about the creation of media folk devils, or more
specifically about particular forms of media. Either way is fine to credit. Examples of folk
devils from the candidate’s own cultural experience may also be used to help explain points.
Possible answers:
• Through exaggerated, selective and distorted media reporting – images, words, videos
• Repetition of the negative representation makes it more believable for the audience
• Biased reporting in the media leads to the creation of moral panics. Within these the ‘bad
people’ are identified and these are the folk devils
• Scapegoating – certain groups are blamed in the media for social problems and so
become seen as folk devils
• The negative label placed on certain groups in the media means that the group start to
act up to their stereotype and a self-fulfilling prophecy is seen. This fuels the perception
of this group as ‘bad’ and leads to deviancy amplification
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how folk devils are created in the
media. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1
mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more
sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘by negative reporting of a groups
behaviour.’
Band 2 (4–6)
how folk devils are created in the media. For example, discussing how selective reporting
can lead to the creation of a moral panic as found by Cohen in his research into the Mods
and Rockers. The stereotypes created lead to certain social groups being scapegoated for
problems in society. Sociological language and concepts should be expected. At the bottom
of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band,
answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in
less detail.

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(d) Explain why Marxist sociologists believe that the media play a
negative role in society. [8]
Candidates should show an awareness of Marxist views of the media and the ways in which
the media can be seen to play a negative role in society. Marxists take the general view that
the media help the ruling class to maintain their power and control in society.
Possible answers:
• The media show the dominant ideology in society because they are owned by the elite
and therefore want to prevent social change
• The media manipulates the audience into believing a particular viewpoint which typically
favours the ruling class and therefore normalises lower class oppression
• The media promotes and reinforces capitalist values through creating false needs in the
audience that pressurise them to become passive consumers
• The media diverts attention away from the real problems and important issues in society
through the proliferation of shallow content such as the focus on celebrity culture
• Alternative views or values tend to be marginalised and/or ridiculed in the media through
the images seen and the language used (e.g. GUMG)
• Owners of the media typically represent a small elite group in society and thus their
views and opinions are what dominates in the media
• The media can control the audiences feelings and thoughts through selective
representations and censorship according to passive media consumption models
• The media set the agenda for public views and opinions through their focus on particular
news values and their use of stereotypes
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why Marxist sociologists believe
that the media plays a negative role in society. Candidates may not really understand what is
meant by Marxism. Responses may be short and undeveloped. e.g. ‘unfair reporting’ without
justification/explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the
Band 2 (4–6)
Marxist sociologists believe that the media plays a negative role in society. Responses may
be underdeveloped and lacking in range. Candidates may explain some of the reasons e.g.
dominant ideology being created, power and control in the hands of elite groups, focus on
consumption etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms
and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use
answer may only be partially developed.

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Band 3 (7–8)
Marxist sociologists believe that the media plays a negative role in society and will be well
developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall.
Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented
e.g. censorship, diverting attention away from the serious issues in society, focus on celebrity
culture and shallow activities etc. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.
(e) To what extent does violence on television lead to increased levels of violence in
society? [15]
Candidates will need to look at a range of different examples and types of violence on
television and consider the ways that this may lead to increased levels of violence in society.
Possible answers:
For
• Violence is seen in various forms in television so frequently that it becomes almost
normalised, particularly for younger viewers (desensitisation)
• Imitation – the audience may copy the violence they see on television (hypodermic
syringe model) e.g. GTA copy catting incident in Japan
• Violence on the television is often glamorised and shown to have minimal consequences
which may make it more likely for the audience to be violent themselves
• With computer technology, special effects and specialist props and make up, TV
violence can be made very realistic meaning that the audience may associate it with real
life and be unable to distinguish fully between fictional and real violence
• Often ‘hero’ type characters on TV use violence to get what they want, meaning that the
audience may be more likely to identify with them and so copy their actions – role
modelling
• Television today can be consumed in many different ways and forms meaning that it is a
medium easily accessible for the audience – traditional TV, on computers, on mobile
phones etc
• Research by Bandura et al seemed to prove that violence on TV did have an effect on
the audience, that it made them more likely to copy what they saw
• Seeing violent images on a regular basis on TV makes the audience more likely to be
affected by them – the ‘drip drip’ effect

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Against
• Violence on television can be viewed positively as it can act as catharsis for some
viewers – a way releasing strong emotions in a safe way
• Violence on TV may shock the audience to such an extent that they take action against
violence in real life situations (sensitisation)
• Audience members can tell the difference between fictional violence on TV and real life
violence, understanding that the two are very different means they won’t become more
violent from consuming violence on TV – the audience are active, not passive
• Unrealistic violence – such as the slapstick style seen in animations – is so unrealistic
that it is very unlikely to have any effect on the viewer
• Censorship of the TV (formally via the watershed and informally via parental controls)
means that violent images and actions should only be seen by those whom it is
appropriate for
• Is it possible to identify TV violence as the sole contributing factor in societal violence?
Other factors such as family, school and peer group may be just as relevant
• The vast majority of people who see violence on television never commit violent acts
themselves
• Violent acts existed in society a long time before TV was invented
• Uses and Gratifications/Active Audience models of media effects both show how the
viewer is in control of what they watch and how it effects them
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether violence on television leads to increased levels of violence in society.
undeveloped and one-sided e.g. may mention that there is lots of violence on TV today.
Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4
marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms
i.e. violence on TV can be cartoon or with real life people. It can also be real, e.g. in the news
or fictional like in films, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether violence on television
leads to increased levels of violence in society. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which
is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the
question. There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lack range. Candidates may give examples of TV shows and films on
TV in which there is lots of violence and then refer to the audience copying what they see.

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Band 3 (9–12)
violence on television leads to increased levels of violence in society. Sociological terms and
Candidates may discuss the diversity of violent images and actions seen on TV as well as
the variation in the audience members, all of which will influence how affected they are.
Media concepts and theories such as the hypodermic syringe and the uses and gratifications
model may be discussed. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At
the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether violence
on television leads to increased levels of violence in society. There will be a strong grasp of
points. Candidates may refer to differential TV usage through gender, age and choice and
thus be aware that it is impossible to generalise the effects of media violence on the
audience. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks),
the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to
whether violence on television leads to increased levels of violence in society, citing some of
the examples given.

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/23
* 5 2 5 9 6 1 9 2 3 0 *

DC (CW) 122311
PAGE 121
Answer two questions
Section A: Family
1 Around the world there are many different forms of marriage, one of which is polygamy. Marriage
today is not necessarily forever and many will end in divorce. Many people will also choose to
never get married.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘polygamy’? [2]
(b) Describe two cultural variations in marriage, apart from polygamy. [4]
(c) Explain how divorce has been made easier in many countries in modern industrial societies.
[6]
(d) Explain why cohabitation is increasing in modern industrial societies. [8]
(e) To what extent are households replacing the family? [15]
2 Some social groups do better than others in education. Some sociologists believe one reason
for this is the ethnocentric nature of schools. Home factors are also thought to be influential in
determining how successful an individual may be.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘ethnocentric’? [2]
(b) Describe two patterns in educational achievement. [4]
(c) Explain how positive discrimination can be used in the education system. [6]
(d) Explain why some minority ethnic groups do less well in education than others. [8]
(e) To what extent does material deprivation determine the educational achievement of students
from different social classes? [15]
© UCLES 2016 2251/23/M/J/16

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3 Crime rates indicate that crime is a real problem in modern industrial societies. New technologies
have led to new types of crime, making it increasingly difficult for sociologists and the Government
to accurately measure crime.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘crime rates’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways of measuring crime. [4]
(c) Explain how modern industrial societies deter people from committing crime. [6]
(d) Explain why crimes related to new technologies are hard to detect and prevent. [8]
(e) To what extent do self-report studies produce an accurate picture of crime? [15]
Section D: Media
4 Representations of women in the media are a widely debated topic. Some sociologists believe
them to be stereotyped and others see them as positive role models. However, this is not the only
way that the media is thought to be influential. It is also thought to be a big influence on political
attitudes and voting.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘role model’? [2]
(b) Describe two traditional stereotypes of women found in the media. [4]
(c) Explain how people from different social classes use the media in different ways. [6]
(d) Explain why the media can influence the political attitudes of the audience. [8]
(e) To what extent do stereotypical media representations negatively affect the audience? [15]
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
* 7 1 3 3 0 3 6 0 1 8 *

DC (ST) 121897
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Section A: Family
1 In modern industrial societies there are many demographic trends that are changing families and
relationships. Marriage, birth and death rates have all been affected in various ways and with
many different consequences. Indeed, whether marriage is still seen to be important today is now
a matter for debate.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘demographic trend’? [2]
(b) Describe two reasons for the rise in divorce rates. [4]
(c) Explain how an ageing population is affecting family life. [6]
(d) Explain why the birth rate has fallen in most modern industrial societies. [8]
(e) To what extent is marriage still seen to be important in modern industrial societies? [15]
2 Educational achievement is argued to be linked to many things, one of which is IQ Tests. Different
types of education exist to suit the needs of all students, a recent example of which is vocationalism.
Some sociologists still believe, however, that male and female students do not receive the same
opportunities and experiences within education and that this affects their levels of achievement.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘IQ Tests’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways that the peer group a child belongs to can affect his or her educational
achievement. [4]
(c) Explain how vocationalism is different from other types of education. [6]
(d) Explain why tests used to measure intelligence may not be accurate. [8]
(e) To what extent is there equality of opportunity for male and female students in education?
[15]
© UCLES 2016 2251/22/O/N/16

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3 Some social groups seem to commit more crime than others. There is a range of sociological
explanations, including inadequate socialisation, to explain these crime rates. Other sociologists
disagree, however, believing it is more about factors such as status frustration.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘inadequate socialisation’? [2]
(b) Describe two patterns of crime linked to age. [4]
(c) Explain how gender affects crime rates. [6]
(d) Explain why primary socialisation may cause some people to commit crime. [8]
(e) To what extent does status frustration explain why some individuals commit crime? [15]
Section D: Media
4 We have now entered a new era in the media world where citizen journalism has become the
norm. However, many sociologists believe owners still decide what the audience receives in both
the new and traditional media.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘citizen journalism’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of the digital divide. [4]
(c) Explain how new media are different from traditional media. [6]
(d) Explain why advertising has an important role to play in the media industry. [8]
(e) To what extent do media owners determine the content of the media? [15]
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/23
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Teachers.
Cambridge is publishing the mark schemes for the May/June 2016 series for most Cambridge IGCSE ®,
Cambridge International A and AS Level components and some Cambridge O Level components.

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Section A: Family
1 Around the world there are many different forms of marriage, one of which is polygamy.
Marriage today is not necessarily forever and many will end in divorce. Many people will
also choose to never get married.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘polygamy’? [2]
Being married to more than one person at the same time; for example, a man with several
wives or a woman with several husbands.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. having more than one wife.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. a man or a woman is married to more than one person at
the same time.
(b) Describe two cultural variations in marriage, apart from polygamy. [4]
Candidates will be expected to describe two cultural variations in marriage. If polygamy is

mentioned then this should not be credited. The question is not asking about variation in
family types, these should not be credited.
Possible variations:
• Monogamy – being married to one person at a time;

• Serial monogamy – when someone has more than one marriage partner during their life
but only one at any given time;
• Polygyny – when a man has more than one wife at a time;
• Polyandry – when a woman has more than one husband at the same time;
• Same sex marriages – in some countries homosexual marriages are not legal;
• Civil partnerships – a formal union of same sex partners, seen as the equivalent of
marriage with the same rights as heterosexual married couples;
• Arranged marriages – marriage partners are chosen by older family members rather
than people choosing their own marriage partner;
• Forced marriage – a marriage where one or both partners do not consent to the
marriage and pressure or abuse is used;
• Remarriage – a growing proportion of all marriages in modern industrial societies are
remarriages as one or both partners have already been married at least once;
(c) Explain how divorce has been made easier in many countries in modern industrial
societies. [6]
Candidates need to show an understanding of how divorce has been made easier. These
could refer to legal, moral or attitudinal changes.
Possible answers:
• Feminists argue that women are realising the disadvantages of marriage and are now
less willing to stay in a marriage that is unsatisfying for them;

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• Feminists also point out that with many women now working, they are much more likely
to be able to support themselves after divorce making it more viable;
• It is now much easier legally to be granted a divorce i.e. in the UK the 1971 Divorce
Reform Act meant that proof of a ‘matrimonial offence’ was no longer needed to divorce;
• People can now organise their own divorce very cheaply and easily, known as the
‘quickie’ or ‘DIY’ divorce;
• Changes in morals – a feeling that morally divorce is no longer seen as wrong as people
put their own needs first and not feeling tied by their marriage vows;
• Decline in religion – secularisation – means more weddings are now civil than religious
and vows are no longer taken so seriously;
• Decline in community values – people are now more geographically mobile/migration
and so there is no longer that informal social control and sense of shame about being
divorced;
• The cost of divorce is no longer prohibitive, meaning people from all social classes are
able to divorce;
• Role models – other agencies of socialisation i.e. the family/peers/media may show
divorce as ‘normal’ and not stigmatised, this making it easier for the individual;
Band 0
Band (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of divorce and how it has been
made easier and may talk about e.g. ‘couples fall out of love’ Responses may be short and
un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in
Band 2 (4–6)
of divorce and how it has been made easier. Sociological terms and concepts should be
expected e.g. ‘Secularisation means that religious marriage vows are no longer taken as
seriously, making it morally easier to divorce.’ This would be followed by an explanation of
(d) Explain why cohabitation is increasing in modern industrial societies. [8]
Candidates should show awareness of the various social factors which may lead to
increasing levels of cohabitation in modern industrial societies.
• Because people live longer they are in relationships for longer and may therefore grow
apart or out of love, meaning cohabitation is preferred over marriage by many;
• People have higher expectations of marriage today and therefore many choose not to
enter into it, cohabiting together instead – choosing it as an alternative long term
relationship;
• Due to changing norms and values in society that mean cohabitation is seen as ‘normal’;
• Due to the increase in the divorce rate;
• People today are less willing to accept an empty shell marriage but still want to be in a
long-term committed relationship so will look for a new partner and cohabit;

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• Some people prefer a series for short term relationships without commitment that
cohabitation can facilitate;
• Lots of people use cohabitation as ‘trial’ marriage in order to ‘test’ the relationship by
living together before marriage;
• Feminism and working women – no need to get married for financial reasons or security
as they are economically independent so can choose to live with a partner;
• Triple shift/dual burden – women are less inclined to accept this within a marriage so will
look to cohabitation for a more equal relationship;
• Rise of homosexual relationships means cohabitation becomes a viable alternative to
marriage;
• Secularisation – decline of religious values means that for many people marriage is no
longer seen to be a necessity for many people;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why cohabitation is increasing. A
tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘people can
just live together’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to
Band 2 (4–6)
cohabitation is increasing. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g.
‘Cohabitation lets people test out their partner to see if they want to get married to them
later’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and
concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological
be partially developed/explained.
Band 3 (7–8)
cohabitation is increasing. e.g. ‘Marriage is less valued today and so people often reject it in
favour of cohabitation. Women, for example, expect equality within their relationship and so
will perhaps avoid marriage as it is still seen by many to be patriarchal. They may live
together, as a homosexual or heterosexual couple, in order to find a happier relationship’.
(e) To what extent are households replacing the family? [15]
Candidates should show awareness of the idea that what we understand by the term ‘family’
is changing and, in a sense, declining. Households are arguably, therefore, replacing the
family.

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Possible answers:
For
• There is today a growing number of one person households, sometimes made up of

widows/widowers;
• One person households may also be made up of people who choose to live alone – this
is a growing category. Middle class women who have chosen to focus on their career are
one such group;
• People are typically marrying or moving in together later and so this means that more
people are living on their own at least for a period of time in their life;
• Growth in singlehood and childlessness;
• Men who are separated and divorced;
• Communes – a group of people who choose to live together sharing living space and
usually some property;
• Families are seen by many to be less permanent and stable than they were in the past
and therefore people may rely more on their friends;
• Groups of people sharing a house has become more common, particularly amongst
young people – friends may play a greater part in emotional, practical and social
support;
• Shared households may exist for economic reasons i.e. renting a house together or
taking out a joint mortgage, both of which are becoming more popular today;
• Growing number of young people going to University in many societies means that
households are a necessity for these groups during this stage in their life;
• Many family functions can now be performed by other social institutions so families may
be less necessary than before and households therefore more appropriate;
Against
• Family still remains important in ways that friends cannot i.e. in the inheritance of
property and the care of older people;
• Marriage may be on the decline but people are still living in family units i.e. through
cohabitation and civil partnerships;
• The growth in the remarriage rate and the increase in reconstituted families shows that
family life is still seen to be important
• Family has taken on new forms today but this doesn’t mean it’s less important, just that it
has changed i.e. single parent families;
• Family unit is still the most important source of primary socialisation;
• The extended family has not disappeared it has merely changed i.e. the modified
extended family (use of media to maintain relationships);
• In some cultures and/or social classes family is as strong as ever and is highly valued;
• A lot of friendship/household based relationships i.e. sharing a house tend to be a
temporary phase particularly associated with being young, rather than permanent;
• Functionalist beliefs about the essential functions performed by the family;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether households are replacing the family. Use of sociological terms or
concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided e.g. Divorce

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means there are less families now. Friends like to live together in the same house. Lower in
the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks)
candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. a
household is where people not related live in the same house, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether households are
replacing the family. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but
there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be
limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and
lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. Not
everyone has children anymore and lots of people live alone. A lot of people don’t want to get
married anymore and so choose to live on their own instead. People often turn to their
friends for support and love rather than their family etc. Lower in the band, the response will
be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the
band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points.
Band 3 (9–12)
households are replacing the family. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with
focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say
that e.g. despite the form of the family changing and becoming less nuclear and less
marriage based, households are still often a temporary phase in a person’s life rather than a
permanent feature. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the
Band 4 (13–15)
households are replacing the family. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as
accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well
developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses
of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates
should show consideration of points for and against the idea of households replacing the
family, citing some of the examples given.

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2 Some social groups do better than others in education. Some sociologists believe one
reason for this is the ethnocentric nature of schools. Home factors are also thought to be
influential in determining how successful and individual may be.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘ethnocentric’ [2]
Seeing other cultures from your own point of view so that other cultures are devalued and
seen to be lesser.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. biased.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. The idea that education doesn’t include all cultural
viewpoints equally and sees things from one cultures point of view.
(b) Describe two patterns in educational achievement. [4]
EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT – how well individuals do in the school system, usually

measured by exam results.
Candidates will describe two different patterns.
Possible answers:
• Girls in most developed countries achieve better qualifications than boys;

• Ethnic minority groups tend to do less well in education than the majority group;
• Pupils in the lower social classes tend to do worse than pupils in the higher social
classes;
• Young people suffering from poverty do not typically do as well as those not in poverty in
the examination system;
• In some developing countries opportunities for educational achievement are given more
to boys than to girls;
(c) Explain how positive discrimination can be used in the education system. [6]
Candidates should show an understanding of what is meant by the term ‘positive

discrimination’ and how it can be used within the education system. Candidates may discuss
initiatives by Governments to tackle disadvantage (i.e. financial support) or schemes run by
schools to target the under-achievement of certain groups of students.
POSITIVE DISCRIMINATION – giving disadvantaged groups better treatment than others in

an attempt to make up for their disadvantage.
Possible answers:
• In relation to gender – lots of schools introduced schemes to encourage girls to aim

higher in order to improve their exam performance. This was often linked to science,
technology, engineering and maths courses and might involve, for example, more
access for girls than boys to equipment;

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• In relation to gender – single sex lessons have been used to promote the achievement
of girls or boys, often with specialist, expert staffing;
• In relation to ethnicity – ethnic minorities can be offered financial incentives in order to
encourage them to do well and to aim higher in education;
• In relation to social class – Universities have been made to increase their offers of
places to state school pupils and those from disadvantaged backgrounds which has
effectively resulted in lower grades being required from these students than from those
privately educated;
• In relation to poverty – In India places are saved for those of the lowest castes in
educational institutions at all levels;
• In China there is positive discrimination in education for minority nationalities. This may
equate to lowering minimum requirements for the National University Entrance
Examination. Financial incentives are also on offer;
• Positive action provision in schools i.e. treating disabled pupils more favourably than
others;
• The Pupil Premium in the UK is available to support and provide intervention and
motivational schemes for disadvantaged/deprived pupils;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how positive discrimination can
be used in the education system. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the
‘where some pupils are treated better than others.’
Band 2 (4–6)
how positive discrimination can be used in the education system. Sociological terms and
concepts should be expected. Candidates may discuss e.g. ‘positive discrimination was
introduced for disadvantaged students in education such as ethnic minorities and the poor to
try and increase their levels of educational success. This was done both through policies in
schools to target these pupils specifically and by Government initiatives and financial
incentives etc.’ At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack
(d) Explain why some minority ethnic groups do less well in education than others. [8]
Candidates should show understanding of the various reasons why some ethnic groups do
less well in education than others. Expect an accurate identification of the ethnic groups
being discussed.
Possible reasons:
• Ethnicity is closely linked to social class. In the UK Afro-Caribbean students who typically
do not do well in education are often working class;
• Ethnicity is also closely linked to gender and for some girls with Asian backgrounds they
are socialised into traditional gender roles which may then limit their educational
aspirations and achievements;

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• Issues of prejudice and discrimination still exist in society and this may lead to ethnic
minority student rebellion and the formation of anti-school subcultures;
• Teacher attitudes towards ethnic minority students may be stereotypical leading to them
having lower expectations of these students than the minority group;
• Ethnic minority students are more likely to be found in the lower sets and streams;
• Hidden curriculum as it relates to ethnicity i.e. teacher labelling and the self fulfilling
prophecy;
• An ethnocentric curriculum may be unappealing and de-motivating for ethnic minority
students;
• Cultural differences – the values of home may clash with the values of education and
lead to less success i.e. religious/dress/language factors;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why some ethnic groups may do
less well in education than others. Candidates may not know which ethnic minority groups do
not do well and so talk very generally. Responses may be short and undeveloped. e.g.
‘racism’ without justification. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the
Band 2 (4–6)
ethnic groups may do less well in education than others. Responses may be underdeveloped
and lacking in range. Answers may concentrate on just school factors such as ‘ethnic
minority students are often in lower sets’ or just home factors such as ‘some Asian families
may not value education for girls’ and so be a little narrow. At the bottom of the band,
candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the
band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater
Band 3 (7–8)
ethnic groups do less well in education than others and will be well developed and explained,
e.g. ‘Ethnicity may not be the only reason to explain why some ethnic groups do less well
than others. Ethnic minority groups are often found in the lower social classes and therefore
material factors such as overcrowding, lack of resources, having to work part-time etc. are all
relevant’. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be
(e) To what extent does material deprivation determine the educational achievement of
students from different social classes? [15]
Candidates should show an awareness of how material deprivation can determine the
educational achievement of students from different social classes. The against arguments
may consider how cultural factors are also important and/or the role of the teacher in
determining educational achievement.

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Possible answers:
For
• Not having a quiet place to work because the home is small or over-crowded;
• Inadequate diet can be argued to lead to problems of concentration and tiredness;
• Private schooling (typically available to those in the higher social classes) leads to better
educational qualifications and achievement than state education;
• Being unable to afford extra-curricular activities, trips, tutors and revision materials may
lead to lower educational achievement;
• Having to work part-time as a student means there will be less time available for study
which may negatively affect educational achievement;
• Coming from a family that is not able to financially support a child through Higher
education may limit the child’s educational aspirations;
• Students in the lower social classes typically attend poorer and less successful schools;
Against
• Cultural deprivation – some parts of the attitude and values of the home prevent some
children from achieving well in education;
• Immediate gratification (rather than deferred) means the long-term gains of staying in
education cannot be seen;
• For boys, a liking for thrill seeking behaviour and excitement may get them into trouble;
• Parents may have had negative experiences of education themselves and so may not
value it which will be passed onto their children;
• A lack of successful role models in the community and the home may limit educational
achievement;
• Cultural capital – Not being brought up around books, literature, theatre etc. may be
detrimental to educational achievement;
• Schools are often referred to as middle class institutions which are alienating and
unwelcoming for lower class students;
• Speech codes are typically different for different social classes meaning that the higher
classes find it easier to engage with, understand and use the elaborate codes found in
education and examinations;
• Labelling theory – teacher labelling (either positive or negative) may be more influential
than material deprivation in terms of affecting educational achievement i.e. through the
self-fulfilling prophecy;
• Peer group pressure – it may be the peer group that determines educational success –
either negatively or positively;
• Setting and streaming – the set or stream a student is placed into may be the crucial
factor in determining educational success;
• Many policies and strategies are now in place to counter the effects of poverty on
educational achievement today i.e. scholarships/bursaries etc.;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of how/why material factors may determine educational achievement. Use of
one-sided. e.g. ‘Having money means you can buy an education’. Lower in the band (1–2

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more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. material deprivation is
about how a lack of money prevents some children from achieving well in education, in the
question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of how/why material factors may
determine educational achievement. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like
in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question.
Answers may list material factors. There may be limited use of sociological terms or
concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic
and two-sided responses are unlikely. For example, ‘if your parents don’t have much money
they will live in a small house so you won’t have a quiet place to study and so won’t do well in
school’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and
Band 3 (9–12)
material factors may determine educational achievement. Sociological terms and concepts
developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. There will
be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates
may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a
wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Candidates may outline that e.g.
‘although material factors such as living in a poorly heated and overcrowded house are
obviously important in determining educational achievement, cultural factors such as
immediate gratification and not valuing education will also be important’.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of how/why material
factors may determine educational achievement. There will be a strong grasp of the
Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer
may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an
Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of whether material
deprivation determines educational achievement, citing some of the examples given.

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3 Crime rates indicate that crime is a real problem in modern industrial societies. New
technologies have led to new types of crime, making it increasingly difficult for
sociologists and the Government to accurately measure crime.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘crime rates’? [2]
These are statistical measures of crime.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. how much crime there is.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. statistics that show how much and what type of crime is
occurring.
(b) Describe two ways of measuring crime. [4]
Candidates will describe two ways of measuring crime.
Possible answers:
• Official crime statistics – official figures of the number of crimes and offenders;
• Self-report studies – a survey that asks people what crimes or deviant acts they have
committed;
• Victim survey – research that asks people what crimes they have been victims of;
(c) Explain how modern industrial societies deter people from committing crime. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of how people today are deterred from
committing crime. Candidates are likely to refer to agents of socialisation and social control in
their responses. Alternatively, they may refer to processes in a more generic way. Either is
acceptable to credit.
DETERRENCE – when a punishment is intended to stop the offender and others in society
from committing a crime.
Possible answers:
• Agencies of socialisation i.e. the family socialise children to know right from wrong and to
understand the consequences of committing crime – they deter them;
• Informal social control – informal measures from, say, education, the peer group and the
media help to ensure that people conform to society’s laws and values and deter them
from committing crime;
• Formal social control – by threatening punishment these agencies try to ensure that
people conform and do not break the law;
• Prison – loss of freedom, harsh conditions and severe sentencing (often highlighted in
the media) deters people from committing crime;
• Court sentencing – publishing severe sentences and the consequences of crime i.e.
through the media, can deter others from committing crime;

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• Police – their physical presence on the streets is often seen a s a deterrent to crime, a
visual reminder that you will be caught if you commit crime;
• Armed forces – these can be used as a deterrent, often through the implied threat of
physical violence/weaponry;
• Government/laws – they can ensure that the law making process puts people off from
committing crime i.e. through zero tolerance policies;
• Death sentence – thought by many to be the ultimate deterrent to crime;
• Community sentencing – the public nature of this punishment deters many from
committing crime due to the perceived humiliation i.e. the ‘uniform’ worn;
• Media – today the media are typically the medium to disseminate the deterrence
message so their exaggerated and distorted reporting styles are crucial;
• Surveillance – increased security measures i.e. CCTV in public places discourages
people from committing crime;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how modern industrial societies
deter people from committing crime. Responses may be short and un/under developed.
Candidates may be confused as to what is meant by ‘deter’. At the bottom of the band (1
sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘we scare people so they don’t
commit crimes’.
Band 2 (4–6)
how modern industrial societies deter people from committing crime. Sociological terms and
concepts should be expected. For example, ‘Prisons are portrayed in the media as harsh and
violent institutions sending out the message to society that these are not nice places to be.
Similarly, a police presence on the streets deters people from committing crime through their
surveillance and the threat of being caught and punished’. At the bottom of the band, the
range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover
more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.
(d) Explain why crimes related to new technologies are hard to detect and prevent? [8]
Candidates need to identify what is meant by the term ‘new technologies’ and be clear why
these crimes are hard to detect and prevent. Terms such as ‘cybercrime’ and ‘internet crime’
are likely to be used in candidates’ responses.
Possible answers:
• Crimes using new technologies are difficult to detect and prevent because they are not
regulated by national boundaries. The offender and the victims of these global crimes
may live in different countries. Countries do not all have the same laws and so may not
cooperate – globalisation;
• Some countries try to censor internet content, particularly political viewpoints making
certain things illegal, whereas others see this as going against the right for freedom of
speech. There is no agreed global definition of what is criminal therefore;

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• Crimes using new technologies are not ‘physical’ crimes therefore there is often a long
delay before anyone realises they have been a victim of such a crime, if they ever do
realise at all. This makes these kind of crimes hard to police;
• No person is actually seen as the criminal when a crime using new technologies is
committed, meaning it is difficult to ascertain blame. This is particularly true if the crime
has been committed by a group or an organisation rather than an individual, typical of
cybercrimes;
• There is no central coordination or regulation of the internet meaning Governments have
limited powers of control.
• Material can be posted on the internet and go viral almost immediately, making it harder
to stop and control;
• Some crimes using new technologies, such as illegally downloading music for example,
are not perceived as criminal as so many people do them. This means they are unlikely
to be reported or investigated or prosecuted;
• There is a technological gap between young people and adults (the digital divide) that
means that those investigating and prosecuting the criminals (typically the adults) are
less technologically aware than the ‘criminals’;
• Crime using new technology tends to be self-censored therefore is hugely under-
reported;
• Growth in cyberterrorism – deliberate, widespread attacks in computers or computer
networks. These can be carried out by highly organised organisations and, sometimes,
Governments meaning investigation and prosecution is both difficult and unlikely;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why crimes using new
technologies are hard to detect and prevent. Candidates may not fully understand what is
meant by ‘new technologies’. Responses may be short and undeveloped. e.g. ‘Crime is easy
on the internet’. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the
band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer
Band 2 (4–6)
crimes using new technologies are hard to detect and prevent. Candidates may say that for
e.g. ‘It is quick and easy to spread illegal content on the internet meaning that crime is hard
to prevent’. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the
Candidates may only focus on either detection or prevention, not both aspects.
Band 3 (7–8)
crimes using new technologies are hard to detect and prevent and will be well developed and
explained. Candidates will discuss both detection and prevention. Sociological terms and
concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and
there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear
throughout.

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(e) To what extent do self-report studies produce an accurate picture of crime? [15]
Candidates need to show an understanding of whether self-report studies produce an

accurate picture of crime. In terms of evaluation, candidates may approach this is different
but equally valid ways that should be credited. Some may discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of self-report studies only. Others may refer to alternative ways of finding an
accurate picture of crime in their evaluation i.e. victim surveys/official crime statistics.
SELF REPORT STUDY – research that asks people what crimes they have committed.
Possible answers:
For
• They are confidential meaning that respondents may be more willing to give honest
answers about their criminal behaviour;
• Crimes that have not been reported to/recorded by the police may be revealed through
self report studies if confidentiality is assured;
• Self report studies reveal more of the dark figure of crime that is hidden by the crime
statistics as they can uncover crimes that have not been reported to or recorded by the
police;
• Self report studies reveal that a large number of crimes are committed by women and
middle class people which questions the picture shown in the official statistics that
suggests the working class and males are the main perpetrators;
• Theories and explanations of crime based on the information in the official statistics may
therefore be flawed and inaccurate;
Against
• How truthful is the information gathered by self report studies? Respondents may lie
about crimes they have committed or exaggerate their criminality. Validity of the data
collected cannot be checked;
• Self report studies often ask about petty crimes and acts of deviance rather than the full
range of crimes. This means the picture gathered from the studies may not be
representative of all crimes committed;
• Self report studies are often filled out by young people and so again the sample’s
representativeness can be questioned. White-collar crimes, for example, are ignored;
• Victim surveys may be more useful than self report studies in finding out the true picture
of crime as people are more likely to report crimes they have been the victim of than
crimes they have committed themselves;
• Official crime statistics offer a large scale national picture of crime rather than the small
sample size that self report studies focus on – a more generalisable picture;
• Crime statistics are updated regularly and are therefore potentially more useful than a
self report study that could have been completed years earlier;
• Crime statistics are thought to be reliable and/or trustworthy as they are collected and
published by the Government;
Band 0

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Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether self-report studies produce an accurate picture of crime. Use of
one-sided. e.g. ‘self report studies ask people what crimes they’ve committed so they tell the
researcher’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the
band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of
key terms, e.g. a self-report asks people what crimes they have committed, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether self-report studies
produce an accurate picture of crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like
in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There
why self-report studies produce an accurate picture of crime i.e. reveal more of the dark
figure of crime etc. but responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be
simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. Lower in the band, the response will be
rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band,
more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points.
Band 3 (9–12)
self-report studies produce an accurate picture of crime. Sociological terms and concepts will
be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well
Candidates may be able to present a range of points to support the idea that self-report
studies produce an accurate picture of crime, but also be aware of some of the weaknesses
i.e. lack of representativeness, respondents may underplay or exaggerate their criminality
reducing in validity issues etc. There will be a two-sided response but this may be
the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether self-report
studies produce an accurate picture of crime. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as
developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. For example,
candidates may say that as well as agreeing that self-report studies are useful in helping to
reveal a more accurate picture of crime, there are also other ways of doing this i.e. using
victim surveys which may be higher in validity etc. Responses will be two-sided and
balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion.
Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what
extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show
consideration of points for and against the idea of whether self-report studies produce an
accurate picture of crime, citing some of the examples given.

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Section D: Media
4 Representations of women in the media are a widely debated topic. Some sociologists
believe them to be stereotyped and others see them as positive role models. However, this
is not the only way that the media is thought to be influential. It is also thought to be a big
influence on political attitudes and voting.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘role model’? [2]
Individuals seen in the media who act as examples to the audience who try to copy their
attitudes, behaviour or appearance.
One mark for partial definition. e.g. people you look up to.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. someone in the media who is influential for members of
the audience. They may imitate their actions or dress sense, for example.
(b) Describe two traditional stereotypes of women found in the media. [4]
Candidates will describe two traditional stereotypes of women often seen in the media.
Possible answers:
• Housewife/homemaker/domestic role;
• Child carer/mother;
• Sex object;
• Victim role/in need of rescue;
• Emotional/caring;
• Very focused on their appearance;
• Physically weak/small/fragile;
• Low status/low paid/part time work;
• The nagging wife;
• The bad driver;
• The blonde bimbo/dumb blonde;
• Stereotypes from Meehan’s study i.e. the ‘harpy’;
One mark for each female stereotype correctly identified (up to a maximum of two).
One mark for each female stereotype developed (up to a maximum of two).
(c) Explain how people from different social classes use the media in different ways. [6]
Candidates should show an awareness of how people from different social classes use the
media in different ways.
Possible answers:
• Newspapers are frequently associated with specific social classes (tabloids ‘vs’
broadsheets) and contain opinions and attitudes targeted at these different classes
which explains different consumption and reading habits;
• Mainstream TV is aimed at a mass audience who are largely working class whilst more
specialist/niche media targets the higher classes;

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• The lower classes are more likely to use the media for entertainment and escapism,
often buying satellite and cable TV, whereas the higher social classes are more likely to
use it for information and education (uses and gratifications theory);
• Use of the media may be linked to the education of the audience and this is often closely
linked to social class;
• Marxists believe the media diverts working class attention away from the inequalities in
society and thus prevents rebellion and resistance to the bourgeoisie;
• Pluralists believe that the range of content in the media allows people from different
social classes to use the media in the way that suits them best, offering them choice and
diversity to meet their needs;
• There is a digital divide associated with the use of the internet between different social
classes based on cost issues;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how people in different social
classes use the media in different ways. Responses may be short and un/under developed.
At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks),
‘the lower social classes are more likely to buy and read tabloid newspapers.’
Band 2 (4–6)
how people in different social classes use the media in different ways. For example,
recognising that there are different reasons for media consumption and that these may be
closely linked to social class background. Escapism and entertainment maybe more targeted
at the lower classes, and education and information to the higher classes, for example.
Sociological language and concepts should be expected. At the bottom of the band, the
range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover
(d) Explain why the media can influence the political attitudes of the audience. [8]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of the ways the media can influence the
political attitudes of the audience. Candidates could approach this question through
discussion of media effects theories or through examples specifically about political attitudes.
Possible answers:
• Newspapers are often politically biased through their focus, choice of stories, opinions
expressed and the language used which can all influence the audience;
• During elections, political parties make extensive use of the media in order to ‘sell
themselves’ to the audience – the potential voters who can be influenced by this i.e.
party political broadcasts;
• The Sun newspaper in the UK claims that it can influence how people vote and so
determine the result of an election, ‘It’s the Sun wot won it’;
• Reporting of the opinion polls in the media can influence patterns of voting in the
predictions they make of the results of an election;
• Hypodermic syringe model – the media has a direct effect on the political attitudes of the
audience;

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• Cultural effects approach – a repeated picture seen in the media of a particular political
party or party leader or party policies, slowly effects the audience to believe what they
are seeing and hearing;
• Social media allows 24/7 access to the media for the political parties through sites such
as facebook, twitter etc. meaning that potential influence can be instant, pervasive and
global;
• Research from the Glasgow University Media Group indicates that the media can
influence the political attitudes of the audience i.e. in times of War;
• Spin Doctors – these are frequently used and hired by political figures and parties in
order to manipulate and control their media image to influence political attitudes;
• Government censorship and propaganda directly influences the political attitudes of the
audience as what is broadcast is limited, controlled and manipulated;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why the media can influence the
political attitudes of the audience. Candidates may not understand what is meant by ‘political
attitudes’. Responses may be short and undeveloped. e.g. ‘the media tells us how we should
vote’, without justification/explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be
Band 2 (4–6)
media can influence the political attitudes of the audience. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lacking in range. Candidates may explain some of the ways the media
can influence political attitudes e.g. ‘some Governments control the political information
available to the audience through censorship which will affect their attitudes. It also depends
on how the politicians are represented in the media; the use of spin doctors to control public
image may manipulate and influence political attitudes’. At the bottom of the band,
Band 3 (7–8)
media can influence political attitudes and will be well developed and explained. Sociological
terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well focused on the
question and there will be a range of reasons presented. Candidates are likely to recognise
that different media products present different views on politics and thus that this will affect
political socialisation. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.
(e) To what extent do stereotypical media representations negatively affect the audience?
[15]
Candidates are likely to look at a range of different stereotypical media representations in

their response. These could be focused on gender, ethnicity, age, class and/or disability.
Possible answers:

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For
• Invisibility/absence of certain groups in terms of representation i.e. older women in high

status positions;
• Some groups are under-represented in the media, the disabled for example, which
lowers their power and status in society;
• Sometimes representations of certain groups in the media appears to be a ‘token
gesture’ i.e. ethnic minorities – done because they’re expected to rather than really trying
to create an even balance;
• Stereotypes are one-sided and exaggerated images which give only a partial
representation of the social group involved;
• The ‘male gaze’ – media representations are constructed from a male point of view (by
men, for men) resulting in males seeming to have more power and status than females;
• Ethnic minorities are frequently portrayed in limited, stereotypical ways i.e. the
entertainer, criminal, danger/threat, drugs and gang involvement, terrorists, unintelligent,
lacking morals etc.;
• Females are often shown in the home in a limited number of domestic roles with men in
the positions of power; objectified with the focus being on their appearance and looking
a certain way (usually skinny); image manipulation portrays unobtainable images of
women that puts the female audience under pressure to conform (aging/eating disorders
etc.) ; shown to be passive and helpless, in need of a man; shown in a limited range of
roles on TV which may limit female aspirations in society;
• Age – teenagers are often shown as ‘trouble’, older people as vulnerable and miserable.
This may affect the behaviour and attitudes of the audience;
• The working class tend to be under-represented in the media and may be associated
with debt, strained family relationships, conflict and crime;
• The underclass are frequently shown as scroungers and as welfare dependant which
sets the agenda for how we think of such people in society;
• People with a disability are often shown to be different, incapable, dependant, ridiculed
and pitied. This leads to prejudicial attitudes towards them in society;
• Hypodermic effects theory – the audience are directly influenced by media content;
• Cultural effects approach – repeated stereotypical images and representations will result
in the ‘drip drip’ effect making these seem normal;
• Demonisation of immigrants and certain religious groups in a stereotypical way can
negatively affect the audience and their attitudes;
• Labelling theory – this can lead to the labelling of certain individuals/groups as folk devils
leading to moral panics in society and/or a self-fulfilling prophecy;
Against
• The audience are active not passive consumers of the media and can therefore
reject/negotiate the representations that are presented to them in the media (uses and
gratifications theory etc.);
• In a digital age where social media and user generated content are the norm, the
audience can create their own representations and thus challenge the status quo;
• More members of the social groups traditionally stereotyped in the media are now in
positions where they can influence the content and tone of the media – production,
ownership, direction etc.;
• Equality laws and greater awareness of the problems of stereotyping in the media has
resulted in a fairer and more balanced representation of social groups;
• Representations of ethnic minorities are becoming less stereotypical as these groups
start to gain higher status roles in the media – both in terms of production and
representation;

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• More specialist media is now available to cater for niche audience needs meaning that
there are several examples of media stereotypes being subverted and challenged today;
• Female representations are increasingly more positive and varied as women continue to
play a more active role in society. The ‘male gaze’ for example has been challenged by
the ‘female gaze’ and we see high status females regularly in today’s media;
• More complex representations of age groups are now being seen in the media – older
people in active ‘hero’ roles and teenagers as carers;
• Disabled people are also shown more positively in the media, the Paralympics being a
good example here;
• Working class people are also shown positively in terms of community values and
loyalty, looking after one another;
• Some stereotypical representations are not meant to be taken seriously and are
understood and consumed by the audience as satire i.e. ’Little Britain’;
• Stereotypes can be rejected by the audience and can be tools for change – encouraging
us to challenge the status quo and change society;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether stereotypical media representations negatively affect the audience.
undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. people copy the bad things they see in the media. Lower in
the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks)
candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms i.e. a
stereotype is a generalised and simplistic view of a group of people in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether stereotypical media
representations negatively affect the audience. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which
question. There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lack range. Candidates may list different negative media stereotypes.
Band 3 (9–12)
stereotypical media representations negatively affect the audience. Sociological terms and
Candidates may discuss the different media representations seen today and how they are no
longer all stereotyped. They may also recognise the fact that just because something is
stereotyped in the media, doesn’t mean that the audience will necessarily accept it. There
will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band,

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Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether
stereotypical media representations negatively affect the audience. There will be a strong
wide range of points. Candidates may refer to the audience’s differential interpretation of
what is consumed in the media and the role of the active audience in terms of accepting,
negotiating or resisting stereotypes. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the
bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the
the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points
for and against the idea of whether stereotypical media representations negatively affect the
audience, citing some of the examples given.

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Teachers.
®
Cambridge IGCSE , Cambridge International A and AS Level components and some Cambridge O Level
components.

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Section A: Family
1 In modern industrial societies there are many demographic trends that are changing
families and relationships. Marriage, birth and death rates have all been affected in various
ways and with many different consequences. Indeed, whether marriage is still seen to be
important today is now a matter for debate.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘demographic trend’? [2]
Patterns in population change such as the birth and death rate.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. birth rate OR population.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. patterns in the population measured by factors such as
the birth and death rate.
(b) Describe two reasons for the rise in divorce rates. [4]
Candidates will be expected to describe two reasons for the rise in divorce rates. General
reasons for divorce are not creditable unless they are linked to why the rate has increased.
Possible reasons:
x Changes in the law have made divorce easier/possible in many countries, i.e. the UK
Divorce Reform Act;
x Changing attitudes/morals – getting divorced no longer has a stigma attached to it;
x Decline in the importance of religion – secularisation – religious vows are no longer
taken as seriously and are not always seen as being for life;
x Communities no longer exert informal social control over people in order to keep couples
together, due to privatisation and geographical mobility;
x Feminists believe that women are no longer willing to put up with an unfulfilling/abusive
marriage and so will opt for divorce;
x As people live longer and in better health, the potential time they will be married has
increased. This may explain the growing number of people divorcing later in life;
x Responsibilities on the family to care for elderly relatives because of today’s ageing
population;
x Divorce is now much cheaper and can be settled out of court, i.e. ‘DIY’ divorces,
meaning that all members of society can afford to do it;
x Growing expectations of marriage – people expect more and are more willing to leave if
the marriage doesn’t live up to this – empty shell marriages;
x Other reasonable response.
(c) Explain how an ageing population is affecting family life. [6]
Candidates need to show an understanding of how an ageing population is affecting family

life. Effects explained may be either positive or negative or a mixture of both.
Possible answers:
x Many older people rely on their children to care for them in their old age;
x Some households are now three generational as grand-parents move in;
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x A bigger role for grand-parents in helping out with childcare, emotional, practical and
financial support;
x Adult children may have to deal with the pressures and burden of looking after their
elderly parents or deciding to place them in care homes;
x Children may have grand-parents as a key source of primary socialisation;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how an ageing population is
affecting family life and may talk about, e.g. ‘grand-parents moving in’. Responses may be
short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
of how an ageing population is affecting family life. Sociological terms and concepts should
be expected, e.g. ‘As people live longer there becomes an increased need for family to care
for ageing relatives which has both emotional and financial consequences’. This would be
followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of
(d) Explain why the birth rate has fallen in most modern industrial societies. [8]
Candidates should show awareness of the various reasons why the birth rate has fallen.
Possible answers:
x More opportunities for women to work and to have a career has restricted the amount of
children they can have;
x A smaller family makes it easier to move house, important for geographical mobility;
x Wider availability of contraception (often free) allows women to control the amount of
children they have;
x The welfare state, pension and savings means that people will be looked after in old
age, having children to fulfil this role is no longer necessary;
x Fewer children today die during infancy therefore there is little need for families to have
large amounts of children to ensure survival;
x Children may be seen as a financial cost rather than a benefit today as it is very
expensive to raise children;
x Women are typically having children later on in life meaning their opportunities for having
children are lessened;
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Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why the birth rate has fallen. A
tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘children
cost too much’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be
Band 2 (4–6)
birth rate has fallen. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘It is now
normal for women to engage in paid employment and strive for a career so they don’t have
as many children’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological
terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use
Band 3 (7–8)
birth rate has fallen and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘Women have fought for
equality in society and are therefore in control of their bodies and lives through education,
careers and contraception. They may feel that having a large number of children will prevent
them achieving all that they wish to in life and so decide to just have one or two. Because
they are likely to have their children later on in life too, the possibilities for pregnancy are also
less’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary.
(e) To what extent is marriage still seen to be important in modern industrial societies?[15]
Candidates should show awareness of the ways that marriage is seen to be important today
as well as considering the arguments for its lesser importance. It is likely that there will be a
wide range of cultural and religious examples used in candidates’ answers, reflecting their
diverse experiences and backgrounds. Points and arguments can be used both for and
against the question depending on the candidates’ explanations and examiners should credit
these accordingly.
Possible answers:
For:
x A growing number of marriages today are remarriages, emphasising that it is still seen
as important;
x For religious individuals and communities, marriage is still highly valued;
x Homosexuals have pushed for changes in the law to legalise gay marriages,
emphasising that it is still seen to be important;
x Most people are still socialised to believe that they will get married and hope and look
forward to this;
x Many people choose to get married later in life, wanting to choose the right partner. This
emphasises how it is still seen to be important;
x Civil partnerships are now commonplace, giving the same rights to same sex couples as
married couples therefore suggesting that the concept of marriage is still important;
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x Serial monogamy through marriage is now commonplace and accepted;

x The divorce rate has started to decline;
x Cohabitation as a precursor to marriage, i.e. a ‘trial marriage’ showing that marriage is
still seen to be important;
x Marriage is seen by many to legitimise their relationship and is still therefore wanted and
valued;
x Arranged marriages are still the norm in some modern industrial societies;
Against:
x Fall in the marriage rate;
x Divorce easily available and no longer frowned upon;
x Growing number of one person households and people (especially middle class women)
choosing singlehood over marriage;
x Increasing acceptance of homosexual relationships;
x People choosing to live together in households/communes rather than the traditional
path of marriage;
x Increasing amount of and acceptance of cohabitation;
x Women may choose to have and raise children on their own as single parents without
the need to be married;
x Decline in religion in secular societies means that marriage may be seen to be less
important and necessary;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether marriage is still seen to be important in modern industrial society. Use
one-sided, e.g. less marriages happen today showing it’s not that important anymore. Lower
in the band (1–2 marks) expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks)
marriage is the formal union of two people recognised by law, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether marriage is still seen to
be important in modern industrial society. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is
unlikely, e.g. ‘A lot of people today choose to live together without getting married as this isn’t
seen to be a bad thing anymore’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the
covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer
with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.
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Band 3 (9–12)
marriage is still seen to be important in modern industrial society. Sociological terms and
Candidates may say that, e.g. Marriage is undeniably less common than in the past as
statistics prove. A key reason for this may be the fact that many societies are now secular
and so there is less pressure and need to get married. Many people therefore choose to
cohabit instead.’ There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the
bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well developed points. At
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether marriage
is still seen to be important in modern industrial society. There will be a strong grasp of the
Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer
may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an
Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of whether marriage
is still seen as important, citing some of the examples given.
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2 Educational achievement is argued to be linked to many things, one of which is IQ Tests.

Different types of education exist to suit the needs of all students, a recent example of
which is vocationalism. Some sociologists still believe, however, that male and female
students do not receive the same opportunities and experiences within education and that
this affects their levels of achievement.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘IQ Tests’? [2]
Intelligence quotient tests – answering questions that are then used to work out a score,
which supposedly indicates how intelligent the person is.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. how clever you are.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. a set of questions to measure intelligence.
(b) Describe two ways that the peer group a child belongs to can affect his or her
Candidates will describe two different ways. It may be that one way the candidate chooses to
describe is positive and the other negative.
Possible answers:
x Peer group based on gender – male students often engage in laddish behaviour,
seeking peer group status through misbehaviour and so form an anti-school subculture,
e.g. Willis study;
x Peer group based on gender – female students tend to have more positive attitudes
towards education and thus work and try harder than males;
x Peer group based on low class position – lower class students do least well in education
– lack of parental encouragement, material/cultural deprivation, teacher labelling, self-
fulfilling prophecy, etc.;
x Peer group based on high class position – culture of valuing education, may be in fee
paying private schools with a competitive ethos, cultural capital, etc.;
x Peer group based on ethnicity – may not do as well due to perceptions of racism,
ethnocentric curriculum, discrimination, stereotyping, language barriers, setting and
streaming, labelling and stereotyping, culture clash ;
x Anti-school subcultures – tend not to value education and thus do not do work, disrupt
lessons, etc.;
x Pro-school subcultures – education and learning are highly valued, very conformist, work
and try hard;
x Positive labelling from the peer group may counteract school/home factors and result in
higher educational achievement, e.g. re ethnicity;
x Negative labelling may result in a self-fulfilling prophecy whereby the student accepts the
label of ‘failure’ or ‘trouble causer’, etc.;
x Gang culture – a peer group based on gang membership is unlikely to value education;
x Positive peer groups encourage educational success, e.g. homework clubs;
x Negative peer groups do not encourage educational success, e.g. drugs;
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(c) Explain how vocationalism is different from other types of education. [6]
Candidates should show an understanding of the differences between vocationalism and

other types of education.
Vocationalism – education that prepares people for work in a general skills based sense or,
alternatively, trains them for particular jobs/careers.
Possible answers:
x Vocationalism is far more specific in terms of preparing you for a particular area of
work/job than other types of education;
x Vocationalism tends not to lead to university education but to specific careers instead;
x Vocationalism is often seen to have lower status than an academic education;
x Vocationalism is less likely than many other types of education to be classroom based;
x Vocationalism tends to be dominated by working class students;
x Vocationalism does not just test ability and progress via examinations but uses other
means as well – ongoing assessments, skills based tests, etc.;
x Vocationalism often involves ‘hands on’ learning, i.e. work experience;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how vocationalism is different to
other types of education. Responses may be short and undeveloped and there may be
confusion about what is meant by vocationalism. Candidates may only consider
vocationalism or another type of education rather than looking at the differences. At the
simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language,
e.g. ‘where you learn about work.’
Band 2 (4–6)
the differences between vocationalism and other types of education. Sociological terms and
concepts should be expected. Candidates may discuss, e.g. ‘the learning of skills specific to
the workplace, norms and values of the workplace, tested via assessments and skills based
learning rather than traditional examinations taken in schools, etc.’ At the bottom of the band,
the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will
cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.
(d) Explain why tests used to measure intelligence may not be accurate. [8]
Candidates should show understanding of the various reasons why tests used to measure
intelligence may not be accurate.
Possible reasons:
x IQ tests are based on a narrow range of reasoning skills and exclude other types of
intelligence, e.g. Gardner study;
x Some people with low IQ scores go on to do well in education and careers;
x Performance on IQ tests improves with practice-some parents (typically middle class)
make their children practise the tests more than others, thus questioning the accuracy of
any test results gained as a measure of intelligence;
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x Performance on IQ tests can be affected by factors such as nerves or feeling ill;

x IQ tests are taken at just one moment in time whereas intelligence develops over time;
x Are IQ tests testing innate intelligence or environmental factors? If the environment
affects intelligence then higher test scores may merely indicate a more positive learning
environment when the child was younger;
x IQ tests are written by people who will build into tests their own cultural norms and
assumptions (typically white and middle class) so those not from that cultural
background are less likely to do well;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why tests used to measure
intelligence may not be accurate. Candidates may only discuss tests generally, rather than
IQ tests specifically. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘unfair’ without
justification. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the
band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer
Band 2 (4–6)
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why tests
used to measure intelligence may not be accurate. Responses may be underdeveloped and
lacking in range. Answers may concentrate on just a few points with little detail and so be a
little narrow. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and
terms and concepts with greater accuracy, i.e. linking points to ideas about class and ethnic
background. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed.
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why tests
used to measure intelligence may not be accurate and will be well developed and explained,
e.g. ‘Intelligence tests may not be a true test of intelligence because they will contain the
cultural biases of those who have written them. They are typically written by the ‘cultural elite’
and so will be biased towards the higher classes. This may well explain why those from
higher classes do well on these tests rather than it being that they are more intelligent.’
Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well
focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the
(e) To what extent is there equality of opportunity for male and female students in
education? [15]
Candidates should show an awareness of the various types of equality of opportunity

available to individuals in education – this may include consideration of schools, teachers,
curriculum, subjects, policies, expectations and subject choice.
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Possible answers:
For:
x The students that do best in education are the ones that work and try the hardest; a
meritocracy (functionalist ideas), nothing to do with gender;
x National curriculum ensures that all students, no matter what gender, have the options to
study the same subjects;
x Anti-discrimination policies and legislation;
x Feminist movement – has raised the aspirations and rights of females, thus giving them
equal opportunities in education;
x Teachers are both male and female, offering potential role models to both genders;
x Single sex schools exist for both male and female students;
x Teachers treat all students equally or else will face sanctions;
x Positive discrimination and educational policies have been introduced to ensure equality
of opportunity for male and female students;
Against:
x Girls do better than boys now in many systems of education;
x Teachers still have different expectations of girls and boys;
x Extra resources in deprived areas, i.e. educational action zones, rebuilding projects
x Girls and boys may study different subjects, i.e. boys dominate maths, engineering and
science and girls in communication, caring and creative subjects which leads to
inequalities in later life (perceived as higher prestige subjects, etc.)
x Girls and boys may not get the same opportunities when it comes to sports;
x Despite doing better in education, in employment girls are still typically not as successful
as boys – patriarchy, vertical/horizontal segregation, glass ceiling, etc.
x Boys are more likely to be seen in schools as problems – higher exclusion rates, etc. –
meaning negative teacher labelling is more likely and a self-fulfilling prophecy possible;
x In some cultures boys still have more status than girls;
x Teaching is a female dominated profession in many countries yet within schools position
of – power and high status are still dominated by males. This affects the role modelling
process;
x Teachers do not always challenge the physical domination of space often seen by boys
in classrooms;
x Laddish culture/culture of masculinity may hold male pupils back academically;
x Boys are more likely to form anti-school subcultures than girls;
x Boys and girls may be sanctioned differently within schools;
x Girls don’t always get the same opportunity to go to school
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Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether there is equality of opportunity for male and female students in
education. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short,
undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘Boys are treated more harshly than girls’. Lower in the
‘equality means treating everyone the same’, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether there is equality of
opportunity for male and female students in education. Alternatively, they may offer an
by the question. Answers may list factors of equality of opportunity for male and female
students. There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
unlikely. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and
Band 3 (9–12)
there is equality of opportunity for male and female students in education. Sociological terms
and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part,
answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points
presented. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of
the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of
the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Candidates may
outline that, e.g. although in general equality laws are now in place for males and females
meaning they are treated the same, teachers may still have different expectations of them.
Boys may be expected to be more disruptive and so may be negatively labelled and targeted
more than the girls, meaning they are not given the same opportunities in the classroom.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether there is
equality of opportunity for male and female students in education. There will be a strong
wide range of points. Candidates may outline factors of equality of opportunity and other
factors which can go against this, e.g. sexism, lack of high status female role models, culture
of masculinity and stereotypes, etc. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the
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3 Some social groups seem to commit more crime than others. There is a range of
sociological explanations, including inadequate socialisation, to explain these crime rates.
Other sociologists disagree, however, believing it is more about factors such as status
frustration.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘inadequate socialisation’? [2]
When the learning of society’s norms and values has not been effective.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. not brought up well/poorly socialised/being criminal.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. failure to learn the agreed norms and values of society
properly; the learning of inappropriate/criminal norms and values.
(b) Describe two patterns of crime linked to age. [4]
Candidates will describe two patterns of crime linked to age. Patterns may be interpreted as
statistical figures/trends or types of crimes. Either is fine to credit. Candidates can focus on
any age group in their answer.
Possible answers:
x Most crimes are committed by young people, 15–25 year olds are the group most likely
to offend;
x High proportions of young people commit crime, these tend to be non-violent and are
rarely repeated – juvenile delinquency (may refer to status crimes here, e.g. underage
drinking of alcohol);
x Young people typically commit petty crime;
x Shoplifting, robbery, drug crimes are often associated with young people;
x Young boys are more likely to offend than young girls;
x Very little crime is committed by older people;
x The crime rates of older people are increasing, i.e. Japan – often linked to the economy;
x Honour killings associated with adults;
x Corporate/white-collar crime linked to adults;
x Fundamentalism linked to young people;
x Street crime associated with young people’
x Gang crime associated with young people;
x Crimes using new technologies such as cyber-bullying and illegal media downloading
are more likely to be committed by young people;
One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two)
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(c) Explain how gender affects crime rates. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of the ways in which gender can affect
crime rates. They may discuss either males or females or both.
Possible answers:
x Males commit more crime than females according to statistics;
x Males are likely to have more opportunities to commit crime in the workplace, i.e.
corporate crime/white-collar crime;
x Males are more likely to be on the streets as they are typically subject to less social
control than females and so have more opportunities to commit crime;
x Males and females are still typically socialised differently (i.e. Oakley study) and so have
different attitudes and behaviours which may affect crime rates;
x Males are more likely to be labelled as criminals which may lead to them being targeted
more often than females and so result in a self-fulfilling prophecy;
x Females are more likely to be victims of domestic violence and sexual assault and males
are more likely to be the perpetrators of these crimes;
x Differences in the types of crimes committed by males and females;
x Female crime is thought to be hidden – chivalry thesis;
x Females thought to be treated more harshly than males if they commit crimes that go
against their femininity, i.e. child abuse – Heidensohn’s idea of ‘double deviance’;
x Female crime rate is rising, e.g. ‘ladette’ culture/girl gangs;
x Females have fewer opportunities to commit crimes due to their domestic
responsibilities;
x Male crimes are more likely to involve aggression and violence than female crimes;
x Males are more likely to be targeted by the police as criminals (i.e. higher stop and
search rates) than females and thus are more likely to be caught;
x Females are more likely to work as prostitutes and be victims of human trafficking,
particularly in the sex trade;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how gender affects crime rates.
Responses may be short and undeveloped. Candidates may be confused as to what is
meant by a crime rate. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in
sociological language, e.g. ‘men do more crime than women’.
Band 2 (4–6)
how gender affects crime rates. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected.
Candidates may refer to the dark figure of crime, feminism, police targeting, validity, chivalry
thesis, etc. with examples. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be
narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-
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(d) Explain why primary socialisation may cause some people to commit crime. [8]
Candidates need to identify the links between socialisation in the family and crime. They may
approach this question by discussing how the family socialisation process causes crime
generally or may focus on specific social factors such as gender, class, etc.
Possible answers:
x If socialisation in the family hasn’t been done properly then children may fail to learn the
required norms and values to conform to society;
x There may be criminals in the family who act as role models for younger children, i.e.
parent/older siblings;
x Children imitate older people and therefore they are likely to copy behaviour and
attitudes that they are brought up with in the family;
x Boys are socialised to be masculine and adventurous through primary socialisation and
this thrill seeking behaviour is closely linked to criminality;
x Boys tend to be less socially controlled than females in the family and therefore have
more opportunities to commit crimes;
x New Right believe that changes to the structure of the family, i.e. a decline in the nuclear
family, has led to increased levels of crime due to inadequate socialisation;
x In some families there may be only one parent, most often a female, meaning there may
be a lack of discipline through no father figure present;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why primary socialisation may
cause some people to commit crime. Candidates may not fully understand what is meant by
primary socialisation. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. Parents have to make
sure their children don’t commit crimes. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to
be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band
Band 2 (4–6)
primary socialisation may cause some people to commit crime. Candidates may say that,
e.g. ‘boys are socialised to be more aggressive than females or the underclass may
inadequately socialise their children leading to them being more likely to commit crime’.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band,
Band 3 (7–8)
primary socialisation may cause some people to commit crime and will be well developed
and explained. Candidates may consider social factors, i.e. class and/or gender as well as
more general points about inadequate socialisation, etc. Sociological terms and concepts will
be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a
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(e) To what extent does status frustration explain why some individuals commit crime?[15]
Candidates need to show an understanding of what is meant by the term ‘status frustration’
and why this may lead some individuals to commit crime.
Status frustration – a sense of frustration in individuals or groups arising because they are
denied status and prestige in society (Cohen).
Possible answers:
For:
x Males – high unemployment and the decline of the traditional male breadwinner role
leaves males searching for status in society;
x Young people with few qualifications struggle to find employment which may lead to
status frustration;
x Gang culture – many members are searching for the status that they cannot find in
society;
x Young people are in a period of transition and so are often without status in society
which may lead to crime;
x Peer group pressure may lead many young people to commit crime in order to gain
status;
x Culture of masculinity may lead some people to commit crime on order to gain status
within their peer group;
x Those from the lower social classes may struggle to find status legitimately in society
and thus turn to crime in order to obtain it instead;
x Ethnic minorities are sometimes denied status in society and therefore may turn to crime
to achieve this;
x Loss of status for elderly people may lead to crime being committed;
Against:
x Functionalist explanations for crime, i.e. crime is a good thing for society;
x Durkheim’s concept of anomie;
x Merton’s strain theory – crime is caused by a structural inability to gain wealth and status
legitimately;
x New Right explanations of crime – crime is caused because of a decline in social control
and morality;
x Marxist explanations for crime – crime is resistance to capitalism;
x Labelling/self-fulfilling prophecy causes crime;
x Peer group pressure leads to crime, particularly amongst the young;
x Inadequate socialisation leads to crime;
x Lack of opportunity in society to be successful means some people turn to crime;
x Illegitimate opportunity structure (Cloward and Ohlin);
x Material and/or relative deprivation leads to crime;
x Factors leading to criminality associated with gender, e.g. patriarchy/pressure on the
male to be the breadwinner;
x Factors leading to criminality associated with ethnicity, e.g. discrimination, alienation;
x Factors leading to criminality associated with social class, e.g. inequalities in society, few
opportunities for social mobility;
x Factors leading to criminality associated with age, e.g. youth gangs, juvenile
delinquency;
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Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether status frustration explains why some individuals commit crime. Use of
one-sided, e.g. some people commit crime because they get frustrated. Lower in the band
(1-2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may
offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. status frustration is
being angry about not having any status, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether status frustration
explains why some individuals commit crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which
question. There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Candidates may
discuss some reasons why status frustration may lead to crime ie lack of qualifications,
pressure to be masculine, high unemployment, etc. but responses may be underdeveloped
Band 3 (9–12)
status frustration explains why some individuals commit crime. Sociological terms and
Candidates may be able to present a range of points to support the idea that status
frustration leads to crime, but also be aware of some of the other explanations ie anomie,
Marxism, Labelling theory, etc. There will be a two-sided response but this may be
the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether status
frustration explains why some individuals commit crime. There will be a strong grasp of the
For example, candidates may say that as well as agreeing that status frustration can lead to
crime for young males in particular due to gang culture and a lack of qualifications, there are
also other explanations for crime and that not all young males turn to crime, etc. Responses
of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.
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Section D: Media
4 We have now entered a new era in the media world where citizen journalism has become
the norm. However, many sociologists believe owners still decide what the audience
receives in both the new and traditional media.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘citizen journalism’? [2]
Ways in which the public can gather and distribute information to an audience.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. filming news on your phone
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. members of the public can record and then distribute
information, i.e. through social networking sites
(b) Describe two examples of the digital divide. [4]
Candidates will describe two examples of the digital divide.
Digital Divide – inequalities between groups in their access to media and ICT.
Possible answers:
x The cost of computers and ICT may make them unaffordable for the working class;
x There is a global digital divide whereby poor people in developing countries have
minimal access to new media;
x Older people access/use digital technology far less frequently than younger people;
x Europe and USA represent the majority of the world’s internet users (approx 40%);
x Some areas of countries (often rural areas) still have limited broadband availability
reducing their ability to use and access digital technology;
x Some countries still limit users access to digital information, i.e. through government
censorship;
(c) Explain how new media are different from traditional media. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of the ways new media are different from
traditional media. Candidates may focus on examples, forms of media, audience usage,
functionality, etc. in their answer.
Possible answers:
x Traditional media communicate in a one way process to a mass audience, e.g. media
content/message is sent from the media to the audience;
x Traditional media offer the audience little consumer choice;
x Traditional media are typically kept and used in one place, i.e. the TV in the living room;
x Traditional media tends to be owned by a large media corporation;
x New media are associated with screen based digital technology, i.e. internet, computers,
tablets, satellite TV, e-books, digi-boxes, etc.;
x New media allows the consumer to personalise their media consumption as per their
individual tastes and preferences;
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x New media allows for user generated content on platforms such as social media and
Youtube;
x New media offers the consumer a vast array of choice;
x New media are often portable, allowing the consumer to access media products when
and where they choose;
x New media are often about a single device with multi-functionality, i.e. mobile phones –
convergence;
x New media are interactive – the consumer can engage with the media product and
effectively have a voice, i.e. voting on TV talent shows, etc.;
x New media are often not associated with large multinational companies, being produced
by smaller independent companies and/or the audience themselves;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how new media are different from
traditional media. Responses may be short and undeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1
sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘new media gives people more
choice of TV channels’.
Band 2 (4–6)
how new media are different from traditional media. For example, ‘New media is far more
interactive than the one way communication found in the traditional media. The audience can
interact with shows, i.e. voting for contestants in TV talent shows. They can also upload their
own media to social networks and so be active participants in media production also’.
Sociological ideas and concepts should be expected. At the bottom of the band, the range of
(d) Explain why advertising has an important role to play in the media industry. [8]
Candidates should explain why advertising has an important role to play in the media
industry. Adverts in a range of mediums (i.e. TV, print, film, etc.) may all be considered.
Possible answers:
x Increasing prominence in consumer society of advertising emphasises the importance of
its role;
x Advertising is the main source of income for privately owned media so plays a vital role
in the media industry;
x Importance of advertising revenue means media industries focus on attracting a mass
audience with spending power to ensure advertisers want to work with them;
x The need to appeal to advertisers means niche audiences and audiences with little
spending power are likely to be ignored by the media;
x Advertising can be seen as a form of propaganda – around us in many different formats
– and so has an important role to play in the industry;
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x Advertisers link their products with things that we place positive values on so reinforce
norms and values/maintain the status quo therefore being an important part of the media
industry;
x Harder to tell the difference between advertising and content – product placement for
example – so advertising has an increasingly important role in the media industry;
x Advertising often portrays males and females in particular ways, pressurising the
audience to look a certain way that is unachievable and unrealistic; this can lead to
issues surrounding body image, eating disorders etc. and so is an important and often
criticised part of the media industry;
x Models of media effects such as the hypodermic syringe demonstrate the power of
advertising over the consumer, e.g. children and pester power, meaning it has an
important role to play in the media industry;
x Marxism – advertising can be seen as a tool of the bourgeoisie to control the minds and
consumption patterns of the audience and to normalise/legitimise capitalism;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why advertising has an important
role to play in the media industry the media. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g.
‘sells us things’ without justification/explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely
to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band
Band 2 (4–6)
advertising has an important role to play in the media industry. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lacking in range. Candidates may explain some of the ways advertising
has an important role to play in the media industry, e.g. role models, reinforcing norms and
values, consumption, mass appeal, etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to
Band 3 (7–8)
advertising has an important role to play in the media industry and will be well developed and
explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be
well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. Candidates
may explain the idea that advertising in the postmodern world is thought by many to
determine media content and therefore directly influences the mass appeal nature of much
media output. The proliferation of media platforms and products owned privately means
income from advertising is essential for survival. At the top of the band explanations will be
clear throughout.
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(e) To what extent do media owners determine the content of the media? [15]
Candidates could use some of the points in the ‘for’ section as points against and vice versa.
As long as these make sense then this is fine to credit.
Possible answers:
For:
x Marxism – media is owned and controlled by the capitalist class who use them as a
means to control the proletariat and keep them in a state of false consciousness;
x Media owners divert attention from serious issues in society by the focus on mass
appeal, celebrity focused media;
x Alternative and niche points of view are rarely seen/heard in the media and when they
are, are often marginalised through the owners desire to keep control;
x Owners may directly control the content of the media as they tell staff what to do and
control them as they pay the wages;
x Owners may appoint staff who agree with their point of view, i.e. politically;
x Owners typically now work on a global scale, leading to mass produced, homogeneous
content to appeal to this global audience, i.e. Disney;
x The state can also sometimes be the media owners and so may use the media to
influence people’s views, sometimes in extreme ways such as propaganda and
censorship;
Against:
x Advertisers control the content of the media, not owners as so much media content is
now dependent upon them for finance;
x Media controllers (editors, journalists, etc.) exert control over media content as they
make the key day-to-day decisions;
x Media owners frequently delegate decision making to their controllers;
x In global companies media owners cannot control content over so many platforms,
media types and countries;
x Pluralists believe that the audience control media content as companies have to ensure
that what they produce appeals to the audience or it won’t be consumed;
x As so much new media is interactive, the audience can directly control content by user
generated content, social networking sites, globalisation, etc.;
x Citizen journalism allows the audience to have a lot of influence over media content
today;
x Government/laws control media content, i.e. libel, slander, anti-discrimination, etc.;
x Most media companies today are funded and therefore owned by their shareholders –
therefore they control content, not the owners;
x Cultural values in the global media may influence media content;
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Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether media owners determine the content of the media. Use of sociological
terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided,
e.g. ‘owners decide what to put in the media’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or
two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points
or provide a weak definition of key terms, i.e. ‘owners are the people who control the media’,
in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether media owners determine
the content of the media. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature
but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be
limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack
range. Candidates may list ways owners can control media content. Answers may be
simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. Lower in the band, the response will be
Band 3 (9–12)
media owners determine the content of the media. Sociological terms and concepts will be
Candidates may discuss the different groups of people who may control or influence media
content, such as advertisers, owners, controllers, the audience, etc.There will be a two-sided
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether media
owners determine the content of the media. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as
developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Candidates
may refer to differential control in new media, news values, interactivity, audience choice,
Postmodernism and the need for profit. They may recognise therefore that who determines
the content of the media may depend upon the intended audience, the form of the product
and whether it is traditional or new media. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/23
* 2 7 5 4 7 8 8 4 0 4 *

DC (NH) 122820
PAGE 170
Section A: Family
1 In modern industrial societies there are many types of family and family members play many
different roles. A dual worker family is one example of a family type often seen today. Parents,
children and members of the extended family all have important roles to play in family life.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘dual worker family’? [2]
(b) Describe two traditional conjugal roles. [4]
(c) Explain how some families today can be described as child-centred. [6]
(d) Explain why grand-parents and the extended family may have an important role to play in
many families today. [8]
(e) To what extent have family roles changed in modern industrial societies? [15]
2 In modern industrial societies there are many different schools that students can attend, one of
which is a comprehensive school. Many sociologists believe that having so much choice is a good
thing and improves the quality of education for students. Some social groups, however, still achieve
better than others within the education system.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘the comprehensive system’? [2]
(b) Describe two types of schools, apart from comprehensives. [4]
(c) Explain how the existence of a range of different types of schools in modern industrial
societies may be good for students. [6]
(d) Explain why social class may be the most important factor in determining how well a student
achieves in education. [8]
(e) To what extent do setting and streaming affect a child’s educational achievement? [15]
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3 Stories about crime are often exaggerated in the media and are thought by many to lead to
deviancy amplification. Therefore, successful policing strategies are essential to prevent crime in
society.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘deviancy amplification’? [2]
(b) Describe two policing strategies that aim to prevent crime. [4]
(c) Explain how prisons can reduce crime. [6]
(d) Explain why white-collar crimes are under-represented in the official crime statistics. [8]
(e) To what extent do the media determine what is seen as criminal and deviant? [15]
Section D: Media
4 The media today are changing. This is true for the various forms of media available and how the
media are used. However, much of the content is still sensationalised to help attract an audience
and not everybody believes the media always tell the truth.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘sensationalised’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways that the media today are global. [4]
(c) Explain how governments can censor media content. [6]
(d) Explain why the Internet has changed the way audiences use the media today. [8]
(e) To what extent is the news biased? [15]
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/23
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Teachers.
®
Cambridge IGCSE , Cambridge International A and AS Level components and some Cambridge O Level
components.

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Section A: Family
1 In modern industrial societies there are many types of family and family members play
many different roles. A dual worker family is one example of a family type often seen
today. Parents, children and members of the extended family all have important roles to
play in family life.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘dual worker family’? [2]
Families in which both the man and the woman do paid work.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. everyone works.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. Both spouses/partners are in paid employment.
(b) Describe two traditional conjugal roles. [4]
Candidates will be expected to describe two traditional conjugal roles.

Traditional conjugal roles– the segregated roles assumed to be normal in the traditional
nuclear family. Key idea is that men and women have clearly different roles.
Possible roles:
x Female childcare role;
x Female domestic role/housework;
x Female role is unpaid;
x Female role is seen to be less important/lower status than the male role;
x Female has limited time for employment therefore may either not work or work part time;
x Male is the breadwinner/provider;
x Male works in full time employment, spending little time in the domestic sphere;
x Male makes financial decisions;
x Male has more power and status;
(c) Explain how some families today can be described as child-centred. [6]
Candidates need to show an understanding of what is meant by the term child-centred within
their response.
Child centred – when the child’s needs and wishes are the most important considerations for
the family/parents.
Possible answers:
x New laws/rights give children power, i.e. physical reprimands by parents (e.g. smacking)
are often no longer acceptable and may be defined as abuse;
x UN Convention – ‘Rights of the Child’– has been signed by most countries and gives
children the right to say what they think and be listened to about decisions being taken
which affect them, e.g. divorce cases;
x Childhood is seen as a period of innocence where children are protected from the adult
world, i.e. not having to work;
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x Media influence through advertising – there is a specialist consumer market aimed at

children that marks children’s status as being something special which parents often buy
into – clothes, activities, toys, clothing, media products, etc.;
x Children are seen to be very important to family life, central to it, particularly with a lot of
adults now choosing to have less children. They are given a lot of parental time, etc.;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how some families can be
described as child-centred, e.g. ‘children are really important’. Responses may be short and
undeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band
(2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency
language.
Band 2 (4–6)
of how some families can be described as child-centred. Sociological terms and concepts
should be expected, e.g. ‘In the modern world children are seen as distinct and different to
adults and are treated accordingly. They are protected by parents and bought specialist
products for the ‘child market.’ This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to
this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail.
Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover
(d) Explain why grand-parents and the extended family may have an important role to play
in many families today. [8]
Candidates should show an awareness of why both grand-parents and the extended family
have an important role to play in families today. A wide variety of cultural variations and
examples are likely to be seen in candidates’ responses and will need to be credited here.
Possible answers:
x People live longer today and are more healthy into old age, meaning they are able to
play a role in family life, i.e. for childcare – both parents frequently need to work today for
financial reasons and/or to help out in single parent families;
x There are now many step grand-parents and step extended families due to the increase
in the divorce rate, widening the potential support network for families;
x Some grand-parents/extended families may live close by and help out on a daily basis,
others will live further away and help out less frequently;
x Many grand-parents will move into the family home as their health worsens/their partner
dies. This allows for easy childcare;
x Elderly family members may require care/looking after by their kin and need to move into
the family home for this to happen;
x Can play an economic role – giving/lending money – particularly important with the high
cost of living today;
x Can give practical support – childcare, domestic chores, etc.;
x Can give emotional and moral support – advice, guidance, listening, etc.;
x Multi-generational households still important in some societies;
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Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why grand-parents and the
extended family may have an important role to play in many families today. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘to look after the
children’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used.
At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks),
Band 2 (4–6)
grand-parents and the extended family may have an important role to play in many families
today. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘Grand-parents play an
important role in many families today due to the financial help they can give to single parents,
for example.’ ‘Extended family play an important role in family life today by offering guidance
and advice to parents’, etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use
sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be
Band 3 (7–8)
grand-parents and the extended family may have an important role to play in many families
today and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘Grand-parents are able to play an
active role in family life today because with advancements in healthcare they are likely to live
longer. They can therefore help out with childcare and socialisation enabling parents to go
out to work to provide for their family, increasingly common today with the high cost of living’.
(e) To what extent have family roles changed in modern industrial societies? [15]
Candidates should show awareness of the ways that family roles have changed in modern
industrial families and the ways that they have not. A range of different family types and roles
are likely to be discussed.
Possible answers:
For
x The increase in dual worker families has led to the need for more equality within families
today so changing conjugal roles and making them more symmetrical;
x Technological advancements has made the domestic role easier and quicker making
symmetry more viable;
x Other family members (i.e. children/grand-parents) or paid employees (i.e. a cleaner)
take on a lot of the roles within the house today;
x While men and women may do different tasks in the house (i.e. males may do the
maintenance, gardening, DIY and females housework, cooking, etc.) the hours spent by
both on these tasks are similar today;
x Young and Willmott’s research showed that both husband and wife contributed equally to
the family;
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x Families have become more privatised today meaning that the home has become central
to family life, encouraging a more equal partnership between spouses but perhaps more
isolation from wider kin;
x Women today have higher status, more independence and more power in society and so
are more likely to be treated as equals;
x The rise of child centred families means that the role of the children in the family has
typically been given more status and importance;
x Extended and modified extended families often see grand-parents playing a crucial role
in terms of childcare, financial assistance, etc.;
x The rise of single parent families and homosexual families has changed the nature and
form of family roles;
Against
x Segregated conjugal roles still exist/the triple shift for women;
x Women still responsible for most childcare and other caring responsibilities in the family,
i.e. elderly care;
x Women still responsible for housework;
x Women more likely to work part-time;
x Research suggests that whilst there have been many moves towards symmetry in
families, change has been slow and equality is a long way off;
x Feminists argue that for as long as society remains patriarchal, family life will too;
x Men may be more willing to help out with childcare and housework today but the main
responsibility is still the women’s;
x Men continue to make most of the financial decisions within the family;
x In some cultures/religions distinct segregated roles for males and females still exist;
x Children continue to play a subordinate role within the family;
x Grandparents have always played a key role in the family and continue to do so, this has
not changed;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether family roles have changed. Use of sociological terms or concepts is
very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘Men help out in
the house now’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the
band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of
key terms, e.g. family roles are the parts played by various family members, i.e. parents and
children, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether family roles have
changed. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be
no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use
of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range.
Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely, e.g. ‘Women have to go to
work too now so men have to do more in the house’. Lower in the band, the response will be
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Band 3 (9–12)
family roles have changed. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater
the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that, e.g.
‘despite more equality within the family, women still do most of the housework and childcare
and can be said to be suffering from a dual burden as they also have to go out to work’. OR
‘Children play an increasingly significant role in the family as they have more rights in society
and the family has thus become more child-centred in nature’. There will be a two-sided
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether family
roles have changed. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and
consideration of points for and against the idea of changing family roles, citing some of the
examples given.
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2 In modern industrial societies there are many different schools that students can attend,
one of which is a comprehensive school. Many sociologists believe that having so much
choice is a good thing and improves the quality of education for students. Some social
groups, however, still achieve better than others within the education system.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘the comprehensive system? [2]
Non-selective secondary schools, accepting all children of that age from the local area.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. schools anyone can go to.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. schools that cater for all abilities of students in the local
area.
(b) Describe two types of schools, apart from comprehensives. [4]
Candidates will describe two types of schools. A wide variety of types of schools described
here reflecting the cultural variation of the candidates. These should all be credited.
Possible answers:
x State school;
x Private school;
x Faith school;
x Single sex school;
x Secondary school;
x Primary school;
x Grammar schools;
x Academies;
x Free schools;
x Technical/vocational school;
One mark for each type correctly identified (up to maximum of two).
One mark for each type that is developed (up to a maximum of two).
(c) Explain how the existence of a range of different types of schools in modern industrial
societies may be good for students. [6]
Candidates should show an understanding of a range of different types of schools in their

answer.
Possible answers:
x Students can attend the school that best serves their educational needs;
x Cultural/religious preferences can be accommodated through the type of school
attended, e.g. faith schools;
x Single sex schools are sometimes shown to benefit both males and females when it
comes to educational achievement;
x Students can be educated with other students of similar values and backgrounds;
x Advantages of the private school system for students – smaller class sizes, better
teachers, more resources, etc.;
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x Functionalist view – schools help to sort students out into their future roles, so the
brightest students can be taught together and academically pushed, whilst the weaker
students can be together and supported;
x Students can attend the type of school most suitable for their future career pathway;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the existence of a range
of different types of schools in modern industrial societies may be good for students.
Candidates may only consider a narrow range of schools. At the bottom of the band
(1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more
sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘brighter students can go to
schools where they will get pushed more.’
Band 2 (4–6)
how the existence of a range of different types of schools in modern industrial societies may
be good for students. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected. Candidates may
discuss, e.g. ‘functions, vocationalism, private education, common values, etc.’ At the bottom
of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band,
answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in
less detail.
(d) Explain why social class may be the most important factor in determining how well a
student achieves in education. [8]
Candidates should show understanding of what is meant by the term social class and
consider how it may affect educational performance – benefiting the upper classes and
penalising the lower classes. Expect an accurate identification of recognised class trends in
educational achievement within candidates’ responses.
Possible reasons:
x The lower your class position, the worse you tend to do in education;
x Higher class students may attend private schools where they will be academically
pushed, study for long hours, be in small class sizes, have the best teachers and enjoy
up to date and extensive resources and facilities;
x Teacher labelling – either positively or negatively in terms of social class, may affect
educational achievement, self-fulfilling prophecy/halo effect, etc.;
x Setting and streaming – class seems to affect the set or stream that a pupil is placed into
with the lower sets and streams being dominated by lower class students;
x Cultural deprivation – the need for immediate rather than deferred gratification and/or
absence of books, etc. in the home (Bourdieu);
x Material deprivation – students from the lower social classes may not have as much
money to spend on revision resources, trips, tutors, etc. and may also have to study in
poor, overcrowded conditions;
x Parental pressure and value placed on education may be more the higher the class of
the student;
x Linguistic differences – working class students more likely to use the restricted code
whereas the language of schools is the elaborate code, with which higher class students
are more comfortable and familiar (Bernstein);
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Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why social class may be the most
important factor in determining how well a student does in education. Candidates may not
really know what is meant by social class. Candidates may only discuss general points for
why students do or do not do well in education. Responses may be short and undeveloped,
e.g. ‘not enough money,’ without justification. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to
Band 2 (4–6)
Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why social
class may be the most important factor in determining how well a student does in education.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. Answers may concentrate on just
school factors such as ‘teacher expectations’ or just home factors such as ‘nowhere quiet to
study’ and so be a little narrow. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use
sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why social
class may be the most important factor in determining how well a student does in education
and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘Material deprivation can help to explain why
social class affects how well a student does in education. Students from wealthy homes can
attend private schools where they are pushed to succeed academically by highly achieving
role models – teachers and their peer group. Resources and facilities will all be of the highest
quality so the students will have every opportunity to succeed. This will not be the same
experience for lower class students in non-fee paying education.’ Sociological terms and
concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and
there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear
throughout.
(e) To what extent do setting and streaming affect a child’s educational achievement? [15]
Candidates should show an awareness of what is meant by setting and streaming and how
these may affect a child’s educational achievement. Candidates may talk generically about
both of these elements or deal with each one separately. Either way is fine to credit.
Candidates may also talk about setting and streaming as advantaging students or as
disadvantaging them – again both are acceptable approaches.
Possible answers:
For:
x Those who are put into top sets/streams will become confident, high achievers whereas
those in lower sets/streams will see themselves as failures;
x Teachers may treat pupils in different sets/streams differently, having very little
expectation of those found in the lower sets/streams, for example;
x Teacher labelling of pupils based on the set/stream they are in may result in a self-
fulfilling prophecy that will affect the students work ethic and attitude to school and
learning either negatively or positively;
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x Weaker teachers may be asked to teach the lower sets/streams as they are perceived to
be less important than the higher sets/streams;
x Setting/streaming is not always based on intelligence but also on behaviour meaning
that in the lower sets/streams there may be a culture of bad behaviour that prevents
students from working hard – the opposite in the higher sets;
x School subcultures may form based on the setting/streaming process and affect
educational achievement accordingly, i.e. anti-school subcultures in the lower
sets/streams and pro-school subcultures in the higher sets/streams;
Against:
x It is gender not setting/streaming that determines educational achievement;
x It is social class not setting/streaming that determines educational achievement;
x It is ethnicity not setting/streaming that determines educational achievement;
x Too deterministic – not everyone conforms to the expectations of their school in terms of
setting and streaming;
x Material deprivation not setting/streaming determines educational achievement;
x Cultural deprivation not setting/streaming determines educational achievement;
x Home factors may be more influential than setting and/or streaming;
x Type of school attended may be more influential than setting/streaming in determining
educational achievement;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether setting and streaming affect a child’s educational achievement. Use of
one-sided, e.g. you don’t have the same chances if you are in the lower sets. Lower in the
‘setting means when children are taught in classes of similar ability students’, in the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether setting and streaming
affect a child’s educational achievement. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-
like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question.
Answers may list factors of how setting/streaming affects educational achievement. There
may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped
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Band 3 (9–12)
setting and streaming affect a child’s educational achievement. Sociological terms and
expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Candidates may outline that,
e.g. ‘Those in the lower sets do tend to do least well in education. This may be because of
how they are labelled negatively by their teacher and are not expected to do well. This can
lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy where the student stops trying and so does not succeed.’
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether setting
and streaming affect a child’s educational achievement. There will be a strong grasp of the
Candidates may outline a range of relevant factors, e.g. teacher expectations, gender, anti-
school subculture, social class, labelling, etc. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At
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3 Stories about crime are often exaggerated in the media and are thought by many to lead to
deviancy amplification. Therefore, successful policing strategies are essential to prevent
crime in society.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘deviancy amplification’? [2]
The process by which the media, through exaggeration and distortion, create more crime.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. more crime.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. media reporting leads to more crime and deviance in
society.
(b) Describe two policing strategies that aim to prevent crime. [4]
Candidates will describe two policing strategies – be aware that you are likely to see a wide
variety of different strategies in candidate’s answers that reflect cultural diversity. These
should be credited.
Possible answers:
x Stop and search;
x Police targeting of certain social groups;
x Military policing – force, power, weaponry, etc.;
x Community policing – the ‘make up’ of the police represent the community they are
policing;
x Police surveillance methods;
x Police act as a visible presence in order to deter people from committing crime;
x Power of arrest;
x Fines;
(c) Explain how prisons can reduce crime. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of how prisons can reduce crime.
Possible answers:
x Rehabilitation – changing attitudes and behaviour through education and training in
prison so there are other options for the offender than crime;
x Deterrence – custodial sentencing can put other people off committing crime if conditions
are seen to be harsh and difficult;
x Restorative justice – offender and victim meeting so that the imprisoned offender can
realise the harm they have caused and thus prevent further crimes;
x Loss of freedom – prisoners lose their freedom and thus are unable to continue
committing crime as well as being put off from re-offending;
x Prevention of crime – if they are locked up then criminals are unable to cause harm in
society;
x Punishment – punishing offenders stops both them and others from committing further
crimes;
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x Media – representations of prison life are typically negative and thus can prevent crime
as they deter offending;
x Social control – prisons act as a formal agent of control and so prevent crime;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how prisons can reduce crime.
Responses may be short and un/under developed. Candidates may be confused as to what
prisons do to prevent crime. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point.
using sociological language, e.g. ‘criminals lose their freedom so they can’t commit crime’.
Band 2 (4–6)
how prisons can reduce crime. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected.
Candidates may refer to deterrence, rehabilitation, loss of freedom, formal social control, etc.
with examples. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack
(d) Explain why white-collar crimes are under-represented in the official crime statistics.
[8]
Candidates need to identify what is meant by the term ‘white collar crime’ and be clear why
such crimes may be under-represented in the crime statistics.
Possible answers:
x Crimes committed by the higher classes such as white collar crime are less likely to be
recorded in the crime statistics;
x White collar crimes are less likely to be reported to the police;
x White collar crimes are difficult to detect;
x White collar crimes are less likely to be defined as crimes and less likely to be thought of
as crimes by people;
x White collar crimes may be dealt with by organisations such as the workplace rather
than come to the authorities attention, i.e. get the sack/fired;
x Companies prefer to avoid the publicity of a criminal case and thus may not report white
collar crimes to the police;
x Middle class criminals may find it easier than the lower classes to negotiate justice and
‘talk their way out of’ crimes;
x Middle class criminals are likely to have more money and so are able to buy the best
lawyers/legal representatives and/or sometimes buy their way out of trouble;
x White collar criminals are more likely than working class criminals to be let off in the
courtroom as they do not fit the stereotype of a typical criminal;
x Large amount of white collar crime remains hidden in the dark figure of crime;
x Marxism – crime is defined by the ruling classes and therefore many actions of the ruling
class are not defined as or treated as crimes;
Band 0
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Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why white-collar crimes are
under-represented in the official crime statistics. Candidates may not fully understand what is
meant by white collar crime. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘Not all crimes
are reported to the police’. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the
Band 2 (4–6)
white-collar crimes are under-represented in the official crime statistics. Candidates may say
that, e.g. ‘not all white collar crimes are reported to the police because they are hard to
detect and therefore many victims do not realise that a crime has occurred’. Responses may
be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely
to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be
Band 3 (7–8)
Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why white-
collar crimes are under-represented in the official crime statistics and will be well developed
and explained. Candidates may discuss issues of non-reporting, non-recording and non-
detection as well as Marxist views of white collar crime and the ruling class. Sociological
terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well focused on the
(e) To what extent do the media determine what is seen as criminal and deviant? [15]
Candidates need to show an understanding of whether the media determine what is seen as
criminal and deviant. Candidates need not address both crime and deviance separately in
their response, although some may choose to do so.
Possible answers:
For:
x Media plays a vital role in determining what we see as crime and deviance as few people
come into direct contact with crime and criminals and so what they know they have
learnt from the media;
x In the Postmodern world the media is all around us 24/7 in various different forms and
therefore has a lot of power over us;
x Despite statistics to the contrary, crime rates are typically decreasing but the public think
the opposite – the media is thought to be responsible for this distortion;
x Media creates moral panics and folk devils through selective and exaggerated reporting
– mods and rockers, terrorists, etc.;
x Media labelling certain groups as criminal may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy whereby
people live up to the negative labels they have been given and so cause deviancy
amplification;
x Media stereotypes of who are criminal and deviant leads to the audience believing what
they see and so affecting their perceptions of crime and deviance;
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Against:
x The media merely reflects the true picture of crime as found in the crime statistics;
x The media may present a distorted picture of crime but this does not mean that the
audience believes what they see and hear – uses and gratifications theory;
x Police have the power to determine what is thought of as criminal and deviant not the
media, i.e. stop and search, discretion, targeting, etc.;
x The Government determine what is thought of as criminal and deviant through the law
making procedure, not the media;
x The courts determine what we think of as criminal through their sentencing, not the
media;
x The family through primary socialisation determine what we think of as criminal and
deviant, i.e. through the teaching of norms and values, not the media;
x The peer group influence our thoughts and opinions on what is criminal and deviant, i.e.
through peer pressure and subcultures, not the media;
x The education system influences what we think of as criminal and deviant – through
things such as the hidden curriculum and teacher role models, not the media;
x Religion teaches us what we think of as criminal and deviant through holy books,
religious teachings, etc., not the media;
x The media may be one crucial factor, but not the main/only one;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether the media determine what is seen as criminal and deviant. Use of
one-sided, e.g. the media show us who the bad people are. Lower in the band (1–2 marks),
expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more
than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. criminal is breaking the law, in
the question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether the media determine
what is seen as criminal and deviant. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like
in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There
why the media determines what is seen as criminal and deviant, i.e. exaggeration,
representation, stereotypes, etc. but responses may be underdeveloped and lack range.
Band 3 (9–12)
the media determines what is seen as criminal and deviant. Sociological terms and concepts
Candidates may be able to present a range of points to support the idea that the media does
determine what is seen as criminal and deviant, but also be aware of some of the
© UCLES 2016
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weaknesses in this argument, i.e. police, government, courts, other agencies of socialisation,
etc. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the
band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the
band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question.
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether the media
determines what is seen as criminal and deviant. There will be a strong grasp of the
For example, candidates may say that as well as agreeing that the media can determine
what is seen as criminal and deviant through methods such as moral panics and
sensationalism, there are also other ways of doing this, i.e. police targeting, chivalry thesis,
peer pressure, socialisation, etc. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of
the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there
will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question
through a focused conclusion.
© UCLES 2016
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Section D: Media
4 The media today are changing. This is true for the various forms of media available and
how the media are used. However, much of the content is still sensationalised to help
attract an audience and not everybody believes the media always tell the truth.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘sensationalised’? [2]
A form of bias in the media in which stories are deliberately reported in ways designed to
excite or attract consumers.
One mark for partial definition, e.g. exciting stories.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. stories are made more appealing to readers through
biased and exaggerated reporting.
(b) Describe two ways that the media today are global. [4]
Candidates will describe two ways that the media today are global. This may be through
examples or through media forms.
Possible answers:
x Media communication is now instant and worldwide;
x TV programmes/films/pop music, etc. from different countries can be consumed all over
the world;
x The internet and digital technology allows media today to be consumed by a global
audience;
x As news happens it can be watched almost instantly throughout the world;
x Non-Western media, i.e. Bollywood/Nollywood, can now reach global audiences;
x Social networking allows for the sharing of global media instantly;
x Disney has become a global brand;
(c) Explain how governments can censor media content. [6]
Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of how governments can censor media

content.
Possible answers:
x Propaganda –a one sided, possibly untrue, version of events with no possibility for the
audience to access alternative views;
x Laws protecting the state, e.g. UK Official Secrets Act;
x Laws on obscenity, e.g. The Obscene Publications Act;
x Libel and slander laws;
x Anti-discrimination laws, e.g. concerning ethnic minority groups/hate crimes – Race
Relations Acts, etc.;
x Certification process for films and computer games;
x TV watershed to prevent unsuitable material being shown before 9pm;
x Defence Advisory Notices (DA) can be issued;
© UCLES 2016
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x Contempt of Court – can’t report or express opinions on a case that is being dealt with in
court;
x Some governments can control/block access/turn the transmission off in order to censor
media content;
x Governments can put pressure on companies to take media material down if they do not
approve of the content, i.e. Google/Youtube, etc.;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how governments can censor
media content. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band
(1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more
sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘the Government can make sure
stuff they don’t think is suitable isn’t able to be broadcast in the media.’
Band 2 (4–6)
how governments can censor media content, recognising for example that there are different
forms of censorship in different types of media and being able to discuss specific examples
of these in terms of their functions and usage. Sociological and concepts should be
expected. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack
(d) Explain why the Internet has changed the way audiences use the media today.
[8]
Candidates should to show an awareness of why the internet has changed the way
audience’s use the media today.
Possible answers:
x Increasing prominence in the postmodern media saturated world therefore used by most
consumers – different ages, genders, etc.;
x Internet is at the heart of globalisation – to be part of this global culture consumers and
producers need to embrace Internet technology;
x Instant and immediate availability of products and services;
x Portability – allows for products to be smaller so that they can be used ‘on the go’ by
consumers, i.e. tablets, laptops, mobile phones, etc.
x Interactivity – allows the audience to have a say in the media products they use, i.e.
voting on TV shows, commenting on Youtube posts, sharing social network content,
uploading videos, etc.;
x Convergence – media technologies are starting to blur into one, allowing consumers to
use products for several different purposes, e.g. mobile phones can make calls, text,
email, link to social network sites, access the internet, shop, download movies, stream
music, etc.;
x Accessing the internet from a variety of different products, e.g. internet can be accessed
not just from a computer today but from lots of other products too;
x The internet allows media audience’s to be both producers and consumers at the same
time – the prosumer idea;
x Social media – allows the audience to be interactive in their media usage through
comments/blogging/forums/trolling, etc.;
© UCLES 2016
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x For pressure/terror purposes, i.e. militant groups beheading/kidnapping in order to

pressure Governments;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–3)
Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why the internet has changed the
way audience’s use the media today. Candidates may not understand what is meant by the
idea of how/why the media has changed media usage. Responses may be short and
undeveloped, e.g. ‘can do things faster’ without justification/explanation. Sociological terms
and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak
point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.
Band 2 (4–6)
internet has changed the way audience’s use the media today. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lacking in range. Candidates may explain some of the ways the internet
has changed audience consumption, e.g. multiple functions, more choice, global products,
etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and
be partially developed.
Band 3 (7–8)
internet has changed the way audience’s use the media today and will be well developed
and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall, e.g.,
‘convergence’, ‘digital’, ‘interactivity’, etc. Answers will be well focused on the question and
there will be a range of reasons presented. Candidates may explain the idea that the internet
has allowed the audience to be consumers as well as producers. At the top of the band
(e) To what extent is the news biased? [15]
Candidates can look at a range of different news products and types of bias in their
response, or focus on a narrower range in more depth. These may be traditional or new
media.
Possible answers:
For:
x Glasgow Media Group – found news reporting was biased and typically led the audience
to favour the management/powerful group featured;
x Newspapers tend to favour/support different political parties;
x Marxists believe there is a very narrow range of viewpoints presented in the media and
that those that favour the owners/bourgeoisie are treated more favourably;
x Marxists believe the interests and concerns of some minority groups in society are
neglected in the news;
x Marxists believe that the news neglects the wrongdoings of large and powerful
corporations, i.e. hidden figure of white collar crime;
x Moral panics – a group or event is reported in an exaggerated and sensationalist
manner, i.e. the mods and the rockers. Can lead to public scapegoating;
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x News stories may play on easily recognised media stereotypes in their representations;
x Agenda setting – the media selects the subjects to report and bring to the attention of
the media;
x News values will determine the stories that feature in the news and the angle that is
taken on these stories;
x Gatekeepers decide what to select and what to discard as news;
x State owned news is often very biased, i.e. North Korea;
Against:
x The news shows more than one side to a story so the audience can make their own
opinion, i.e. active audience/uses and gratifications approach;
x Pluralists believe there are a wide range of different biases available so the audience
can choose what suits them best;
x Laws are in place to prevent bias, i.e. anti-discrimination, etc.;
x There are so many different products and styles available to the audience in the media
today that the audience can easily avoid bias – consumer choice;
x With new media the audience can effectively be the producer as well, therefore any
biases in the news are created by them;
x Citizen journalism, particularly on the internet, means we are seeing ‘real’ news, not a
version edited down to incorporate bias;
x The internet and social networking sites allow audiences to comment on and disagree
with news stories and their content;
x The media and news outlets have to give the public what they want or their products
won’t be profitable, if bias isn’t in demand then it won’t be there;
x Laws of ‘due impartiality’ – exists to ensure that more than one side of the debate is
shown in the media news, also found by Glasgow Media Group;
Band 0
Band 1 (1–4)
knowledge of whether the news is biased. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very
unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. may speak about news
showing just one side. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher
in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak
definition of key terms, i.e. bias is when things are looked at from one point of view, in the
question.
Band 2 (5–8)
In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether the news is biased.
Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real
attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited use of sociological
terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Candidates may list
examples of or ideas about bias in the news. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided
responses are unlikely. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points
© UCLES 2016
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Band 3 (9–12)
the news is biased. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy
and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question
and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may discuss the plurality of media
available today and therefore how issues of bias may depend on the media product and its
intended audience. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the
Band 4 (13–15)
Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether the news
is biased. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use
of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the
question and discuss a wide range of points. Candidates may refer to concepts such as
news values, agenda setting, the Glasgow Media Group’s work, etc. They may also consider
how the rise of digital technology through the internet has started to change the nature of
media bias as the audience can now be so much more active in the consumption processes
and can directly challenge issues of bias through, say, immediate comments on social
network sites. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13
marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear
attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question through a
focused conclusion.
© UCLES 2016
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
Additional Materials: Answer Booklet/Paper

*4541800456*

This document consists of 3 printed pages and 1 blank page.
06_2251_22_2017_1.2
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2
Section A: Family
1 Families are becoming increasingly diverse, for some even monogamy is not the norm. Other
changes are also happening within the family, for example an increase in symmetry. However,
some sociologists still argue that the nuclear family form is the most common today.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘monogamy’?

[2]
(b) Describe two examples of symmetry in the family.

[4]
(c) Explain how industrialisation affects family life.

[6]
(d) Explain why there are so many alternatives to marriage in modern industrial societies.
[8]
(e) To what extent is the nuclear family the norm today?

[15]
2 Students today are taught in a diverse range of schools and may study traditional academic subjects
as well as vocationalism. Some sociologists believe this allows schools to meet the needs of all
their students, whereas other sociologists believe this is a way of promoting divisions and inequalities
in society.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘vocationalism’?

[2]
(b) Describe two ways that teacher labelling can affect a student's educational achievement.
[4]
(c) Explain how the differences in language at home and at school can affect educational
achievement.
[6]
(d) Explain why schools are an important part of secondary socialisation.

[8]
(e) To what extent is social mobility affected by the type of school an individual attends?
[15]
© UCLES 2017 06_2251_22_2017_1.2

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3
3 Explanations for crime depend on the type of crime being discussed. For example, the reasons
people commit urban crime are different to the reasons people commit domestic violence. Some
sociologists believe crime is mainly committed due to material deprivation whilst others disagree.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘urban crime’?

[2]
(b) Describe two sociological explanations for crime, apart from material deprivation.
[4]
(c) Explain how moral panics in the media can affect the public’s view of crime and criminals.
[6]
(d) Explain why the police appear to target some social groups more than others.
[8]
(e) To what extent does poverty and unemployment explain criminal behaviour?
[15]
Section D: Media
4 Several different theories exist to explain the effects the media can have on audiences. Two
examples are the cultural effects approach and the uses and gratifications model. However, for
Postmodernists, developments in new media mean that the industry can no longer be controlled.
This can be seen to have positive and negative consequences for both audiences and the media
industry.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘cultural effects approach’?

[2]
(b) Describe two ways, according to the uses and gratifications model, that audience needs are
met by the media.
[4]
(c) Explain how advertising is seen by many sociologists as a negative part of the media.
[6]
(d) Explain why the media is biased and can distort reality.
[8]
(e) To what extent are Postmodernists correct in their belief that new media cannot be controlled?
[15]
© UCLES 2017 06_2251_22_2017_1.2

PAGE 196

SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Teachers.
Cambridge is publishing the mark schemes for the May/June 2017 series for most Cambridge IGCSE®,
Cambridge International A and AS Level and Cambridge Pre-U components, and some Cambridge O Level
components.
® IGCSE is a registered trademark.

PAGE 197
2251/22 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme May/June 2017
PUBLISHED
Question Answer Marks
Families are becoming increasingly diverse, for some even monogamy is not the norm. Other
changes are also happening within the family, for example an increase in symmetry. However,
some sociologists still argue that the nuclear family form is the most common today.
1(a) What is meant by the term ‘monogamy’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. being faithful.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. being married to one person at a
time.
1(b) Describe two examples of symmetry in the family. 4
Possible answers:
shared/joint conjugal roles;
equal power relations between each partner e.g. joint

decision making;
a democratic relationship between adults and children; both

partners being employed in paid work;
both partners taking an equal role in domestic work; both

partners taking an equal role in childcare;
legal and employment changes allow for symmetry in the

family; joint ownership e.g. of the house/car etc.;
influences of feminism e.g. the unacceptability of domestic

violence; other reasonable response.
One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of

two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a
maximum of two).
© UCLES 2017 Page 2 of 33

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1(c) Explain how industrialisation affects family life. 6
Possible answers:
growth of nuclear families; decline of the extended family;
other institutions perform the functions once performed by

the family;
geographically mobile families may mean less day to day

contact with extended kin;
growth of the modified extended family;
both partners engage in paid work outside the home;
change to symmetrical role structure – things become more

joint; other reasonable response.
Some candidates may reference urbanisation in their responses –

this should be credited.
Band 0 [0 marks]
Band 1 [1–3 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how
industrialisation affects family life and may talk about e.g. ‘working in
the city’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the
bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the
band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point,
but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging
with sociological ideas without using sociological language.

A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological
knowledge and understanding of how industrialisation affects family
life.
Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g.

‘Industrialisation results in families having to live apart from one
another as they have to be geographically mobile in order to look for
work.’ This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to
this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be
narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more
than one factor in a well developed way or cover several factors in
less detail.

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1(d) Explain why there are so many alternatives to marriage in 8

modern industrial societies.
Possible answers:
secularisation means that religious ceremonies i.e. marriage

are less valued and expected than they used to be;
homosexuality is more common and accepted and therefore

alternatives to traditional marriage need to be found i.e. civil
partnerships;
cohabitation is seen by many as the norm – for some this is a

pre-cursor to marriage, for others it is a lifetime relationship
of choice;
singlehood is a viable option for individuals today and is no

longer stigmatised. Women can now financially provide for
themselves and no longer need a man;
changing norms, values and attitudes means that marriage is

a choice not a necessity;
rising divorce rates put many people off getting married;
single parent families are on the rise, either as a result of

never being married or from a relationship breakdown;
marriage today is expensive and for many people it is not

seen to be worth the money;
many people no longer see marriage as being for life

therefore alternatives become more appealing;
other reasonable response.
Candidates may refer to localised examples in their response, these

are fine to credit. The key factor is that candidates are demonstrating
awareness of why marriage is not the only option for adults in
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why there
are so many alternatives to marriage today. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g.
‘marriage is expensive today’ stated without explanation.
Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the

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1(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks]

Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and
understanding of why there are so many alternatives to marriage
today. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g.
‘Marriage rates are falling because divorce rates are so high and
these deter people from marriage.’ 'Relationships today are far more
diverse than in the past i.e. homosexuality, therefore alternatives to
marriage are needed’ etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are
unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in
the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms
and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and
understanding of why there are so many alternatives to marriage
today and will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘Marriage rates
are in decline due largely to people living in secular societies. This
means the sanctity of marriage is less valued than it used to be and
people are choosing instead to cohabit or to live alone. This is no
longer stigmatised and thus is a viable option for individuals’. They
can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as
necessary.
Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall.

Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a
range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will
be clear throughout.

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1(e) To what extent is the nuclear family the norm today? 15
Possible answers:
For:
urbanisation means that families need to be small in order to
be geographically mobile i.e. nuclear;
as feminism has led to working women being the norm so

family size has had to shrink in order to facilitate this process;
contraception is now widely available giving individuals the

opportunities to control the size of their family and to keep it
small if they wish to;
functionalists and the New Right believe that the nuclear

family is the best structure to perform the essential functions;
symmetry within families is now far more expected and this

lends itself best to the nuclear family structure;
financial pressures mean that large families are no longer

viable in a lot of communities and societies (children as an
economic cost);
it is no longer essential to have children to look after you

when you are older due to other institutions also performing
the essential functions, meaning that large families are no
longer necessary;
Against:
in some cultures and ethnic groups, extended families are
still the norm e.g. South Asian;
there is greater diversity today in the type of family that

people choose to be part of, meaning that nuclear families
are just one of many possible options;
growth of the single parent family;
increasing numbers of people choosing to live alone or to live

with a partner but to have no children – children are now a
lifestyle choice;
high levels of divorce rates means that blended and

reconstituted families of all types and structures are
increasingly commonplace;
alternatives to the family such as communes and friendship

groups mean that the nuclear family may not be the norm in
society;

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1(e) homosexual relationships are more accepted and

commonplace and yet do not fit many sociologists definitions
of a nuclear family, even if the couple are married and have
dependent children;
increasing levels of cohabitation in society;
changing social attitudes to what we mean by a family leads

to the decline of the nuclear family and the rise of other
family forms – these may be caused by secularisation in
society;
Candidates may look at family structure and types in a generic way

or may focus on a more localised picture.
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common
sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which the nuclear
family is the norm today. Use of sociological terms or concepts is
very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided.
e.g. typical families are small today. Contraception means people
can control the size of their family. Lower in the band (1–2 marks),
expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks)
candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak
definition of key terms, e.g. the nuclear family is an adult man and an
adult woman who are married or cohabiting with dependent children,
in the question.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the
extent to which the nuclear family is the norm today. Alternatively,
they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be
no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There
may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may
be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. Families
need to be geographically mobile today and so the nuclear family is
best. Children are seen as an economic burden and so most people
do not have many when they get married etc. Lower in the band, the
response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be
little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered
and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a
list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the

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1(e) A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3

[9–12 marks]
understanding of the extent to which the nuclear family is the norm
today. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater
accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well
developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of
points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. despite many people
choosing to live in nuclear families this depends upon the culture
and ethnic group of the individual concerned. Or increased rates of
divorce, homosexuality, singlehood and the formation of
reconstituted families means that traditional family structures such
as the nuclear family have had to change. There will be a two-sided
response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band,
candidates may provide a narrower range of well developed points.
At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear
focus on the question.

Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and
understanding of the extent to which the nuclear family is the norm
today. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as
accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts.
Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and
discuss a wide range of points.
Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the

band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher
in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of
the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused
conclusion.
Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the

idea of whether the nuclear family is the norm today, citing some of
the examples given.

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Students today are taught in a diverse range of schools and may study traditional academic
subjects as well as vocationalism. Some sociologists believe this allows schools to meet the
needs of all their students, whereas other sociologists believe this is a way of promoting
divisions and inequalities in society.
2(a) What is meant by the term ‘vocationalism’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. learning about work.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. a type of education that prepares
people for work and/or trains them for specific careers.
2(b) Describe two ways that teacher labelling can affect a student's 4
educational achievement.
Possible answers:
negatively i.e. the self-fulfilling prophecy;
labelling may lead to the student being placed in a

lower/higher set or stream;
positively i.e. the halo effect or self-negating prophecy;
labelling may lead to the formation of a pro-school

subculture;
labelling may lead to the formation of an anti-school

subculture;
labelling may lead to the student socialising with a particular

peer group;
labelling can lead to a master status for the student as a

low/high achiever;
labelling may lead to teachers stereotyping groups of

students negatively or positively e.g. ethnic
minorities/gender/social class;
labelling may lead to worse results for the student;
labelling may lead to better results for the student;

maximum of two).

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2(c) Explain how the differences in language at home and at school 6

can affect educational achievement.
Possible answers:
the language used in school is likely to be the official/formal
language of the country whereas that used at home may be
more informal – this may cause a culture clash;
ethnic minorities may not have the language of the school as

their first language and thus find it hard to engage with the
school curriculum and to access assessments and
examinations;
the language used in schools is likely to be the elaborate

code which may favour middle class students rather than
lower class students who are more likely to use the restricted
code;
using the same language at home as that used in school is

likely to be beneficial in terms of a student's educational
achievement;
bilingualism can have a positive effect on educational

achievement due to the ability to code switch easily;
language use is part of cultural capital – the more of this a

student has the better they are likely to do in terms of
achievement;
the prevalence and increased usage of text language may

affect educational achievement;
Candidates may refer to the use of a different language to that used

at school or to language codes in their answer. Alternatively a
combination of them both may be discussed. Candidates may
choose to focus their answers around issues or ethnicity, social
class or gender or a combination of these factors.
Band 0 [0 marks]

language used at home and school can influence educational
achievement and may talk about e.g. ‘ethnic minorities speaking a
different language’. Responses may be short and un/under
developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak
point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more
than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic
answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological
language.

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2(c) Band 2 [4–6 marks]

knowledge and understanding of how the language used at school
and home can influence educational achievement. Sociological
terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘Schools are commonly
thought to be middle class institutions where the elaborate code is
used. Those students who also use this code at home have an
advantage when it comes to school life and thus are likely to do
better than those who are used to the restricted code being used at
home.’ This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to
narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band,
answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or

cover several factors in less detail.

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2(d) Explain why schools are an important part of secondary 8

socialisation.
Possible answers:
informal education outside of the classroom takes place at

school e.g. children learning the importance of punctuality or
following instructions;
schools teach children social expectations – what is expected

of them in society and the consequences of not conforming;
schools use formal and informal methods of social control via

positive and negative sanctions to reinforce social norms and
values with children;
Marxists believe that a particular world view is disseminated

through schools that enables the powerful to justify and
maintain their position in society;
functionalists believe that the teaching of shared norms and

values promotes social cohesion;
the hidden curriculum teaches students their place in society

and what is expected of them;
feminists believe that schools socialise children into a set of

patriarchal norms, values and expectations;
peer groups within schools are an important part of

secondary socialisation e.g. youth culture, fitting in, peer
pressure, communication etc;
Candidates may approach the question theoretically i.e. by

referencing Marxism and/or feminism and/or functionalism or in a
more general way using concepts and/or examples as evidence.
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why
schools are thought to be an important part of secondary
socialisation. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be
short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘they teach children how to behave’
stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are
unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one
weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer

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understanding of why schools are thought to be an important part of
secondary socialisation. Responses may be underdeveloped and
lacking in range. e.g. ‘The informal education learnt in schools
teaches students what is expected of them in society and their social
status' etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use
sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band,
candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts
with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may
only be partially developed/explained.

understanding of why schools are thought to be an important part of
secondary socialisation and will be well developed and explained.
e.g. ‘Theorists have very different views on the role schools play in
the socialisation process. Marxists believe that through the hidden
curriculum upper class values and privileges are maintained as
children effectively learn their place. Functionalists believe norms
and values are learnt, ensuring the smooth running of society. Whilst
feminists think that schools are another institution that works to
ensure the continuation of male power and privilege’. They can then
expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary.

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2(e) To what extent is social mobility affected by the type of school 15

an individual attends?
Possible answers:
For:
the upper classes have typically attended elite private
schools allowing them access to the top universities;
single sex schools often get good examination results which

can lead to positions of power and privilege in society;
private schools are dominated by those in positions of power

and attendance at this type of school allows these privileged
positions to be maintained;
private schools encourage the continuation of the old boys

network meaning that certain types of people continue to
occupy the high status positions in society;
private schools provide individuals with cultural capital, thus

giving them huge benefits in society and allowing them to
access and maintain their privileged positions;
comprehensive schools are equally open to all therefore

allowing opportunities for social mobility;
the hidden curriculum in schools encourages students to

accept their position in society and to maintain the status quo
(Marxism);
some schools offer compensatory education which can

positively affect social mobility;

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2(e) Against:
functionalists believe that the education system is
meritocratic and that anyone who works hard will be
successful in the qualifications they gain and the position
they achieve in society;
feminists believe that it is the patriarchy in the education

system that determines a person's position on the social
ladder, not the school they attend;
people can be successful in society regardless of the type of

school attended;
not everybody who attends private school are from the upper
classes, scholarships and bursaries exist to support all
students in the pursuit of educational success encouraging
and allowing social mobility;
setting and streaming may be more influential for

opportunities of social mobility than the type of school
attended;
teacher labelling and stereotyping may be more important in

determining social mobility opportunities than the type of
school attended;
the peer group a person belongs to is thought to play a huge

part in determining their level of achievement in education
and thus their social position in society;
the comprehensive system encourages students of all social

backgrounds to mix and study together, decreasing rigid
class-based social stratification and allowing for social
mobility;
Candidates should consider how positions in society are affected by

the type of school an individual attends. This should then be
evaluated by consideration of the idea that the type of school
attended has no bearing upon social mobility. It is likely that social
class will be discussed in candidates' answers.

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2(e) Band 0 [0 marks]


sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which social
mobility is affected by the type of school an individual attends. Use
of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be
short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. 'Going to the top schools
gets you the top jobs'. ‘you need to earn a lot of money to afford
private education'. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two
weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer
more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g.
social mobility is where people can move up or down the social
ladder, in the question.

extent to which social mobility is affected by the type of school an
individual attends. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is
list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the
issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of
sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped
and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses
are unlikely e.g. 'Going to private school means you can make
contacts that help you be successful in society too. 'If you go to a top
public school like Eton you are likely to also go to a top University'
etc. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the
points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the
band, more points will be covered and there will be limited
development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with
little development covering both sides of the argument may score up
to 8 marks.
A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3

[9–12 marks]
understanding of the extent to which social mobility is affected by the
type of school an individual attends. Sociological terms and concepts
will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most
part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and
there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that
e.g. 'despite the fact that those with the most powerful positions in
society have typically attended exclusive private schools, living in a
meritocracy means that anyone can be successful'. There will be a
two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the
band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well developed
points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and

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2(e) Band 4 [13–15 marks]

understanding of the extent to which social mobility is affected by the
type of school an individual attends. There will be a strong grasp of
the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological
terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused
on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will
be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks),
the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there
will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what
extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.
Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the
idea of social mobility and types of schools, citing some of the
examples given.

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Explanations for crime depend on the type of crime being discussed. For example, the reasons
people commit urban crime are different to the reasons people commit domestic violence. Some
sociologists believe crime is mainly committed due to material deprivation whilst others disagree.
3(a) What is meant by the term ‘urban crime’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. crime in the towns and cities.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. an illegal act committed in cities.
3(b) Describe two sociological explanations for crime, apart from 4

material deprivation.
Possible answers:
Merton – strain theory – not everyone has equal chances to

be successful in society;
Cohen – status frustration – for some people committing

crime allows them to gain the status they cannot achieve in
society;
Inadequate socialisation – not teaching individuals the

correct norms and values;
New Right – crime committed by the underclass due to

fatherless families and an over reliance on the welfare state;
Marxism – the law protects the interest of the ruling class

meaning that the working class are criminalised;
Feminism – crime allows males to prove their masculinity;

Marxism – relative deprivation in a consumer society;
Marginalisation/social exclusion – feeling powerless in

society may lead to crime e.g. gang culture;
Interactionism – labelling certain social groups as criminals

makes them more likely to commit crime via the self-fulfilling
prophecy;

maximum of two).

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3(c) Explain how moral panics in the media can affect the public’s 6
view of crime and criminals.
Possible answers:
most people have no direct experience of criminals and so

rely on the media for their information;
sensationalism and exaggeration in the media affects how

people think about crime;
media reporting causes the public to label certain groups as

criminals and so stigmatises them e.g. folk devils;
Marxists believe moral panics divert the public's attention

away from the real crime problem and criminals in society i.e.
hidden white collar crime;
Cohen's study of the mods and rockers demonstrates how

the public's perception of crime was influenced by a moral
panic in the media;
moral panics may lead to an increased fear of crime in the

public;
moral panics lead to the creation and promotion of

stereotypes of who the criminals in society are e.g.
underclass, ethnic minorities etc;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the
concept of moral panics and how they can change the public's
perception of crime and may talk about e.g. ‘the media shows some
people to be criminals’. Responses may be short and un/under
developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak
point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more
language.

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knowledge and understanding of the relationship between moral
panics and the public's perception of crime. Sociological terms and
concepts should be expected e.g. ‘Sensationalist media reporting
leads to the public stigmatising certain social groups as criminals.’
This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At
the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow
or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one

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3(d) Explain why the police appear to target some social groups 8
more than others.
Possible answers:
Marxists believe the police are tools of the ruling class and so
target those with less power in order to protect ruling class
interests;
the police are affected by the stereotypes of criminals seen in

the media through sensationalist reporting and moral panics;
police target those groups that according to the OCS (official

crime statistics) commit the most crime e.g. young people;
Government may put pressure on the police to solve crime

and targeting particular social groups is a means of doing
this;
institutional racism may exist within the police force thus

leading to the targeting of ethnic minorities;
the police force is still male dominated/patriarchal and so the

chivalry factor may lead to the targeting of males over
females;
some social groups are more likely to commit crime and this
is why the police target them e.g. lower class;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why the
police target some social groups more than others. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g.
‘they are racist’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and
concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),
expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates

understanding of why the police target some social groups more
than others. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in
range. e.g. ‘Police are affected by the stereotypes they see in the
media.’ ‘The police focus on those people who the official crime
statistics say commit crime’ etc . At the bottom of the band,
candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts
accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use
sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However,
some aspects of the answer may only be partially

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understanding of why the police target some social groups more
than others and will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘The
police are thought by Marxists to be a tool of the ruling class, used to
control the lower classes and protect the interests of the bourgeoisie.
They therefore target the working class and ethnic minorities and so
stigmatise them as criminals, particularly when this is picked up on
by the media and reported in a sensationalist way – a moral panic’.
They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as
necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately
overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will
be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations

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3(e) To what extent does poverty and unemployment explain 15

criminal behaviour?
Possible answers:
For:
Merton – strain theory – there is a poor fit between the
desired goals and the means to achieve them therefore crime
may occur;
Cohen – status frustration – some social groups feel

disadvantaged by inequalities in society (i.e. unemployment)
and thus turn to crime;
Material deprivation – not having enough to live on may lead

to crime;
Marxists believe workers are exploited in the workplace

through low pay and insecure employment contracts and so
commit crime both in frustration at the capitalist system and
for financial gain;
relative deprivation – when groups/individuals feel they have

less material goods than others in society they may turn to
crime;
marginalisation – powerless groups i.e. the poor may feel

'pushed out' from mainstream society and unable to achieve
legitimately therefore they commit crime;
Cloward and Ohlin – a lack of legitimate opportunity to be

successful in society can cause poverty and deprivation and
thus lead to criminal behaviour e.g. joining a gang;

Against:
not all people who are poor/unemployed commit crime; not
all crime committed is for financial gain;
labelling theory – people may commit crime because they

have been negatively stereotyped as criminals and find
themselves in a self fulfilling prophecy;
people may copy the glamorised criminals they see in the

media and so commit crime;
masculinity – crime may be seen as a way to prove your

masculinity e.g. gang crime;
postmodernism – crime is committed for thrills and

excitement;
New Right – crime is caused through inadequate

socialisation and a lack of social control;

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3(e) crime may be about power/control rather than poverty e.g.

domestic violence;
crime may be caused through opportunity rather than poverty

e.g. corruption/white-collar crime;
Band 0 [0 marks]

sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which poverty and
unemployment explain criminal behaviour. Use of sociological terms
or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped
and one-sided. e.g. People commit crime because they are poor. If
you haven't got a job you can’t get enough money to live. Lower in
the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the
band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or
provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. poverty is when you
haven't got enough money, in the question.

extent to which poverty and unemployment explain criminal
behaviour.
Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but

there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the
question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or
concepts.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may

be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. People get
frustrated that they can't find a job and so turn to crime. Everyone
wants material goods and possessions and if an individual can't
afford them then they may turn to crime etc. Lower in the band, the

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[9–12 marks]
understanding of the extent to which poverty and unemployment
explain criminal behaviour. Sociological terms and concepts will be
used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part,
answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there
will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g.
despite a lack of money possibly explaining crimes committed for
financial gain i.e. robbery, this can't explain crimes of passion and
revenge. Or frustration at an unfair system that does not allow
everybody equal opportunities to be successful may be a crucial
factor in explaining crime. There will be a two-sided response but
this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may
provide a narrower range of well developed points. At the top of the
band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the
question.

understanding of the extent to which poverty and unemployment
explain criminal behaviour. There will be a strong grasp of the
argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms
and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on
the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be
two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the
answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will
be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’
part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates
should show consideration of points for and against the idea of
poverty and unemployment explaining crime, citing some of the
examples given.

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Several different theories exist to explain the effects the media can have on audiences. Two
examples are the cultural effects approach and the uses and gratifications model. However, for
Postmodernists, developments in new media mean that the industry can no longer be controlled.
This can be seen to have positive and negative consequences for both audiences and the media
industry.
4(a) What is meant by the term ‘cultural effects approach’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. the media affects the audience
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the media affects the audience
slowly and cumulatively.
4(b) Describe two ways, according to the uses and gratifications 4

model, that audience needs are met by the media.
Possible answers:
entertainment – relaxation and escapism;
personal relationships – identifying with the characters and/or

using the media as a conversation point with others;
personal identity – people compare their lives with that seen

in the media and make decisions about their own lives and
identities;
information – the media provide us with knowledge that

allows us to find out things beyond our immediate experience
i.e. global news;

maximum of two).

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4(c) Explain how advertising is seen by many sociologists as a 6

negative part of the media.
Possible answers:
advertising encourages and promotes consumption leading
to a society that values material possessions and success
over everything else;
advertising often portrays a Western lifestyle and values as

good and as the norm, this may lead to the decline of local
cultures;
advertising often uses images of women that puts pressure

on females to conform to a particular body image – this can
lead to issues such as anorexia;
advertisers sometimes target children who then put pressure

on their parents for material goods that they cannot afford –
pester power;
advertising encourages stereotypes e.g. that all men should

be strong and tough – this places unrealistic demands on
people;
Marxist concepts such as creation of ‘false needs’;
Candidates may look at the advertising industry generally or may

focus on a specific sector i.e. TV advertising or may focus on
specific adverts in their response. All are fine to credit.
Band 0 [0 marks]

advertising is seen as a negative part of the media and may talk
about
e.g. ‘makes people want what they can't afford’. Responses may be
short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),
expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates
may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency
towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without

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knowledge and understanding of how advertising is seen as a
negative part of the media. Sociological terms and concepts should
be expected e.g. ‘Advertising encourages unnecessary consumption
and diverts attention away from the real problems and issues in
society.’ This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to
narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more
than one factor in a well developed way or cover several factors in
less detail.

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4(d) Explain why the media is biased and can distort reality. 8
Possible answers:
most of the media industry is still owned by huge, global

conglomerates who diversify into other products and services
– the media can be used as a platform for their business in
order to maximise profits;
state owned media can be used for propaganda purposes

and to maintain the Government's control and power over the
people;
privately owned media are in competition for the largest

market share in order to appeal to advertisers and thus to
increase profits – this means they must appeal to the mass
audience and therefore niche interest products are rarely
seen;
the bias of the owners/media professionals of a media

corporation may come through in the products they produce
and distribute;
Marxists believe that the media is used as a tool of the ruling

class in order to maintain and justify their position of privilege
in society;
Feminists believe the media is still male dominated and thus

reinforces patriarchal values and ideologies that serve to limit
women's power in society;
media stereotypes of social groups are commonplace and

therefore distort the reality of being, say, a woman, a youth or
an ethnic minority e.g. size zero debate;
news values sell and therefore stories will focus on these in

order to capture a large market share;
the media often sensationalise and exaggerate 'fact' in order

to sell more units;
censorship in the media means that the audience do not get

the full picture and therefore receive a biased view;
image manipulation programs allow for the altering of images

which therefore distorts reality e.g. unrealistic body shapes;
advertising aims to sell products therefore clearly the way it

represents products and services is biased;

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4(d) Candidates may choose to talk in general terms about the media
here or may focus on one sector within the industry i.e. newspapers
and/or may consider specific stories and examples that illustrate bias
and distortion.
Bias – being one sided in the selection of which events and stories
are reported and how.
Distortion – changing reality in order to present a particular point of

view/opinion
Band 0 [0 marks]

media is biased and can distort reality. A tendency to description is
likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘owners can
put what they like in the media’ stated without explanation.
Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the

understanding of why the media is biased and can distort reality.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘The
media tends to show mainstream views and ideas and more radical
views are rarely seen.’ ‘The media industry wants to make as much
money as possible and therefore will ensure its content will appeal to
a mass audience’ etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are
unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in
the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms
and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the

understanding of why the media is biased and can distort reality and
will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘Whether the media is
state or privately owned, bias will be inherent to it. The state may
use the media as a propaganda tool – as was seen in Nazi
Germany. Private owners will ensure their content appeals to a large
audience in order that they can attract advertising revenue. This
means that radical and alternative viewpoints are marginalised or
invisibilised. According to Marxists, this ensures the ruling classes
maintain their powerful positions in society’. They can then expand
on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary.

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4(e) To what extent are Postmodernists correct in their belief that 15

new media cannot be controlled?
Possible answers:
For:
new media technologies are interactive and therefore the
audience can influence media content i.e. citizen journalism;
the internet is immediate and accessible on a global scale

therefore it is impossible to control and censor content;
the audience are now active consumers who also produce

media content i.e. youtube channels therefore they and their
uploaded content cannot be controlled;
new media technologies make cybercrime more

commonplace – hacking and fraud are extremely difficult to
prevent and control;
there is today a plurality of media platforms and products

available to the audience – it is impossible to control such a
vast global industry;
the media can no longer be used for propaganda purposes

as there is no 'top down' ownership structure anymore – this
also makes it impossible to control;
Against:
the Government/state still owns much of the world's media
and continues to control the content i.e. for propaganda
purposes;
legislation exists to control what can and cannot be

broadcast e.g. official secrets laws/laws of libel etc.;
only a very small number of people actually upload video

material to the internet and produce their own content – most
of the audience consume what they are offered by the media
corporations;
legislation still exists to control new media content e.g. recent

laws passed on the content of video games and music videos
– certification;
filters, parental controls, self-censorship and blocks can be

used to censor and control new media content;
surveillance can be used to track, monitor and shut down

illegal sites i.e. prosecutions for illegal music downloads/free
movie sites;

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4(e) new media content is still largely controlled and determined

by an elite group of media owners and professionals who
typically come from a narrow social background of privilege –
Marxists say this ensures a dominant world view is still seen;
artificial intelligence software used to monitor and detect

offensive and criminal content e.g. terrorism;
the audience can now be said to control new media content;
Band 0 [0 marks]

sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which
developments in new media have led to an industry that cannot be
controlled. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely.
Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. 'The
internet is all over the world. People can make their own media
today'. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak
points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more
than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. new
media are things like the internet, in the question.

extent to which developments in new media have led to an industry
that cannot be controlled. Alternatively, they may offer an answer
which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess
the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of
sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped
and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses
are unlikely e.g. 'The media industry is expanding and this makes it
far harder to control. Content of the media is impossible to control
and this may be harmful for society’ etc. Lower in the band, the

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[9–12 marks]
understanding of the extent to which developments in new media
have led to an industry that cannot be controlled. Sociological terms
and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency.
For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the
question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates
may say that e.g. 'despite the media industry being far harder to
control due to increased levels of audience power and interactivity,
laws and Government controls are still plentiful and continue to
censor content effectively'. There will be a two-sided response but
this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may
provide a narrower range of well developed points. At the top of the
band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the
question.

understanding of the extent to which developments in new media
have led to an industry that cannot be controlled. There will be a
strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use
of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed,
clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points.
Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the
band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher
in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of
the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused
conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and
against the idea of developments in new media leading to an
industry that cannot be controlled, citing some of the examples
given.

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/23

*0126170811*

06_2251_23_2017_1.2
PAGE 230
2
Section A: Family
1 Sociologists debate the functions that families perform today. Diversity in family types, such as the
growth of the boomerang family, have affected the functions that families perform. Social class and
ethnicity also affect family life.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘boomerang family’?

[2]
(b) Describe two ways ethnicity can affect family life.

[4]
(c) Explain how trends in marriage have changed over time.

[6]
(d) Explain why feminists believe marriage benefits males more than females.
[8]
(e) To what extent has the family in modern industrial societies lost its essential functions?
[15]
2 A number of factors seem to be relevant in explaining why some students do better in education
than others. Some sociologists focus on the importance of deferred gratification and cultural capital
whereas others believe that teachers have the most influence over how well a student performs.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘deferred gratification’?

[2]
(b) Describe two features of an anti-school sub-culture.

[4]
(c) Explain how cultural capital may cause upper and middle class students to do better in education
than working class students.
[6]
(d) Explain why the type of school a student attends is thought to have a big influence on life
chances. [8]
(e) To what extent are teachers responsible for an individual’s educational achievement?
[15]
© UCLES 2017 06_2251_23_2017_1.2

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3
3 Most sociologists believe that crime has a negative effect on society and therefore use methods
such as victim surveys to establish a clear picture of the crimes committed and by whom. Others
believe that crime and punishment can actually have an important and positive function in society.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘victim survey’?

[2]
(b) Describe two examples of cybercrimes.

[4]
(c) Explain how crime and punishment can have a positive function in society.
[6]
(d) Explain why prison may deter people from committing crime.
[8]
(e) To what extent can labelling theory explain why people commit crime?
[15]
Section D: Media
4 The media are constantly changing and new technologies allow the audience greater control over
content. However, this does not mean that the media are no longer powerful. The media are still
able to censor content and have been accused of both indoctrination and agenda setting.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘indoctrination’?

[2]
(b) Describe two examples of censorship in the media.

[4]
(c) Explain how the media can set the agenda for what is seen to be important in society.
[6]
(d) Explain why feminists criticise the representation of women in the media.
[8]
(e) To what extent can the audience influence the content of the media?
[15]
© UCLES 2017 06_2251_23_2017_1.2

PAGE 232

SOCIOLOGY 2251/23
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Teachers.
Cambridge is publishing the mark schemes for the May/June 2017 series for most Cambridge IGCSE®,
Cambridge International A and AS Level and Cambridge Pre-U components, and some Cambridge O Level
components.
® IGCSE is a registered trademark.

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Sociologists debate the functions that families perform today. Diversity in family types, such as the
growth of the boomerang family, have affected the functions that families perform. Social class and
ethnicity also affect family life.
1(a) What is meant by the term ‘boomerang family’? 2
One mark for partial definition, adult children and parents.

Two marks for clear definition, a family where adult children have left home
but then return.
1(b) Describe two ways ethnicity can affect family life. 4
Possible answers:
extended families may be more common in Asian families;
single parent/matrifocal families may be more common in Afro
Caribbean families;
traditional gender roles in the family may be more likely in some
ethnicities;
arranged marriages may be associated with some ethnic groups more
than others;
Candidates may consider the structure of the family, family roles or family
relationships within their answer. All are fine to credit.

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1(c) Explain how trends in marriage have changed over time. 6
Possible answers:
a general fall in the number of marriages;
rise in second and subsequent marriages;
a rise in the divorce rate;
a rise in the number of people choosing to cohabit rather than marry;
a rise in the number of people choosing not to marry;
a growing proportion of marriages are now remarriages; same sex
marriage became legalised and has grown; growth in civil
partnerships;
growth in conversions from civil partnerships to same sex marriages;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the concept of
marriage trends and may talk about ‘a lot of people get divorced’. Responses
may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),
expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer
more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic
language.

A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and
understanding of how trends in marriage have changed over time.
Sociological terms and concepts should be expected ‘as expectations of
marriage get higher so the number of marriages fall. Changing gender roles
and aspirations of women means that they no longer rely on a man for
financial support and thus have less need to marry.’ This would be followed
by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range
of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers
will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several
factors in less detail.

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1(d) Explain why feminists believe marriage benefits males more than 8
females.
Possible answers:
gender roles in marriage may be segregated meaning that males and
females have very different roles to play;
males may have more power and control within the marriage than
females – patriarchy;
females may be more likely to stay at home and perform the domestic
caring role which limits their employment options outside of the
home;
domestic roles are perceived to be of less importance than employment
roles meaning that there may be a disparity in the power relations
within the marriage;
marriage is thought by some to be a patriarchal institution;
marriage can sometimes lead to issues of domestic violence and
abuse;
some marriages may be arranged/forced;
women may suffer from a dual or a triple burden within marriage;
female role as carer is low status, long hours and unpaid – patriarchy;
Candidates may look at issues such as emotions, paid work, domestic work,
childcare and power in their responses.
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why feminists
believe marriage benefits males more than females. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, ‘women do
more housework’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and
concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect
one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more
than one weak point.

understanding of why feminists believe marriage benefits males more than
females. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range.
‘Women may find themselves working in paid employment as well as being
responsible for domestic work.’ ‘Men continue to make the more important
decisions in the household e.g. finances’ etc. At the bottom of the band,
candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately.
Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms
and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer
may only be partially developed/explained.

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understanding of why feminists believe marriage benefits males more than
females and will be well developed and explained. ‘Many think that
marriage is still a patriarchal institution that does not give women the same
opportunities and roles as men. Even when both perform different roles in the
household, there is typically more prestige attached to the roles performed by
men’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as
necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall.
Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of
reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear
throughout.

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1(e) To what extent has the family in modern industrial societies lost its 15
essential functions?
Possible answers: For:

nuclear families are less likely to successfully perform essential
functions than extended families according to writers such as Leach
who feels the nuclear family is under great levels of stress and
conflict;
families may be seen as dysfunctional due to the extent of violence
and abuse e.g. the dark side of the family;
the New Right believe modern day families are unable to successfully
perform family functions due to the decline of two parent families and
women going out to work;
feminists believe that the family is patriarchal and so is not functional
for women;
other institutions such as schools, hospitals, welfare state and child
minders may now perform many of the functions that were once the
domain of the family;
Against:
reproduction – societies need new generations of children to survive
therefore having children within a committed relationship is
encouraged;
socialisation – children need to learn society's norms and values and
the family transmits these between generations;
social control – sanctions are used to ensure that children conform to
recognised norms and values of society;
care of children – families nurture and look after children;
regulation of sexual behaviour – families reinforce rules about
acceptable sexual behaviour;
Candidates should show awareness of the different functions that the family
is thought to perform and of the ways that these are being taken over by other
institutions and are changing. A discussion focusing on the dysfunctional
nature of some families may also be seen.
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense
showing limited knowledge of the extent to which the family in MIS's has lost
its essential functions. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely.
Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. Families don't
always work as they should do. Schools perform a lot of the functions that
families used to. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak
points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two
points or provide a weak definition of key terms, functions are the things
that the family does, in the question.

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In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to
which the family in MIS's has lost its essential functions. Alternatively, they may
offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to
assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of
sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and
lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely
Other institutions have taken over many of the functions once performed by
the family. With men and women both now typically working, families have
less time to focus on essential functions than they did previously etc. Lower in
the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there
will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered
and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like
answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may
score up to 8 marks.

understanding of the extent to which the family in MIS's has lost its essential
functions. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater
developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points
presented. Candidates may say that despite other institutions performing
many functions e.g. the welfare state helping out financially, the family is still
central to the socialisation and social control processes. Or increased rates
of divorce, remarriage and the formation of reconstituted families means
that how families carry out the essential functions have had to change.
There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the
bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-
developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and

Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the
extent to which the family in MIS's has lost its essential functions. There will be
a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of
sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly
focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will
be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the
answer may lack a specific conclusion.
Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the
‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.
Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of
losing and changing family functions, citing some of the examples given.

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A number of factors seem to be relevant in explaining why some students do better in education
than others. Some sociologists focus on the importance of deferred gratification and cultural capital
whereas others believe that teachers have the most influence over how well a student performs.
2(a) What is meant by the term ‘deferred gratification’? 2
One mark for partial definition, waiting for rewards.
Two marks for clear definition, having long term goals and being willing to
postpone rewards in order to achieve these.
2(b) Describe two features of an anti-school sub-culture. 4
Possible answers:
high rates of absenteeism and truancy;
often involved in criminal and/or delinquent activities; do not wear
school uniform in the approved fashion; are disruptive and insolent in
class;
not complete class or homework; often aggressive and violent;
negatively sanction those students who do work hard; more likely to
be made up of males than females; often contains working class
students;
may contain high levels of ethnic minorities; often homophobic;
based around norms and values of hegemonic masculinity; other
reasonable response.

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2(c) Explain how cultural capital may cause upper and middle class students 6
to do better in education than working class students.
Possible answers:
regular visits to museums and theatres may mean that upper and
middle class children find these things easier to discuss and write
about than working class children;
upper and middle class children are more likely to use an elaborate
language code which is the same language used in schools and
education;
upper and middle class children are more likely to be socialised to
value education which will lead to more educational success;
upper and middle class children having books at home and being
encouraged to read helps with literacy in schools;
Cultural capital – the knowledge, language, attitudes and values that lead to
individuals having advantages in the education system.
Band 0 [0 marks]

cultural capital and its effects on educational achievement and may talk
about ‘thinking education is important’. Responses may be short and
un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak
point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one
weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers,

understanding of the relationship between cultural capital and educational
achievement. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected ‘Cultural
capital benefits upper and middle class students in education as the
experience at home mirrors that of school.’ This would be followed by
explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of
points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will
cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors
in less detail.

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2(d) Explain why the type of school a student attends is thought to have a 8
big influence on life chances.
Possible answers:
Private schools typically achieve the best examination results and thus
can positively affect life chances;
Comprehensive schools usually set and stream students; those in the
higher sets/streams are likely to have better life chances than those
in the lower sets/streams;
Comprehensive schools are non-selective and thus with good
examination results can lead to upward social mobility for some
students e.g. the working class;
Those with economic, social and cultural capital are able to get their
children into the best schools and so give then the best opportunities
in terms of life chances;
Comprehensive schools have been accused of 'dumbing down' –
bringing down standards because the brighter students have to work
at the same speed as the less able thus negatively affecting life
chances;
Single sex schools often achieve the best examination results, perhaps
because of there being fewer distractions, and so can affect life
chances;
Examination results achieved in school will determine the University
that is attended. Employers favour some Universities over others e.g.
Ivy League/Russell Group – this affects life chances;
Other reasonable response.
Candidates are likely to use localised examples in their answers and thus a
wide range of different schools may be referenced.
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why the type of
school a student attends is thought to influence life chances. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, ‘private
schools get the best results’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms
and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),
expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may
offer more than one weak point.

understanding of why the type of school a student attends is thought to
influence life chances. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in
range. ‘Schools that are paid for by parents are able to have better facilities
and smaller class sizes’ etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are
unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the
band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts
with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be
partially developed/explained.

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understanding of why the type of school a student attends is thought to
influence life chances and will be well developed and explained.
Selective education is where students are chosen to attend a school usually
because of their ability. These are typically private schools. Classes here are
small and students get a lot of teacher attention in order to help them learn.
Education is highly valued and therefore a pro-school culture is the norm’.
throughout.

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2(e) To what extent are teachers responsible for an individual’s educational 15

achievement?

teachers act as role models to their students;
teacher labelling may lead to self-fulfilling prophecies for some
students;
teachers may cause the halo effect through their positive attitudes
towards some students;
Becker claims that teachers judge students on factors such as speech,
personality, dress, behaviour and attitude to work;
students from lower class backgrounds may be seen as disruptive and
lacking in motivation;
teachers may make assumptions about students from different ethnic
groups;
teacher assessment of students may influence the sets and streams
they are placed into;
Against:
students are not passive but instead can reject or negotiate any labels
that are placed upon them;
schools as institutions may be more influential than teachers e.g. the
type of school attended;
schools are still seen as patriarchal institutions that see males in the
majority of positions of power;
home factors may be more important – money, crowded spaces, poor
diet etc.;
attitudes to education may be the most important factor in determining
educational success – from students and parents;
factors such as social class, gender and ethnicity may be the most
important factors in determining educational achievement;
the peer group that the student is in may be a very important factor
e.g. anti-school subcultures;
language codes may be a very important factor e.g. different
languages, elaborate and restricted codes;
material deprivation and poverty may be the most important factor in
determining an individual’s educational success;
Cultural factors such as values, attitude to education and levels of
cultural capital may determine an individual's educational success;
Candidates should consider the role that teachers play in determining an

individual's educational achievement alongside other factors such as the
school, the peer group and home factors.

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showing limited knowledge of the extent to which teachers are responsible
for an individual's educational achievement. Use of sociological terms or
concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-
sided. Teachers pick on some students. Teachers are better qualified in
private schools. Teachers decide what set a student goes in. Lower in the
band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4
marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition
of key terms, teachers spend a lot of time with students, in the question.

which teachers are responsible for an individual’s educational achievement.
Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there
will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There
may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may
be underdeveloped and lack range.
Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely teachers
stereotype some students as good and some as bad.
Teachers are normally middle class so prefer these types of students etc.
Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered
and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be
covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively,
a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument

understanding of the extent to which teachers are responsible for an
individual’s educational achievement. Sociological terms and concepts will be
used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will
be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points
presented. Candidates may say that teachers may well label students
negatively or positively but students do not have to accept these labels. OR
The peer group that a student is in is likely to be more influential than the
teacher as young people are highly influenced by their peer group and want to
conform with them as much as possible. There will be a two-sided response
but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may
provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band,

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extent to which teachers are responsible for an individual’s educational
achievement. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as
accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will
be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide
range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of
the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in
the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what
extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates
should show consideration of points for and against the idea of teachers
affecting educational achievement, citing some of the examples given.

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Most sociologists believe that crime has a negative effect on society and therefore use methods
such as victim surveys to establish a clear picture of the crimes committed and by whom. Others
believe that crime and punishment can actually have an important and positive function in society.
3(a) What is meant by the term ‘victim survey’? 2
One mark for partial definition, asking about crime.
Two marks for clear definition, questionnaires or interviews asking people

what crimes they have been a victim of.
3(b) Describe two cybercrimes. 4
Possible answers:
spreading computer viruses;
fraud and computer scams;
identity theft;
cyber stalking and cyber bullying;
trade in illegal goods via the internet;
cyber terrorism e.g. hacking into a Government website;
recruitment by terrorist groups of new members – cyber grooming;
websites with obscene or offensive content;
sexual offences using technology e.g. grooming/child abuse;

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3(c) Explain how crime and punishment can have a positive function in 6
society.
Possible answers:
crime and punishment serve to reinforce the correct shared norms and
values in society;
crime and punishment reinforce the acceptable boundaries of behaviour
in society;
crime and punishment can be used to deter others from crime e.g. a
warning function;
Functionalist theory of crime e.g. certain levels of crime and deviance
are functional;
crime can indicate that a change in the law is necessary to reflect
changing social attitudes, e.g. social protests/riots etc.;
conflict theory ideas – crime can be indicative of institutional
racism/structural inequalities in society;
Candidates may choose to talk about crime and punishment generally here or
may focus on specific crimes and punishments to illustrate the points made.
Either way is fine to credit.
Band 0 [0 marks]

crime and punishment being functional and may talk about ‘crime and
punishment remind us what we should not do’. Responses may be short and

understanding of the concept of crime and punishment being functional.
Sociological terms and concepts should be expected ‘Seeing how criminals
are punished through the media deters others in society from committing
similar offences themselves. This reinforces social cohesion and reminds
society of its shared values.’ This would be followed by explanation of factors
leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may
be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than
one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.

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3(d) Explain why prison may deter people from committing crime. 8
Possible answers:
people do not want to lose their freedom;
prisons are a powerful agent of social control that controls all aspects
of day to day living;
prisoners are unable to see their friends and loved ones and can be
lonely places;
prisons are often rife with bullying and abuse;
going to prison can stigmatise people and make it difficult to find
employment when released;
prisons are portrayed negatively through the media and thus are seen
to be undesirable;
some prisons require prisoners to complete daily work and chores,
this can often be difficult and physically hard;
people who haven't been to prison have a fear of going there which
deters them from committing crime;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why prisons may
deter people from committing crime. A tendency to description is likely.
Responses may be short and undeveloped, ‘prisons are scary places’ stated
without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be
used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in
the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.

understanding of why prisons may deter people from committing crime.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. ‘Prisons are shown
negatively in the media so people don't want to go there.’ ‘Prisoners can be
labelled for life so this makes getting a job difficult’ etc . At the bottom of the
band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts
sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some

understanding of why prisons may deter people from committing crimes and
will be well developed and explained. ‘Prisons can deter people from
committing crime because they are a powerful agent of social control.
Prisoners lose their freedom and ultimately have to conform to someone
else's rules and decisions. This can lead to extreme loneliness, isolation and
mental health issues’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and
other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used
accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will
be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be
clear throughout.

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3(e) To what extent can labelling theory explain why people commit crime? 15

labelling can lead to a master status e.g. of 'criminal' that becomes
the way a person is thought of and treated;
being labelled negatively can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy whereby
a person lives up to the label they have been given;
public labelling of an individual can lead to a loss of status and those
important to a person and therefore results in higher levels of
deviance;
being labelled may prevent legitimate career and life opportunities and
so a deviant career may be adopted;
Becker and the interactionist approach may be discussed;
labelling typically happens by the powerful onto the less powerful and
so creates a social perception of who the criminals are vantage the
powerful groups in society;
labelling of individuals and groups as criminals can lead to moral panics
in the media whereby these people become further stigmatised as folk
devils. This makes it more likely that they will continue in their criminal
behaviour;
Other reasonable response.
Against:
individuals can reject the labels they have been given;
criminal behaviour may be caused by status frustration e.g. this is the
only way some individuals can gain status in society;
feminists believe criminal behaviour may be due to the culture of
masculinity – males need to prove their masculinity and crime is one
way of doing so;
crime may be more about control and power than a label e.g.
domestic violence and abuse;
labelling theory does not explain the crimes committed by those
groups/individuals in society who have not been labelled e.g. white
collar criminals etc.;
crime may be caused by material and relative deprivation – they do
not have the means to buy what they want. In a consumer society this
is an increasing problem;
feeling marginalised and alienated in society may be a cause of crime
e.g. some ethnic minority groups;
poor socialisation in families may be a cause of crime e.g. The New
Right view;
a lack of social control in society e.g. 'going soft' may lead to
increased levels of crime as people believe they can get away with it;
Merton's strain theory may better explain crime – in capitalist societies
not everybody can be successful and this leads to people finding
alternative ways to get what they want;

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showing limited knowledge of the extent to which labelling theory can explain
why people commit crime. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very
unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. Some
people are picked on in society. People may act the way they are expected
to. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in
the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide
a weak definition of key terms, labelling is being thought of in a particular
way, in the question.

which labelling theory can explain why people commit crime.
will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may
be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be
simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely The media shows some
people as criminals and so people believe they are. Labelling makes people
think of others in a negative way etc. Lower in the band, the response will be
rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development.
Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited
development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little

understanding of the extent to which labelling theory can explain why people
commit crime. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater
presented. Candidates may say that whilst labels can lead some people to
adopt a self-fulfilling prophecy, not everyone lives up to the label they have
been given Or labelling theory stigmatises individuals making it hard for
them to find work but other factors such as a lack of proper socialisation in
the family can also be responsible for causing crime. There will be a two-
sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band,
candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the
top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the
question.

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extent to which labelling theory explains why people commit crime. There will
be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of
answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a
clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the
question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show
consideration of points for and against the idea of labelling causing people to
commit crime, citing some of the examples given.

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The media are constantly changing and new technologies allow the audience greater control over
content. However, this does not mean that the media are no longer powerful. The media are still
able to censor content and have been accused of both indoctrination and agenda setting.
4(a) What is meant by the term ‘indoctrination’? 2
One mark for partial definition, biased reporting
Two marks for clear definition, passing ideas and information to people in a
way that is accepted uncritically.
4(b) Describe two examples of censorship in the media. 4
Possible answers:
laws to protect the state/Government e.g. the UK Official Secrets Act;
laws on obscenity;
laws to prevent discrimination e.g. anti-racism/sexism; laws of libel
and slander;
certification systems used to control the content and distribution of
films, computer games and music videos;
the television watershed which prevents sex, violence, bad language
and drug use being shown before an agreed time;
self-censorship e.g. internet providers and websites can block or
remove content;
Government can filter information e.g. China blocking Google;
Candidates may give specific examples of censorship from the media on

either a local or an international level or may give examples of what
censorship is used for. Both are fine to credit.

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4(c) Explain how the media can set the agenda for what is seen to be 6
important in society.
Possible answers:
media gatekeepers control the public's access to information e.g. an
editor decides which stories make the news;
media news values determine what is thought to make a good story
and thus influences what the public do and don't hear about;
the news and the content of the media is socially constructed, reflecting
media personnel’s decisions, beliefs and values rather than social
reality;
how a story is presented in the media determines how it will be
understood by the audience;
stories covered in the media become talked about in society – some
are passed and used whereas others are rejected, this determines
what is seen to be important;
Marxists believe that media owners and professionals share a similar
background and outlook and that this influences what we see and hear
in the media;
work by the GUMG shows the media to be biased and selective in
determining what is seen to be important;
advertising is usually the main source of income for the privately owned
media and therefore the need to appeal to advertisers may well set
the agenda for media content;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the idea that the
media can set the agenda for what is seen to be important in society and
may talk about ‘what the media cover’. Responses may be short and

understanding of the idea that the media can set the agenda for what is seen
to be important in society. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected
‘the media manipulates people into believing that they have a choice by only
presenting them with certain options and viewpoints and thus ensuring that
we don't vote for radical changes.’ This would be followed by explanation of
factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points
covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover
more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less
detail.

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4(d) Explain why feminists criticise the representation of women in the 8

media.
Possible answers:
media effects models such as the hypodermic needle suggest that the
audience are directly influenced by how women are represented in the
media;
feminists believe the media is still a patriarchal institution owned and
controlled by men and thus represents women from a male viewpoint;
the male gaze is thought to exist in the media, whereby the media
'eyes a woman up' as if through a man's eyes;
females are thought to be underrepresented (in most areas of the
media)
females are thought to be shown in a narrow range of roles;
females are often shown in a way that emphasises their physical
appearance;
images of women in the media are often digitally enhanced to create
an appearance that is not attainable in real life – can be linked to issues
such as anorexia etc.;
females are still often shown as passive, weak and helpless – needing
a man to help them;
males and females are not treated equally in the media;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why feminists
criticise the representation of women in the media. A tendency to description is
likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, ‘women are shown as sex
symbols’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are
unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak
weak point.

understanding of why feminists criticise the representation of women in the
media. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range.
‘The media is thought to be patriarchal and does not represent men and
women in the same way.’ ‘Females are represented in stereotypical ways
that leave them in a narrow range of roles’ etc. At the bottom of the band,
may only be partially developed/ explained.

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understanding of why feminists criticise the representation of women in the
media and will be well developed and explained. ‘Women in the media are
still very under-represented and are typically shown in a narrow range of
stereotypical roles. The emphasis is often on a woman's appearance and
digital editing is frequently used to create an unrealistic impression of what a
woman is like’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other
factors as necessary.
Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers
will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons

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4(e) To what extent can the audience influence the content of the media? 15

Pluralist ideas that the media is shaped by the audience - the media
have to give the audience what they want in order to survive and remain
viable;
audiences can use new media technologies to create their own media
products and upload these to the internet;
the audience can use interactive technologies to determine the content
of the media e.g. voting on reality TV shows;
audiences can comment on the media via blogs, chat rooms and forums
etc.;
citizen journalism is now the norm and allows the audience to create
and shape the media;
active audience models of media effects demonstrate that the audience
can interpret the media in various different ways and so determine
content;
Against:
it is the media owners and corporations that determine the content of
the media, not the audience;
media professionals (editors, journalists etc.) decide on media content,
not the audience;
media effects models such as the hypodermic syringe show that the
media has a direct influence on the audience through its content;
news values are thought to determine media content as they are what
the media believe will appeal and sell;
Marxists believe that the media convey the dominant ideologies in
order to indoctrinate the audience into a particular point of view;
the media are thought to divert people away from the important issues
in society through a content of trivia and gossip;
censorship in the media demonstrates that the audience do not control
media content;
the digital divide means that not all audience members have the same
opportunities to influence media content;
the importance of advertising revenue to the media industry means
that many believe it is the advertisers who control media content e.g.
the content of the media must attract a mass audience in order to
appeal to the advertisers;
Candidates should demonstrate the ways that the audience can influence
media content and are likely to focus on new media technologies in their
discussion. Ideas that the media is still controlled by owners and media
professionals are also likely to be considered in evaluation.

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showing limited knowledge of the extent to which the audience can influence
the content of the media. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very
unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. The
audience can decide who wins a competition by online voting. People can
write their own blogs now. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two
weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more
than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, the audience are
the people who watch and listen to the media, in the question.

which the audience can influence the content of the media.
will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may
be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts.
simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely Digital technology makes it
easier for the audience to produce their own media content and distribute it
to others. The audience can write their own blogs on the internet etc. Lower
in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and
there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered

understanding of the extent to which the audience can influence the content
of the media. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater
presented. Candidates may say that despite more opportunities being
available for the audience to create media content, ultimately most media
output is created by global media corporations. Or For younger people there
are many possible ways to influence media content through digital
technologies and interactive media. For elderly people, however, there
remains a large digital divide. There will be a two-sided response but this may
be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a
narrower range of well- developed points. At the top of the band, expect a

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extent to which the audience can influence the content of the media. There
will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of
consideration of points for and against the idea of the audience being able to
influence the content of the media, citing some of the examples given.

PAGE 259

SOCIOLOGY 2251/22

*8775019365*

06_2251_22_2018_1.1
PAGE 260
2
Section A: Family
1 Sociologists have very different views of the family and whether it is beneficial for its members. For
example, some sociologists view the family as a form of patriarchy, whilst others view it as more
symmetrical. Rising divorce rates and changing attitudes to marriage means family life today is
very diverse.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘patriarchy’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of joint conjugal roles. [4]
(c) Explain how Marxists view the functions of the family. [6]
(d) Explain why some families are symmetrical. [8]
(e) To what extent is marriage still the norm in modern industrial societies? [15]
2 Education affects an individual's life chances. Many views have been put forward to explain why
different social groups experience different levels of success in educational achievement. Examples
of these views include material deprivation and ethnocentrism.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘material deprivation’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of ethnocentrism in education. [4]
(c) Explain how education is an agency of socialisation. [6]
(d) Explain why education can improve life chances. [8]
(e) To what extent are material factors the most important influence on educational achievement?
[15]
© UCLES 2018 06_2251_22_2018_1.1

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3
3 Acts of crime and deviance are often associated with youth sub-cultures. Controlling crime in society
is difficult to do. Some sociologists believe that informal agencies of social control are the best way
to ensure conformity. Others believe that formal agencies such as prisons are the best deterrent.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘deviance’? [2]
(b) Describe two problems with official crime statistics. [4]
(c) Explain how informal agencies of social control prevent crime. [6]
(d) Explain why youth sub-cultures are often linked to crime. [8]
(e) To what extent do prisons fail to deter people from committing crime? [15]
Section D: Media
4 Pluralists and Marxists have very different views about the role and influence of media in society.
Some sociologists believe the media directly affects how the audience thinks and behaves. Others
believe it depends on who is using the media and how it is being used. However, the media can
still be very influential in spreading propaganda.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘pluralist’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of how the media can use propaganda to influence the audience. [4]
(c) Explain how sociologists criticise the stereotypical representations of some social groups in
the media. [6]
(d) Explain why the hypodermic syringe model can be criticised. [8]
(e) To what extent are patterns of media use determined by the social class of the audience?
[15]
© UCLES 2018 06_2251_22_2018_1.1

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4
BLANK PAGE
Permission to reproduce items where third-party owned material protected by copyright is included has been sought and cleared where possible. Every reasonable
effort has been made by the publisher (UCLES) to trace copyright holders, but if any items requiring clearance have unwittingly been included, the publisher will
be pleased to make amends at the earliest possible opportunity.
To avoid the issue of disclosure of answer-related information to candidates, all copyright acknowledgements are reproduced online in the Cambridge International
Examinations Copyright Acknowledgements Booklet. This is produced for each series of examinations and is freely available to download at www.cie.org.uk after
the live examination series.
Cambridge International Examinations is part of the Cambridge Assessment Group. Cambridge Assessment is the brand name of University of Cambridge Local
Examinations Syndicate (UCLES), which is itself a department of the University of Cambridge.
© UCLES 2018 06_2251_22_2018_1.1

PAGE 263
Cambridge Assessment International Education

SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Teachers.
Cambridge International will not enter into discussions about these mark schemes.
Cambridge International is publishing the mark schemes for the May/June 2018 series for most
Cambridge IGCSE™, Cambridge International A and AS Level and Cambridge Pre-U components, and
some Cambridge O Level components.
IGCSE™ is a registered trademark.

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Generic Marking Principles
These general marking principles must be applied by all examiners when marking candidate answers.
They should be applied alongside the specific content of the mark scheme or generic level descriptors
for a question. Each question paper and mark scheme will also comply with these marking principles.
GENERIC MARKING PRINCIPLE 1:
Marks must be awarded in line with:
the specific content of the mark scheme or the generic level descriptors for the question
the specific skills defined in the mark scheme or in the generic level descriptors for the question
the standard of response required by a candidate as exemplified by the standardisation scripts.
Marks awarded are always whole marks (not half marks, or other fractions).
Marks must be awarded positively:
marks are awarded for correct/valid answers, as defined in the mark scheme. However, credit
is given for valid answers which go beyond the scope of the syllabus and mark scheme,
referring to your Team Leader as appropriate
marks are awarded when candidates clearly demonstrate what they know and can do
marks are not deducted for errors
marks are not deducted for omissions
answers should only be judged on the quality of spelling, punctuation and grammar when these
features are specifically assessed by the question as indicated by the mark scheme. The
meaning, however, should be unambiguous.
Rules must be applied consistently e.g. in situations where candidates have not followed
instructions or in the application of generic level descriptors.
Marks should be awarded using the full range of marks defined in the mark scheme for the question
(however; the use of the full mark range may be limited according to the quality of the candidate
responses seen).
Marks awarded are based solely on the requirements as defined in the mark scheme. Marks should
not be awarded with grade thresholds or grade descriptors in mind.

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1(a) What is meant by the term ‘patriarchy’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. men are in charge.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the power, status and authority held by
men...the system that allows men to have more power and dominance than
women.
1(b) Describe two examples of joint conjugal roles. 4
Possible answers:
sharing instrumental roles – both partners work (dual worker families)
sharing expressive roles – both partners look after the domestic work;
sharing of childcare responsibilities;
sharing of the 'emotional work';
living in a symmetrical family with equal/shared conjugal roles;
husband and wife share the same interests and/or friendship groups;
no clear separation of gender roles between the partners;
sharing emotional work between both partners;
sharing of decision making between both partners;

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1(c) Explain how Marxists view the functions of the family. 6
Candidates must be talking about Marxist functions of the family to be

credited.
Possible answers:
Marxists agree with functionalists that nuclear families perform functions
that are vital for society and the individual and so are an important
institution;
the nuclear family supports the capitalist system by socialising its
members to believe in and accept unquestioningly capitalist norms and
values. This function makes people believe the system is fair and just;
a function is that the nuclear family brings up children to be the next
generation of proletariat workers meaning profits continue to be made
for the bourgeoisie;
women in the nuclear family care for and support their husbands
meaning that because of this function, the workforce is kept fit and
healthy so benefiting capitalism;
alienation felt by male workers in the workplace can be compensated for
in the nuclear family. This function allows men to take their anger and
frustrations out at home rather than at work so benefits capitalism;
being part of a nuclear family makes it hard for men to go on strike and
protest at their working conditions as they need the money from their
wages to support their family – a key function, they are effectively wage
slaves;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Marxism and the family functions and may talk about e.g. family functions
being negative. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the
bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–
3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be
a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas

understanding of Marxist views of family functions. Sociological terms and
concepts should be expected e.g. Marxists believe the family is a tool of the
state used to keep people in their subordinate positions and its key function
is to make individuals not rebel against capitalist inequalities. This would be
followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band,
the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the
band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or

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1(d) Explain why some families are symmetrical. 8
SYMMETRICAL FAMILY – a family in which the conjugal roles have

become more equal (Willmott and Young).
Possible answers:
dual worker families – both partners work and so both must contribute to
the domestic tasks;
role of Feminism in promoting equal rights legislation and a change in
attitudes and gender expectations/roles;
women are having fewer or no children today – this means they are
freer to explore jobs and careers and less tied to the expressive role;
better standard of living means that families can afford to buy labour
saving devices/employ cleaners, etc. meaning that these roles don't
have to be performed by women anymore;
rise of househusbands/female breadwinners – change in the economy
to the service sector and the decline of manual work means that male
unemployment is high and thus it is often women taking the powerful
role;
the privatisation of nuclear families means that families became self-
centred and privatized and so began to form equal partnerships as more
time was spent at home;
decline of the extended family means there is less pressure to conform
to traditional gender roles;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why some
families are more symmetrical today. A tendency to description is likely.
Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. society is now fairer stated

understanding of why some families are more symmetrical today.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. We have
more symmetry in the family today because equal rights laws now exist
meaning women can get good jobs. At the bottom of the band, candidates
are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the

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understanding of why some families are more symmetrical today, e.g. We
have more symmetry in families today because of the greater independence
women get from their paid work and careers. This allows them higher status
in the family meaning they are not expected to be the sole performers of the
domestic tasks. They have a key role to play now in areas such as decision
making, leisure time and financial family affairs. They can then expand on
the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms
and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused
on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of
the band explanations will be clear throughout.

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1(e) To what extent is marriage still the norm in modern industrial 15

societies?
Candidates should show awareness of a range of different points that

illustrate that marriage is still the norm today. They should then consider
alternative arguments that its importance is declining or changing in MISs.
Possible answers:
FOR:
socialisation through most agencies still promotes marriage as
something to be valued and as a social norm e.g. the media’s ‘cereal
packet family’;
whilst divorce rates may be high, so are rates of remarriage – illustrating
that marriage is still the norm;
serial monogamy (a series of marriages and divorces in a person's
lifetime) is increasingly common, indicating that marriage is still the
norm;
in religious/traditional societies and communities marriage is still
expected and highly valued;
minority groups have pushed for changing legislation as regards
marriage i.e. homosexual marriages are now legal in many societies –
this illustrates the continued importance of marriage;
in many societies, the legal frameworks support and encourage
marriage;
AGAINST:
high divorce rates and levels of separation in relationships illustrate how
marriage is no longer considered as important or the norm;
high numbers of people choose not to get married – civil partnerships,
cohabitation, single parents, etc. – this all indicates how marriage is no
longer seen as the norm;
secularisation – the decline of the importance of religion in many
societies means that there is less pressure to get married and thus it
becomes less of a norm;
feminists see marriage as a patriarchal institution therefore with the rise
of equality and women's rights marriage has become less popular and
so less of a norm;
heterosexuality is not the only socially approved type of relationship
anymore and so with increased diversity in society comes similar
diversity in terms of relationships – marriage is just one such choice;

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showing limited knowledge of whether marriage is still the norm in modern
industrial society. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely.
Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. Most people still
dream of getting married. OR lots of remarriages take place. Lower in the
band (1–2 marks) expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4
marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak
definition of key terms, e.g. marriage is the legal binding of two people, in
the question.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether
marriage is still the norm in modern industrial society. Alternatively, they
may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real
attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be
limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided
responses are unlikely e.g. People are still socialised to see marriage as
normal. OR In religious places marriage is really important etc. Lower in the
band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will
be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and
there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like

understanding of whether marriage is still the norm in modern industrial
society. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy
and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed,
focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented.
Candidates may say that e.g. despite marriages still continuing to be
popular, more people are choosing to cohabit rather than marry as there is
less family pressure today. OR Increased rates of divorce in society and
individuals choosing not to marry lessen the normality of marriage.
However, lots of divorcees do go on to remarry. There will be a two-sided
response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band,
question.

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Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of
whether marriage is still the norm in modern industrial society. There will be
a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of
consideration of points for and against the idea of whether marriage is still
the norm, citing some of the examples given.

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2(a) What is meant by the term ‘material deprivation’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. being poor.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. not having the money needed to buy
items that can help children succeed in education.
2(b) Describe two examples of ethnocentrism in education. 4
ETHNOCENTRISM – treating the culture of the majority group as being

more important than minority cultures.
Possible answers:
teaching of history – ethnic minorities may learn nothing about their own
people's experiences;
images of ethnic minorities in textbooks may be rarely seen or very
stereotyped;
teaching of English (or the nation's main language) may focus on
literature from that country only;
language teaching – there may be no recognition of ethnic minority
languages and no way of accessing the curriculum through those
languages;
there may be a lack of ethnic minority teachers in schools sending out
the message that the ethnic minority culture is of a lower
status/importance;
a lack of cultural understanding in uniform/food e.g. canteen not catering
for ethnic minority needs;
teachers treating ethnic minority students differently to the majority e.g.
placing them in lower sets/streams because they feel they are less
intelligent or less likely to do well;
teacher stereotypes and attitudes towards ethnic minority students may
lead to them being thought about as less intelligent or important than the
ethnic majority;

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2(c) Explain how education is an agency of socialisation. 6
Possible answers:
agency of secondary socialisation that teaches and reinforces social
expectations, norms and values;
comprehensive education brings people from different backgrounds and
ethnicities together and promotes and teaches tolerance and
understanding;
teaches children to respect authority and that there are consequences
for not doing so e.g. through the use of sanctions;
teaches shared values which makes children feel a sense of belonging
and community;
teaching a national identity through, for example, singing the national
anthem and learning about the country's history, culture and traditions
promotes social cohesion;
teaching gender roles through the hidden curriculum e.g. teacher
expectations/subject choice;
teaching children their position in the hierarchy through things such as
testing, setting and streaming;
Marxists believe it socialises children to accept the capitalist system as
normal;
feminists believe it socialises children to accept patriarchy as normal;
peers within schools can socialise individuals i.e. through sub-
cultures/peer pressure;
Band 0 [0 marks]
Band 1 [1– 3 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how education is
an agency of socialisation and may talk about e.g. learning to do what
others tell you to. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the

understanding of how education is an agency of socialisation. Sociological
terms and concepts should be expected e.g. Education is a secondary
agent of socialisation that teaches expected gender roles through the
hidden curriculum and teacher expectations. This would be followed by
points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers

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2(d) Explain why education can improve life chances. 8
Possible answers:
if there is equality of opportunity in education then everyone has the
same chance of succeeding meaning life chances for all can be
improved;
if education is meritocratic then natural ability, hard work and effort will
be rewarded by improved life chances if an individual does well in
education;
functionalists believe that those from underprivileged backgrounds can
improve their life chances through education by becoming upwardly
socially mobile as education can lead to a ‘good job’;
in the service sector economy 'good' jobs are often characterised by
qualifications – education offers these to individuals from all social
backgrounds e.g. comprehensive education;
educational success and the associated cultural capital is highly valued
in Western societies and thus is a tool available to climb the social
ladder;
comprehensive education is available to all, allowing everyone the
chance to succeed in education and to become upwardly socially mobile
regardless of background;
educating girls in some societies greatly increases their life chances i.e.
through employment opportunities;
Marxist view – that private education and the old boys' network affect life
chances positively for the higher classes (and negatively for the lower
classes);
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why education
can improve life chances. A tendency to description is likely. Responses
may be short and undeveloped, e.g. qualifications get you better jobs stated

understanding of why education can improve life chances. Responses may
be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. By succeeding in education
an individual can climb the social ladder and be successful. OR
Comprehensive education is free and equally available to all meaning that if
a person works and tries hard they can improve their life chances etc. At the
bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and
concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to
use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some

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understanding of why education can improve life chances and will be well
developed and explained, e.g. Functionalists believe that we live in a
meritocracy and that those with talent who work hard in education will be
rewarded by achieving a good job and climbing the social ladder. They can
then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary.
2(e) To what extent are material factors the most important influence on
educational achievement?
Candidates may discuss general points about material factors which may
link to home and/or school. Cultural factors may also be considered. They
may also choose to focus on specific social groups (such as ethnic
minorities, different social classes) linking their educational success or
failure to material factors.
Possible answers:
FOR
those with money can afford private education where results are good,
those without cannot;
some schools do not have adequate funds to buy important resources;
those with more money can afford private tutoring/additional resources
to aid study, those less well-off cannot;
material factors will determine where a person lives – attending a
disadvantaged school in a poor area may not offer as good an education
as that in a more wealthy environment;
many ethnic minority pupils are from a working class/rural/poor
background and so may lack the quiet space needed at home to study;
poorer families are unlikely to be able to provide children with a healthy
diet full of fresh food, this is thought to affect educational achievement;
students from poorer backgrounds may have to combine studying with
working part time – this can have a detrimental effect on educational
achievement;
having access to money may determine whether a child can or cannot
afford to stay in education e.g. at college, university, etc.;
AGAINST:
material factors may not determine educational success – it’s how hard
a person tries and the efforts they make (functionalist view);
cultural factors may be more influential, such as how much education is
valued by parents and how much encouragement there is to achieve;
Bourdieu and cultural capital (Marxism) – higher class students who
have this are advantaged in education and tend to achieve better as a
result;

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2(e) a person's gender may be more important than material factors in 15

determining their educational success i.e. in most Western societies girls
outperform boys;
teacher expectations and labelling may be a big influence on
achievement – this may lead to the self-fulfilling prophecy or the halo
effect taking place;
the set/stream a pupil is placed in at school is thought by many to have
a big influence over educational achievement;
pupil sub-cultures may be very important in determining educational
success – whether a pupil belongs to a pro or anti school one, for
example – peer group pressure;
the ethnocentric curriculum and lack of ethnic minority teacher role
models are thought by many to explain the educational
underachievement of many ethnic minorities;
Band 0 [0 marks]

showing limited knowledge of whether material factors are the most
important influence on educational success. Use of sociological terms or
sided, e.g. If you don't have much money then you can't afford to go to a
good school. OR Private tutors are expensive. Lower in the band (1–2
marks) expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks)
candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of
key terms, e.g. material factors are about how much money you have, in the
question.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether material
factors are the most important influence on educational success.
be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-
sided responses are unlikely e.g. private schools cost a lot of money and
get better results than state schools etc. Lower in the band, the response
will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little
development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will
be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with
little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8
marks.

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Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge of whether
material factors are the most important influence on educational
achievement. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater
presented. Candidates may say that e.g. despite material factors being
important in allowing some students to buy extra revision resources and hire
a private tutor to help boost their grades, the set or stream a pupil is placed
in and the expectations that the teacher has of him/her may affect
achievement more. There will be a two-sided response but this may be
unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower
range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range
of points and clear focus on the question.

whether material factors are the most important influence on educational
achievement. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as
accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will
be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide
range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of
the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in
the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To
what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.
material factors influencing achievement, citing some of the examples given.

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3(a) What is meant by the term ‘deviance’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. illegal activities.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. actions that go against the norms and
values of society e.g. committing a crime.
3(b) Describe two problems with official crime statistics. 4
Possible answers:
someone has to realise that a crime has taken place for it to be reported
to the police i.e. murder of a homeless man;
the crime committed has to be reported to the police to appear in the
OCS and this doesn't always happen i.e. due to fear of reprisals,
embarrassment, knowing the perpetrator etc.;
crimes that involve insured articles are the most likely to be reported to
the police which will skew the picture of crime seen in the OCS;
there is a large 'dark figure of crime' that is not known about and
therefore does not appear in the OCS;
crimes have to be recorded by the police to appear in the OCS – police
discretion means that this doesn't always happen;
different police forces and police officers will deal with crime differently
meaning that the OCS's picture of crime may not be valid;
police targeting strategies affect which crimes are concentrated on;
crime statistics may be manipulated by the government/ruling class and
therefore may be biased and so do not show a valid picture of all crimes
committed;
official crime statistics often focus on the visible, street crimes typically
associated with the working class rather than more middle class white-
collar/corporate crimes therefore are not accurate;

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3(c) Explain how informal agencies of social control prevent crime. 6
Candidates need to show an understanding of how informal agencies of

social control such as the media, family and education can prevent crime. It
is likely that several different agencies will be discussed but candidates
could answer the question by focusing on just one informal agency. This
would not be sufficient range, however, to score full marks. Alternatively,
answers may look at informal methods of control in a more general way in
terms of processes.
Possible answers:
informal agencies cause individuals to internalise society's norms and
values and to conform to these therefore preventing crime;
informal agencies of social control can use punishments and negative
sanctions to prevent individuals committing crime;
informal agencies can use praise and positive sanctions to encourage
individuals to follow the law and so prevent crime;
the media – reporting about crime in the media shows individuals the
negative consequences of their actions if they choose to commit a
crime;
religion has many rules that believers must follow and these ensure that
morals are taught and so help to prevent crime;
the workplace will dismiss or discipline individuals who break the law;
the family impose punishments to prevent illegal behaviour and use
primary socialisation to teach people right from wrong;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how informal
agencies of social control prevent crime and may talk about e.g. they give
punishments to people committing crimes. Responses may be short and

understanding of awareness of how informal agencies of social control
prevent crime and may talk about sociological terms and concepts should
be expected e.g. The media use role models to socialise individuals into the
right ways of behaving in society. This is then imitated in society and so
serves to prevent crime. This would be followed by explanation of factors
leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may
be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than
one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.

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3(d) Explain why youth sub-cultures are often linked to crime. 8
Candidates may talk about youth sub-cultures generally (i.e. style based,
criminal, deviant etc.) or may focus on particular examples such as the
Skins, gangs etc.
Possible answers:
young people are most susceptible to peer pressure and so join a sub-
culture where crime is the norm;
youth sub-cultures may be a form of resistance to a perceived inequality
in society – crime can therefore be justified e.g. the Skins resisting class
inequalities through crime and deviance;
youth sub-cultures are perceived to be exciting and thrill seeking –
committing crimes may simply be an extension of this for young people
(Postmodernism);
youth sub-cultures may be joined when young people experience status
frustration in society – the group allows for status to be achieved in
alternative ways (Cohen);
youth sub-cultures may offer an alternative set of values to mainstream
society which appeal to young people – this may involve criminal or
deviant behaviour i.e. taking drugs;
youth sub-cultures can be used as part of the illegitimate opportunity
structure when legitimate opportunities for success in society are limited
e.g. gangs – this is particularly true for working class youth (Cloward and
Ohlin);
youth sub-cultures are often linked with being masculine – young boys
demonstrate toughness through crime in order to prove how ‘manly’ they
are, this is part of a youth’s status (Miller focal concerns);
criminal activities of ethnic minority youth sub-cultures may be as a
response to racism in society e.g. riots;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why youth sub-
cultures are linked to crime. A tendency to description is likely. Responses
may be short and undeveloped, e.g. youths want money for alcohol and
drugs stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are
weak point.

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3(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] 8

understanding of why youth sub-cultures are linked to crime. Responses
may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. Youth sub-cultures may
form in working class areas where there are few jobs. OR Youth sub-
cultures offer excitement through committing crimes for young people who
are bored etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use
sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates
may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater
accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially
developed /explained.

understanding of why youth sub-cultures are linked to crime and will be well
developed and explained, e.g. It is typically young people from ethnic
minorities and the working class who join a sub-culture. Legitimate
opportunities for success may be limited in society and so they use sub-
cultures to gain status – gangs are a good example of this. Sometimes they
can be used to make a living, by selling drugs for example, as the young
people in the sub-cultures are experiencing material deprivation. Cloward
and Ohlin found this in their study of the illegitimate opportunity structure.
throughout.

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3(e) To what extent do prisons fail to deter people from committing crime?
Candidates should discuss the various ways that prisons may not deter
people from committing crime. This may include how other agencies
/sanctions e.g. the family are more effective deterrents. They may then
consider why prison may well be an effective deterrent as evaluation.
Possible answers:
FOR:
re-offending rates are high therefore prison cannot be that much of a
deterrent;
some people see prison as an 'easy ride' and therefore are not worried
about being sent there;
for some people prison provides food, shelter and heating which is
better than life on the outside therefore it is not a deterrent at all;
prison can be referred to as a 'university of crime' – criminals become
better criminals when inside – therefore it is not a deterrent at all;
some people want to go to prison in order to access the comprehensive
counselling, rehabilitation, treatment, education, training programmes
that are available – prison therefore is not a deterrent;
punishments that involve some kind of 'putting things right' i.e.
community service, are thought by many to be more effective than just
locking someone away as they understand the consequence of their
actions;
many people believe that informal agents of social control i.e. the family,
are more effective deterrents to crime than impersonal formal agents
such as prisons;
other sanctions such as surveillance, curfews, community sentences,
fines and tags are thought by many to be more effective deterrents than
prison as they carry shame and humiliation and/or financial implications
with them which prevents further re-offending;
more serious sanctions such as the death penalty are thought by many
to be a far greater deterrent to crime than prison;
AGAINST:
prisons act as a deterrent because by sending someone there other
people can see the consequence of criminal actions and so are put off
from offending themselves;
prisons incapacitate people and this is a deterrent as people do not want
to lose their freedom;
rehabilitation programmes are often a compulsory part of prison life and
this may put people off offending as they do not want to be a part of this;
prisons are often portrayed as violent and dangerous places (e.g. in the
media) and people are scared of this therefore this acts as a deterrent to
crime;
people do not want to be unable to spend time with their loved ones and
so prison acts as a deterrent;
a prison sentence brings with it a prison/criminal record and people are
aware that this will make finding work difficult therefore this acts as a
deterrent to crime;

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3(e) Band 0 [0 marks] 15


showing limited knowledge of whether prisons fail to deter people from
committing crime. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely.
Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. Prisons are
shown as easy places to be in the media. OR Prisons teach you how to be a
better criminal. Lower in the band (1–2 marks) expect one or two weak
points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. fail to deter means to
not put you off something, in the question.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether prisons
fail to deter people from committing crime. Alternatively, they may offer an
answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess
e.g. prisons aren't tough enough on prisoners and they provide food and
shelter and therefore aren't seen as a negative sanction by criminals etc.

understanding of whether prisons fail to deter people from committing crime.
Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or
frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on
the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may
say that e.g. prisons are seen by some as the ultimate sanction but others
say that the rehabilitation and education/training programs offered by
prisons means they are made too attractive to deter people from committing
crime. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At
the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-

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whether prisons fail to deter people from committing crime. There will be a
strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of
consideration of points for and against the idea of whether prisons fail to
deter people from committing crime, citing some of the examples given.

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4(a) What is meant by the term ‘pluralist’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. lots of choice.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. power in the media is spread amongst a
wide variety of people. OR A belief that there is lots of choice in terms of
content and viewpoint in the media.
4(b) Describe two examples of how the media can use propaganda to 4
influence the audience.
Candidates will be expected to describe two examples of how the media

can use propaganda to influence the audience. These could be examples of
how propaganda is used or examples of when propaganda is used.
Examples may focus generically on how the media can use propaganda or
use specific examples to make a point.
You may also see culturally specific examples reflecting the candidate’s
own experiences of media and propaganda.
Possible answers:
the media can be used to influence people's thoughts and actions
through words, images, sound and messages;
state controlled media may present the government and its policies
favourably;
state controlled media may present opposition parties and their policies
unfavourably;
state controlled media may not report on events or issues that present
the government in a bad light;
media can portray events in a one-sided even untrue way without
allowing the audience access to alternative viewpoints;
in WW2 in Nazi Germany, Hitler used the media to demonise Jews,
communists, etc. and so justify the holocaust;
The USA used Disney to make films for the American war effort against
Nazi Germany;
Stalin's USSR had a cinema train that visited remote regions of the
country in order to spread propaganda;

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4(c) Explain how sociologists criticise the stereotypical representations of 6

some social groups in the media.
Candidates are likely to talk about specific social groups who are
stereotypically represented in the media in their responses i.e. ethnic
minorities, women etc. They could also take a more general approach to the
question.
Possible answers:
stereotyping may invisibilise some social groups through such means as
tokenism and under-representation;
stereotypical representations in the media are typically negative which
can influence people to believe they are true in social life as well;
stereotypical representations of women as sex objects can lead to the
formation of the 'male gaze' whereby men are almost encouraged to
objectify women;
stereotypes tend to work through the idea of binary opposites that
encourage people to think of some social groups as 'good' and some as
'bad' – this is very simplistic and often inaccurate;
according to models of media effects in which the audience are passive
consumers, media stereotypes will be believed and acted upon in
society;
stereotypical representations in the media can lead to
racism/sexism/ageism and discrimination in society;
media representations may be the only knowledge of some social
groups that the audience have therefore if they are portrayed
stereotypically the audience will believe this to be true;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of criticisms of the
media's stereotypical representations of some social groups. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and un/under developed, e.g.
they are negative stated without proper explanation. At the bottom of the
band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks),
candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a
tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas

understanding of criticisms of the media's stereotypical representations of
some social groups. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected
e.g. if the hypodermic model is correct, the audience are likely to believe the
stereotypes they see in the media such as the idea that elderly people are a
burden. This can then lead to prejudice and discrimination in society etc.
This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the
bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack
detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-

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4(d) Explain why the hypodermic syringe model can be criticised. 8
Candidates need to show an understanding of what is meant by the

hypodermic syringe model (direct model of media effects, immediate
effects) and describe how it can be criticised. Some candidates may criticise
the model through reference to other models of media effects, others may
discuss specific criticisms of the hypodermic approach.
Possible answers:
this model of media effects is very out dated and ignores the interactive
nature of digital media today (postmodernism);
this model of media effects says that the audience are directly
influenced by the media, it is more likely that media effects are indirect
(two step flow model);
this model of media effects says that media influence is immediate, it is
more likely that there is a 'drip-drip' cumulative effect on the audience
(cultural effects);
this model fails to recognise that the audience are not passive and
actively choose how they are affected by the media e.g. uses and
gratifications model;
pluralists believe that the audience affect the media more than the
media affects the audience;
much of the methodology used to evidence the hypodermic syringe
model is thought to be flawed e.g. the bobo doll experiment lacking
ecological validity;
Band 0 [0 marks]

hypodermic syringe model can be criticised. A tendency to description is
likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. it's a very old theory
stated without explanation. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one
weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than
one weak point.

understanding of why the hypodermic syringe model can be criticised.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. A lot of
sociologists criticise the methods used by the hypodermic syringe model
and so don't believe the results to be valid – the bobo doll experiment for
example etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use

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understanding of criticisms of the media's stereotypical representations of
some social groups and will be well developed and explained, e.g. The
hypodermic syringe model is too simplistic in its approach. It is unlikely that
the effects of the media are either immediate or direct and instead the
process is far more complex than this. Today's media is interactive allowing
the audience to influence its form and content and the hypodermic syringe
model does not account for this. They can then expand on the explanation
of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will
be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question
and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band
4(e) To what extent are patterns of media use determined by the social
class of the audience.
Candidates may link social class to money and discuss consumption

patterns that link to this. They may also look at specific social classes and
consider their patterns of media use. They would, in both cases, be
expected to also consider how social class does not determine media usage
and/or how other social factors may also be important.
Possible answers:
FOR:
the newspaper industry has been frequently linked with particular social
classes. In the UK, for example, tabloids are linked with the lower social
classes and broadsheets with the higher classes;
TV channels are said to produce mainstream, prime time shows such as
soaps that appeal to the lower classes whereas more 'arty', niche
programming appeals more to the higher classes;
many members of the working class subscribe to sports channels which
provide football – a traditionally working class interest;
a digital divide may exist in many countries based on how much it costs
to access and use new media – this is linked to social class;
cultural capital – the higher social classes are likely to use the media for
different cultural pursuits i.e. arts, literature than the lower social classes
(uses and gratifications – information/education rather than
entertainment);
the middle class are often associated with consuming media products
about current affairs (linked to their value of education), finance and
politics;
the lower social classes are more likely in many countries to consume
media products that support left wing political opinions, more right wing
for the higher social classes;
the higher social classes are more likely to want 'hard news' and the
lower social classes, 'soft';
'pay-for' media may be more heavily consumed by the higher social
classes because of the economic capital needed to afford it;

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4(e) AGAINST: 15
Postmodernists believe that class is 'dead' therefore cannot affect
consumption; new media consumption is unlikely to be defined by social
class as content and access is often free therefore available to all social
classes;
as social classes converge, so do the media products that they
consume i.e. all social classes may now watch the soaps;
it is personal taste, not social class, that determines the media a person
consumes;
it is gender not social class that determines media consumption;
it is age not social class that determines the media that is consumed;
it is ethnicity not social class that determines the media that a person
consumes;
Band 0 [0 marks]

showing limited knowledge of whether patterns of media use are determined
by the social class of the audience. Use of sociological terms or concepts is
very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g.
people from different social classes choose different types of media. Lower
in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band
(3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak
definition of key terms, e.g. social class is how much money someone has,
in the question.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether
patterns of media use are determined by the social class of the audience.
be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-
sided responses are unlikely e.g. Social class affects how much money you
have and so this determines what media you might consume etc. Lower in

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4(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] 15

understanding of whether patterns of media use are determined by the
social class of the audience. Sociological terms and concepts will be used
with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be
well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points
presented. Candidates may say that e.g. despite social class clearly being
important in determining cultural tastes in the media, the new media is
available to a wide section of society and is often free. There will be a two-
question.

whether patterns of media use are determined by the social class of the
audience. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate
and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well
developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of
points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the
band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the
band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what
extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates
should show consideration of points for and against the idea of social class
determining media usage, citing some of the examples given.

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/23

*4253986173*

06_2251_23_2018_1.1
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2
Section A: Family
1 Family roles are changing in modern industrial societies. Examples of these changes include a
movement away from segregated conjugal roles and many children have more power than in the
past. Changes are often affected by factors such as ethnicity, culture and social class.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘segregated conjugal roles’? [2]
(b) Describe two functions of the family in traditional societies. [4]
(c) Explain how children have more power in family life today than in the past. [6]
(d) Explain why the fertility rate is decreasing in modern industrial societies. [8]
(e) To what extent does culture affect family life? [15]
2 Many sociologists believe it is school factors rather than home factors that determine how well an
individual does in education. Social control is often necessary as not all students conform to the
expectations of a school. For example, not all students can use an elaborated code.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘elaborated code’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways that schools can affect educational achievement. [4]
(c) Explain how members of anti-school sub-cultures are different to other students in schools.
[6]
(d) Explain why home factors can affect educational achievement. [8]
(e) To what extent is education a successful agency of social control? [15]
© UCLES 2018 06_2251_23_2018_1.1

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3
3 There are many explanations offered by sociologists as to why some individuals adopt a deviant
career. Most members of society want the formal agencies of social control to deal with this problem
but there are some sociologists who believe that crime can be positive for society.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘deviant career’? [2]
(b) Describe two informal agencies of social control. [4]
(c) Explain how crime is relative. [6]
(d) Explain why functionalists believe we have crime and deviance in society. [8]
(e) To what extent is the crime rate affected by police stereotypes? [15]
Section D: Media
4 Changes in the media are a good example of globalisation, allowing the audience choice over
content and patterns of consumption. Many sociologists argue that the media is also an important
agency of socialisation, affecting voting patterns and setting the agenda for what is important in
society.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘globalisation’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways that the media can be biased. [4]
(c) Explain how voting choices are influenced by the media. [6]
(d) Explain why the media offer the audience more choice and control than ever before. [8]
(e) To what extent do the media set the agenda for how people think and behave in society?
[15]
© UCLES 2018 06_2251_23_2018_1.1

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/23
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Cambridge IGCSE™, Cambridge International A and AS Level and Cambridge Pre-U components,
and some Cambridge O Level components.
IGCSE™ is a registered trademark.

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responses seen).

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1(a) What is meant by the term ‘segregated conjugal roles’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. women do all the housework.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. husband and wife have very different
roles and interests within the family.
1(b) Describe two functions of the family in traditional societies. 4
Possible answers:
reproduction – societies must produce generations of children in
order to survive – marriage and family life encourages this;
socialisation – through primary socialisation children learn the
norms and values of their society. This allows the transmission of
culture from one generation to the next;
social control – controlling the behaviour of children through
sanctions so that they conform to expected norms;
care of children/the elderly/the ill – children need to be fed and
clothed, the ill nurtured and the elderly sheltered;
status – families provide status for children by involving them in
different social networks and interpersonal relationships;
regulation of sexual behaviour – family life encourages sexually
approved relationships;

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1(c) Explain how children have more power in family life today than in the 6
past.
Possible answers:
• many laws and regulations are now in place to protect children
which gives them more power;
• corporal punishment and physical reprimands by parents are no
longer allowed in many societies and countries which may give
children more power;
• the UN rights for children documentation has been signed by
many countries, giving children the right to say what they think about
decisions affecting them and for them to be listened to;
• the roles of children today have changed i.e. they are valued
members of the family;
• children have been socialised to have opinions and it has
therefore become the norm for them to do so in family life and
in education;
• child-centredness – children are at the heart of many families in
modern industrial societies today and their needs and wants are
often prioritised by parents;
• with the increase in boomerang families and with many adult
‘children’ not being able to afford to buy their own home, the
financial and emotional support they bring to their parents provides
them with much power in the family;
• other reasonable response.
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how children
have more power in the family today than in the past and may talk about e.g.
Children are protected by laws. Responses may be short and un/under
developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark) expect one weak point. Higher
in the band (2–3 marks) candidates may offer more than one weak point, but
there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with

understanding of how children today have more power in the family than in
the past. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. Social
attitudes have changed regarding the role of children. They are now expected
and allowed to have a voice and in many societies we now see family life as
being child-centred – children’s wants and needs may be put before adults.
This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom
of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher
in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed

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1(d) Explain why the fertility rate is decreasing in modern industrial 8

societies.
FERTILITY RATE – the number of births per woman in the population.
Possible answers:
• children in modern industrial societies have become an economic
cost rather than a benefit due to the prolonged period of time they
must spend in education;
• mortality rates for children are now low meaning that families have
less need to have large amounts of children;
• children are no longer seen as essential for looking after you when
you are old as the state has provision for this;
• contraception is widely available and is typically free – this means
that women can control the number of children that they have;
• women have greater opportunities today in the workplace and do
not want these to be compromised by having children;
• modern industrial societies require families to be geographically
mobile – smaller, nuclear families makes this easier to do;
• having children is no longer a social norm so there may be less
pressure from family and society to have them – DINK families, for
example;
• greater acceptance of homosexual relationships and alternatives to
the family means that children may be less likely to be part of this
set up;
• consumer culture and child-centredness have made raising kids in
MIS very expensive;
• postmodernism – choice characterises the lives of many men and
women today meaning that children are not a necessity anymore;
• feminism – women’s ability to break free from patriarchal controls
means that many are rejecting the idea of children as they see
them as a restriction or are having fewer children, maybe only one,
and choosing to live as a single parent family;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why there is a
falling fertility rate. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be
short and undeveloped, e.g. Children today cost a lot of money stated without
explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the
bottom of the band (1 mark) expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3
marks) candidates may offer more than one weak point.

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understanding of why there is a falling fertility rate. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. The fertility rate is falling because
women now have greater power and choice in society. Many choose to focus
on their careers and thus have either none or few children in order to support
this decision. OR Privatised family life is now the norm and this means that
there is often a lack of extended family and community around to help with
childcare. Consequently, adults decide to have fewer children in order that
they can be geographically mobile and support themselves, etc. At the
use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some

understanding of why there is a falling fertility rate and will be well-developed
and explained, e.g. Feminism has promoted the rights of women and has
concluded that having children is a major factor in why women have less
power and status both in society and in the family. Consequently many
women use contraception in order to control whether they have children or
not and, if so, how many. This has led to the concepts of ‘DINK’s’ being used
by sociologists to explain this rise in dual income, no children families. They
can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary.

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1(e) To what extent does culture affect family life? 15
Candidates should discuss various ways that culture may affect family life.
They may choose to do this generically in terms of a way of life, or to focus
their discussion on specific ethnic groups or religion more widely. They could
also consider the idea in evaluation that culture may not be a great influence
on family life after all and that perhaps other social factors such as class and
gender have more impact. Class culture, however, could perhaps be used
as an argument for by some candidates as well.
Possible answers:
FOR:
• culture is closely linked with religion and so determines a family’s
norms and values. For example, Muslim families will value prayer
and halal foods whereas non-Muslim families will not;
• arranged marriages are still common and popular amongst many
Asian families – this is not true for other cultures;
• forced marriages are seen as the norm amongst many Middle
Eastern families – these may not be accepted by other cultures;
• large proportions of Afro-Caribbean families are headed by single
mothers – this is not true for other cultures;
• feminists frequently accuse families of being patriarchal whereas in
many Afro-Caribbean families the opposite is true and they are
matrifocal instead;
• extended families are far more common amongst Asian families
than most other cultures;
• gender roles in the family are often linked with culture i.e. they are
typically very traditional and domestic in traveller/gypsy families;
• class culture – working class families may be extended,
maintaining close contact with wider kin whereas middle class
families may be geographically dispersed and so more modified
extended instead, keeping in touch via technology;

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1(e) AGAINST:
• in post-modern societies, culture has little relevance in terms of
family life as this is down to individual choices and decisions;
• social class may be a more important factor than culture in terms of
family life e.g. wealthier families typically pay others to do domestic
work for them;
• gender may be more important than culture in terms of family life
e.g. conjugal roles are still segregated in many societies and women
typically have to perform the triple shift;
• age may be more important than culture in terms of family life e.g.
different generations have different interests and lifestyles and
these will determine how a family is organised, not culture;
• categorising families and individuals into broad cultures such as
‘Asian’ and ‘white’ is of little use as this merely provides a
generalised and stereotypical picture of family life that is often
untrue;
• secularisation has led to a decline in religious values and beliefs
therefore meaning religious cultures no longer have such an
influence on family life;
Band 0 [0 marks]

showing limited knowledge of whether culture affects family life. Use of
sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short,
undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. Culture means families are different to each
other OR Asian families are bigger. Lower in the band (1–2 marks) expect
one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer
more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. culture
is a person’s ethnicity and religion, in the question.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether culture
affects family life. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in
nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the
question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts.
simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. Culture affects family
life because single mothers are found a lot in Afro-Caribbean families but
are not common in Asian families. OR Whilst some cultures, white British for
example, typically live in small families such as nuclear, extended families are
still common amongst Asian families, etc. Lower in the band, the response will
be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development.

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understanding of whether culture affects family life. Sociological terms and
concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most
part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the question and there will
be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. Despite culture
being a relevant factor for many families, a lot of ethnic minority families have
adapted to the norms and values of the country they live in and so adopt a
rather more hybrid approach to family life. This may be shown through the
food they eat, dress codes and customs. OR Culture is an important factor
to consider when looking at family life. In South Asian families, for example,
divorce rates are very low and arranged marriages organised by experienced
and caring family members are thought to be a key reason for this. In Western
societies, however, arranged marriages are not valued and divorce rates are
high. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the

whether culture affects family life. There will be a strong grasp of the argument
as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts.
Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss
a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the
bottom of the band (13 marks) the answer may lack a specific conclusion.
Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of
the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.
culture affecting family life, citing some of the examples given.

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2(a) What is meant by the term ‘elaborated code’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. talking posh.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. a formal, detailed type of language
required in examinations and the education system.
2(b) Describe two ways that schools can affect educational achievement. 4
Candidates may choose to answer the question by referring to general ways

or may choose to focus on particular types of schools to make their points.
Possible answers:
• private schools are thought to have better facilities, smaller class
sizes and better teachers than state schools;
• the hidden and/or ethnocentric curriculum in schools may affect
• teacher labelling in schools may lead to either a self-fulfilling
prophecy or the halo effect;
• setting and streaming in schools may affect educational
achievement;
• the use of the elaborated code in schools may benefit or hinder
some students i.e. ethnic minorities/the working class;
• schools are where some subcultures form i.e. anti-school/pro-
school and so this may affect educational achievement;
• attending a poor school in a deprived area may negatively affect
• comprehensive schools are open to all students and functionalists
believe are part of the meritocratic system meaning they allow all
students to achieve their potential;

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2(c) Explain how members of anti-school sub-cultures are different to other 6

students in schools.
Answers may focus on general characteristics of anti-school sub-cultures or

may choose to discuss specific anti-school sub-cultures that they have
studied.
Possible answers:
• they may display hyper masculinity – exaggerating male qualities
such as toughness;
• may be formed through resistance to a perceived injustice i.e.
racism;
• may be characterised by students who do not value education and
therefore do not aspire to achieve academically;
• status frustration – students in anti-school sub-cultures may be
looking for status that they don’t get in mainstream society;
• high rates of truancy and absenteeism;
• behaviour that does not conform to school expectations i.e. being
cheeky to the teacher, not completing work, etc.;
• often being openly racist and/or sexist;
• being involved in delinquency and crime both in and outside school;
• despising pupils who work and try hard at school;
• Willis, ‘The Lads’, working class boys who rebelled against the
school and wanted to ‘have a laugh’;
• they do not respect authority or conform to school rules or
expectations;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how members of
anti-school sub-cultures are different to most students in school and may talk
about e.g. They don’t follow the rules OR They truant from school.
Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band
(1 mark) expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks) candidates
may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards
simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological
language.

understanding of how members of anti-school sub-cultures are different to
most students in school. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected
e.g. Members of anti-school sub-cultures are typically characterised by being
male, working class and from an ethnic minority. They may join these small
groups as a result of teachers labelling them as failures, so as a form of
resistance. Many suffer from status frustration in wider society. This would
be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the
band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in
the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way

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2(d) Explain why home factors can affect educational achievement. 8
Candidates may talk generally about home factors or may link these
specifically with educational achievement according to gender, ethnicity,
social class, etc.
Possible answers:
• material factors such as money, number of rooms in a house, poor
diet, etc.;
• cultural factors such as how much education is valued, cultural
deprivation e.g. not having books at home;
• linguistic codes from the home such as speaking elaborated or
restricted codes or a different first language to the majority;
• cultural capital (or lack of it) – knowledge, books, classical music,
etc.;
• gender – differential socialisation/social control, etc., i.e. the
bedroom culture – McRobbie and Garber;
• social class – living in a deprived area with low aspirations at home;
• ethnicity – speaking a different language at home than that used in
school, parents not being able to help with homework, liaise with
teachers, etc.;
• the community and peer group an individual is a part of depending
on their home may affect educational achievement e.g. gangs;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why home factors
can affect educational achievement. A tendency to description is likely.
Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. Not having your own
bedroom to study quietly in stated without explanation. Sociological terms
and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark)
expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks) candidates may offer

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understanding of why home factors can affect educational achievement.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. If parents at
home do not value education then it is unlikely that they will push their children
to succeed and do well meaning that the children may under-perform at
school, etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use

understanding of why home factors can affect educational achievement and
will be well-developed and explained, e.g. Girls and boys are often socialised
very differently and this may affect educational achievement. Girls are
canalised to be passive and often form a bedroom culture where studying is
both highly valued and the norm. Boys, on the other hand, will spend more
time outside of the home with their peer group and will be less likely to value
studying at school. They can then expand on the explanation of this and
accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there
will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will

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2(e) To what extent is education a successful agency of social control? 15
Candidates are likely to discuss both agencies and processes of social control
in their answer although this is not essential. The ability of education to use
both informal and formal methods of control may be discussed.
Possible answers:
FOR:
• negative sanctions e.g. detentions are used ensuring students
conform;
• positive sanctions such as rewards and praise are used to
encourage students to work and try hard;
• teachers can use formal measures to control and discipline
students – these may be physical or instructive;
• norms and values conveyed through the hidden curriculum present
certain behaviours as normal and others as wrong – this
socialisation controls both behaviour and thoughts;
• the peer group can be a way of controlling pupils in school i.e.
through peer pressure and sanctions;
• setting and streaming can control students through determining
how intelligent they are thought to be and therefore their access to
educational opportunities and stretch and challenge;
• feminism – they see education as a form of patriarchal control e.g.
through gendered subject choice;
• Marxism – education promotes ruling class ideologies and
normalises the inequalities in capitalism as fair and just;
• functionalism – social control is an essential function of the
education system, leading to social order and cohesion;
AGAINST:
• too deterministic – students can reject the core norms and values of
school i.e. through an anti-school subculture;
• schools increasingly encourage critical thinking and freedom of
thought through their coverage of topical and often controversial
issues;
• students do not have to live up to teacher labelling – they can also
reject it and determine their own path – a self-negating prophecy;
• now that physical and corporal punishment is outlawed in many
countries, the ability of schools to control their pupils is limited;
• primary agents of social control may be more effective as they
spend longer with children and are with them from an earlier age;
• other agencies of secondary socialisation (e.g. media, workplace)
may be more effective or just as effective as a means of social
control;

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showing limited knowledge of whether education is a successful agency of
social control. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely.
Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. Education teaches
children discipline and respect. If students misbehave in school then they
get punished. Lower in the band (1–2 marks) expect one or two weak points.
Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points
or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. Agencies of social control are
the things like the family that tell us what to do, in the question.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether education
is a successful agency of social control. Alternatively, they may offer an
answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess
e.g. Schools use punishments such as detentions and letters home to teach
children that there are consequences to bad behaviour, etc. Lower in the

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understanding of whether education is a successful agency of social control.
Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or
frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the
question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say
that e.g. Despite education using negative sanctions to ensure students
conform, primary agents such as the family may be more effective at social
control as they are with the individual for longer and from an earlier age.
There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom
of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed
points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus
on the question.

whether education is a successful agency of social control. There will be a
strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of
sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly
be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer
may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear
attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question
through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of
points for and against the idea of education being a successful agent of social
control, citing some of the examples given.

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3(a) What is meant by the term ‘deviant career’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. being a criminal.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. when people labelled as ‘deviant’ have
legitimate opportunities blocked so they turn to crime as a source of income
and status.
3(b) Describe two informal agencies of social control. 4
Formal agencies must not be credited in any answers.
Possible answers:
• the family – through positive and negative sanctions;
• the education system – through, for example, the hidden
curriculum;
• the media – through role modelling, stereotyping and imitation;
• the peer group – through things such as peer pressure, exclusion,
etc.;
• religion – through expected codes of conduct and dress, sanctions,
etc.;
• the workplace – through re-socialisation into company norms, values
and expectations;

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3(c) Explain how crime is relative. 6
Candidates need to show an understanding of the concept of ‘relativity’ here –

demonstrating that there is no one definition of crime and that it is therefore
socially constructed.
Possible answers:
• different cultures define crime differently e.g. it is illegal for Muslims
to drink alcohol;
• definitions of crime vary over time e.g. it is now a crime in most
European counties to smoke in a public place;
• different countries and societies define crime differently e.g. in
America it is illegal to drink alcohol under the age of 21;
• the role a person is playing can often determine whether something
is perceived as a crime e.g. it is legal for a soldier to kill another
human being on the battlefield but this would be classed as murder
were a non-soldier to do it;
• whether something is criminal or not may depend upon the situation
e.g. it would be a criminal offence to be naked in public but this is
perfectly acceptable in the privacy of your own home;
• religious beliefs may determine whether something is criminal e.g.
Muslim men are allowed more than one wife whereas for Christians
this would be defined as bigamy;
• whether the perpetrator can be seen to be culpable or not may
decide whether the act is defined as criminal or not e.g. a person
with mental health issues or a mental disability;
Band 0 [0 marks]

relativity and may talk about e.g. People view crime differently. Responses
may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark)
language.

understanding of the relationship between crime and relativity, e.g. Crime is
relative because it is not a fixed term. One of the factors that affects whether
something is defined as a crime is who commits it and the role they are
playing. A policeman can physically restrain another human and use weapons
to control him/her. However, were a non-policeman to do this it would be a
criminal offence. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to
this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or
lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a
well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.

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3(d) Explain why functionalists believe we have crime and deviance in 8

society.
Candidates may discuss traditional functionalist explanations in their answer

and/or strain theory, status frustration and New Right views.
Possible answers:
• a limited amount of crime in society is seen as beneficial to society
– laws and punishments reinforce shared values;
• crime can act as a ‘warning function’ that society is not running
smoothly and that social change is necessary;
• degradation ceremonies i.e. public hangings, remind members of
society of the importance of conformity and deter them from
committing crime;
• Merton’s strain theory – crime may be committed when the goals of
society cannot be achieved legitimately;
• Cohen – status frustration – inequalities in society frustrate people
as they cannot achieve their status legitimately, causing them to
turn to crime;
• inadequate socialisation in the family may cause some people to
turn to crime;
• Eisenstadt/Parsons believe delinquency is a transitional stage that
allows teenagers to make mistakes before becoming adults;
• crime and deviance flag up to government the need for change;
• New Right (Murray) believe crime is caused through the
inadequate socialisation from single parents and the feckless
underclass;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why we have
crime and deviance in society. A tendency to description is likely. Responses
may be short and undeveloped, e.g. Seeing criminals get punished scares
people stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are
unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark) expect one weak
point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks) candidates may offer more than one
weak point.

understanding of why we have crime and deviance in society. Responses
may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. Crime can be good for
society because it reminds people what happens when you do something
wrong, etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use

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understanding of why we have crime and deviance in society and will be well-
developed and explained e.g. Functionalist, Merton, said crime happened
when there was a strain between wanting success and the opportunities to
achieve this. Those who cannot do so legally may turn to crime as this
becomes the only way left. They can then expand on the explanation of this
and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used
3(e) To what extent is the crime rate affected by police stereotypes? 15
Candidates should discuss the ways that the stereotypes the police hold of
who commits crime affects how crime is dealt with and thus the crime rate.
In evaluation, they can consider how other agents also affect the crime rate
as well as arguing that police stereotypes are not affecting the crime rate.
Possible answers:
FOR:
• police targeting – the police will target areas where they believe the
crime rate is high so are more likely to catch people committing
crimes there which will then affect the crime rate i.e. deprived
areas;
• police stop and search – evidence shows that the police are far
more likely to stop and search black youths than any other social
group – this then affects the crime rate;
• police labels – the police have been shown to hold stereotypes of
who is most likely to commit crime and so focus their efforts on
these social groups rather than others – ‘typical delinquents’
(Cicourel);
• white collar crime is thought to be rarely dealt with by the police
meaning the higher classes get away with it and this then affects
the crime rate;
• some people may get fed up of being targeted by the police and so
react against it in a self-fulfilling prophecy – living up to the label
they have been given and committing more crime – this affects the
crime rate;
• the label given to people by the police can sometimes be accepted
as their ‘master status’ meaning that more crime is committed and
this then affects the crime rate – deviancy amplification;
• the police have been accused of being ‘institutionally racist’
meaning that black people may be more likely to be perceived as
criminals and thus more likely to be arrested – this affects the crime
rate;
• the police are said to treat women more leniently than men when it
comes to crime – the chivalry thesis – so this will affect the crime
rate;

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3(e) AGAINST:
• the police simply target and arrest those people in society who are
most criminal – this is fair;
• the arrest rate for females is rising, signalling the end of the chivalry
thesis;
• anti-racism legislation and positive discrimination means that
institutional racism in the police force may be a thing of the past;
• it is the courts, not the police, that determine the crime rate as they
are responsible for sentencing a person;
• police stereotypes of criminals are no different to the rest of society
therefore maybe the media are to blame for the creation of these
representations;
• it is the media who are responsible for creating stereotypes of
criminals through moral panics and folk devils, not the police;
• media stereotypes of criminals often lead to moral panics and calls
for action – the government must respond to this and often direct the
police in how to behave and carry out their duties;
• the crime rate is affected by other factors not just police stereotypes
e.g. inadequate socialisation, material deprivation, etc.;
Band 0 [0 marks]

showing limited knowledge of whether police stereotypes of who commits
crime affect the crime rate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very
unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. The
police have ideas of who to look for when a crime is committed. OR The
police often don’t arrest rich people. Lower in the band (1–2 marks) expect
one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may
offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g.
Police are the agent responsible for controlling crime in the question.

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In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether police
stereotypes of who commits crime affect the crime rate. Alternatively, they
may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt
to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use
of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and
e.g. The police go to deprived areas to look for criminals and are more likely
to arrest them, etc. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in
the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band,
more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some
points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both
sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.

understanding of whether police stereotypes of who commits crime affect
the crime rate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater
accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed,
focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented.
Candidates may say that e.g. Despite police targeting clearly being a reason
why some social groups are more likely to be arrested than others, it is the
courts who sentence people and so affect the crime rate. There will be a
two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band,
question.

whether police stereotypes of who commits crime affect the crime rate.
There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent
use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed,
Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13
marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there
will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part
of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show
consideration of points for and against the idea of police stereotypes affecting
the crime rate, citing some of the examples given.

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4(a) What is meant by the term ‘globalisation’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. using the internet to find out about other
countries.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the linking of societies across the world
through communication, production and culture.
4(b) Describe two ways that the media can be biased. 4
Possible answers:
• through propaganda i.e. state owned media only presenting the
government in a favourable light;
• through censorship – this determines what the audience can and
cannot consume;
• through stereotypical representations of various social groups;
• media gatekeepers can control what the audience are able to
access and consume;
• news values determine which stories make it into the news and so
which are seen by the audience;
• Marxists believe that the media invisibilises or dismisses ‘extreme’
viewpoints and thus maintains the status quo;
• Marxists believe that the media favours the ruling class – for
example it can be accused of criminalising the working class;
• GUMG – managers are given more screen-time than the trade
unions and are reported upon in a more favourable light;
• street crime often associated with the lower classes is given more
time in the media than crimes of the middle classes such as white-
collar crime;
• moral panics exist in the media – certain social groups are
represented in an exaggerated and sensationalised way that leads
to the public becoming scared of them;
• certain social groups are scapegoated by the media for negative
things in society whereas other groups actions are ignored;
• through the opinions and beliefs of the editors and journalists;
• through ownership patterns – owners may use the media to protect
their own interests or to circulate their own points of view;

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4(c) Explain how voting choices are influenced by the media. 6
Candidates need to show how the media can affect how people vote. They
may discuss this generally, use specific examples and/or refer to relevant
media effects models.
Possible answers:
• media i.e. newspapers are often biased and support a political party,
shown through choice of language, stories and expressing
opinions;
• in election campaigns political parties make extensive use of the
media to try and attract more voters i.e. TV political broadcasts and
billboards;
• election campaigns are often focused on the image of the party
leader and this is constructed through the media, often highly
influenced by the use of spin doctors – this affects voting choices;
• The Sun newspaper in the UK claimed that it was responsible for
the election of the Conservative party in 1992;
• the media report on the opinion polls and these are central to
determining how an individual may vote i.e. tactical voting;
• propaganda and censorship – some countries use these in order to
manipulate the voting patterns of the nation e.g. North Korea;
• new/social media are increasingly being used by political parties to
target and influence voters;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the media
can affect how people vote and may talk about e.g. Some politicians are
made to seem smarter than others in the media. Responses may be short
and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark) expect one
weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks) candidates may offer more than
one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers,

understanding of how the media affects how people vote. Sociological terms
and concepts should be expected e.g. Spin doctors use the media to
manipulate how politicians are presented. The GUMG, for example, found
that some political parties and politicians were given far more favourable
coverage than others and that this then influenced how the people decided
to vote. They had effectively been manipulated by the media. This would be

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4(d) Explain why the media offer the audience more choice and control than 8
ever before.
Candidates are likely to be discussing aspects of Pluralism and/or

Postmodernism in their responses. New media are likely to be the main focus
of candidate’s answers. Choice and control do not need to be dealt with as
separate factors.
Possible answers:
• pluralists argue that there are many small and independent media
production companies that ensure that the audience have a good
range of choice and control over the media that they consume;
• the media is now global, meaning that the audience can access
information and entertainment from all over the globe – the choices
available have never been greater;
• new media allow the audience to be interactive and thus control
what they consume and how they consume it;
• new media gives the audience the power to interact with and
influence media content through such means as blogs, comments
and forums;
• citizen journalism is a commonly seen feature in news reporting
today – allowing the audience the power to be able to control what
news is reported upon and how it is portrayed;
• many audience members are now also media producers – they
upload content and have the power to be able to control the content
of the media. This also increases audience choice;
• satellite and cable TV means a greater range of choice for the
audience with many specialist and niche programmes available;
• the internet allows for a wider range of viewpoints to have a
platform and an audience and thus opens up many more ideas and
beliefs to the audience;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how today’s media
offers more choice and control to the audience. A tendency to description is
likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. There are loads of TV
channels to choose from now stated without explanation. Sociological terms
and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark)

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understanding of how today’s media offers more choice and control to the
audience. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g.
There is a lot of choice for the audience today because of the development
of new media meaning content from all over the world can be easily and
quickly accessed anywhere, anytime, etc. At the bottom of the band,

understanding of how today’s media offer more choice and control to the
audience and will be well-developed and explained, e.g. According to
Pluralists, the audience today have a great deal of control over media content.
This is largely because of the developments in new media that allow audience
members to both consume and produce media content. They can therefore
set their own agenda through uploads, citizen journalism and interactive
blogs/forums on a global scale. This ultimately leads to more choice for the
consumer. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors
as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall.
throughout.

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4(e) To what extent do the media set the agenda for how people think and 15
behave in society?
SET THE AGENDA/AGENDA SETTING – the process of deciding what topics

are included in the media and how they are presented to the audience.
Candidates should consider the various ways that the media are able to set
the agenda in society. They should then consider alternative viewpoints that
challenge this idea of media power and control. New media is likely to be
used for the evaluation but this is not essential.
Possible answers:
FOR:
• the content of the media is a social construction based upon the
decisions and choices of media professionals such as journalists –
it therefore does not reflect reality which may affect how people
think and behave;
• some content makes it into the media, some does not – this idea of
selection allows the media to set the agenda and so influence how
people think and behave;
• news values typically determine what stories and issues make the
news – not everything that happens is reported upon therefore the
media sets the agenda and so influences how people think and
behave;
• how the content of the media is presented to the audience also
helps to set the agenda i.e. the angle or spin that a story or issue
takes which then influences how people think and behave;
• media gatekeepers decide what is important for the audience to
know about and thus determine topics of conversation – setting the
agenda and influencing how people think and behave;
• Marxists believe that the media serve the needs of capitalism and
set a capitalist agenda through the way media content supports the
ruling class status quo which influences the audience;
• GUMG research indicates that the way the news is presented
influences how the audience think about particular issues e.g.
management and workers on strike, so setting the agenda;
• the scapegoating of certain social groups within the media also
serves to set the agenda and diverts attention away from any ruling
class wrongdoings e.g. corporate crime, so influencing the
audience;
• the hypodermic syringe and cultural effects models both say that the
media does influence the way the audience think and behave;

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4(e) AGAINST:
• pluralists believe that the audience have the power to choose what
they wish to consume and therefore are not subject to media
agenda setting;
• the uses and gratifications approach believes that the media serves
audience needs rather than setting an agenda;
• postmodernists believe that the media is so diverse today that there
isn’t one agenda being set anymore;
• new media is very difficult to control and therefore alternative and
radical viewpoints can easily be disseminated;
• new media allows the audience greater possibilities to control and
alter the content of the media themselves – through such things as
interactivity and uploading via the internet;
• citizen journalism is a good example to argue that the media do not
set the agenda in society – maybe the audience do instead;
• it’s not the media that sets the agenda for how people think and
behave but other informal agencies such as family, education,
peers;
Band 0 [0 marks]

showing limited knowledge of whether the media set the agenda for how
people think and behave in society. Use of sociological terms or concepts is
very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g.
The media can present things in a certain way so that the audience believe
what they see and read. Lower in the band (1–2 marks) expect one or two
weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than
two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. Agenda setting
means telling people what to think, in the question.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether the
media set the agenda for how people think and behave in society.
be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided
responses are unlikely e.g. The media is controlled by powerful people who
support the ruling class so this viewpoint comes through in the media and
the audience are influenced by it to think and act in a particular way, etc.

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understanding of whether the media set the agenda for how people think
and behave in society. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with
greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-
presented. Candidates may say that e.g. Despite Marxists claiming that the
media do determine what is covered in the media through, for example,
prevalent news values, Pluralists believe that the audience have the power
to select for themselves what they consume and so the ability to avoid any
agenda setting. With the advent of new media this has increasingly become
the case as the audience are now active media producers as well as
consumers meaning that they could be said to set the agenda as much as
the media do. There will be a two-sided response but this may be

whether the media set the agenda for how people think and behave in society.
There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent
use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed,
marks) the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there
will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part
of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show
consideration of points for and against the idea of media agenda setting
influencing audience thoughts and actions, citing some of the examples
given.

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/22

*7009096465*

11_2251_22_2018_1.1
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2
Section A: Family
1 Alternatives to marriage, such as civil partnerships, mean the family continues to change. Different
cultures have different norms so family structures and roles are diverse. For some, the family is
still a patriarchal institution.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘civil partnerships’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways feminists think the family is patriarchal. [4]
(c) Explain how family life can vary cross-culturally. [6]
(d) Explain why there is a growth of joint conjugal roles in modern industrial societies. [8]
(e) To what extent are grandparents important to the family today? [15]
2 Different social groups vary in their educational achievement. Whilst there are policies and initiatives
to promote equality and social mobility, they do not help everybody. For some, education does not
improve a person's life chances.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘social mobility’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways that schools socially control pupils. [4]
(c) Explain how positive discrimination can improve the educational achievement of some social
groups. [6]
(d) Explain why education is necessary in modern industrial societies. [8]
(e) To what extent do social factors, such as gender, determine an individual’s educational
achievement? [15]
© UCLES 2018 11_2251_22_2018_1.1

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3
There are different ways that sociologists can measure crime, for example self-report studies.
However using these measurements to explain why people commit crime causes much debate.
Some sociologists argue that crime is committed because people experience a lack of status in
society, other sociologists blame the police and the way they behave.
3 (a) What is meant by the term ‘self-report studies’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of how crime and deviance are relative. [4]
(c) Explain how the police enforce the law. [6]
(d) Explain why informal methods of social control may deter people from committing crime. [8]
(e) To what extent can crime be explained by an individual’s lack of status in society? [15]
Section D: Media
The media is a secondary agent of socialisation and an agent of social control. Gate-keeping and
the roles of owners, editors and journalists are all issues that sociologists such as Marxists consider.
Sociologists are also interested in the difference between traditional and new media.
4 (a) What is meant by the term ‘gate-keeping’? [2]
(b) Describe two differences between traditional and new media. [4]
(c) Explain how the media shape values, attitudes and behaviour. [6]
(d) Explain why Marxists criticise media content. [8]
(e) To what extent are media representations of minority ethnic groups stereotypical? [15]
© UCLES 2018 11_2251_22_2018_1.1

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Teachers.
Cambridge International is publishing the mark schemes for the October/November 2018 series for most
Cambridge IGCSE™, Cambridge International A and AS Level components and some Cambridge O Level
components.

2251/22 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November 2018
PUBLISHED
These general marking principles must be applied by all examiners when marking candidate answers. They should be applied alongside the
specific content of the mark scheme or generic level descriptors for a question. Each question paper and mark scheme will also comply with these
marking principles.

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marks are awarded for correct/valid answers, as defined in the mark scheme. However, credit is given for valid answers which go beyond the
scope of the syllabus and mark scheme, referring to your Team Leader as appropriate
answers should only be judged on the quality of spelling, punctuation and grammar when these features are specifically assessed by the
question as indicated by the mark scheme. The meaning, however, should be unambiguous.
Rules must be applied consistently e.g. in situations where candidates have not followed instructions or in the application of generic level
descriptors.

PUBLISHED
Marks should be awarded using the full range of marks defined in the mark scheme for the question (however; the use of the full mark range may
be limited according to the quality of the candidate responses seen).
Marks awarded are based solely on the requirements as defined in the mark scheme. Marks should not be awarded with grade thresholds or
grade descriptors in mind.
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PUBLISHED
1(a) What is meant by the term ‘civil partnerships’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘a gay marriage’.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘a relationship between two people usually of the same sex that has been formally registered’.
1(b) Describe two ways feminists think the family is patriarchal. 4
Possible answers:
• Men make the majority of the important household decisions e.g. financial decisions, females are less powerful;
• The expressive female role in the family means that the woman is expected to look after the man, male has the instrumental
role and earns the money;
• Women still carry out the majority of the housework and domestic chores in the family, regardless of whether they have paid
employment, men do not;
• Domestic violence occurs in some families and it is typically a male perpetrator and a female victim;
• Women are expected to perform the nurturing role in the family, putting their own needs second to their husband’s and
children’s;
• Triple shift – women are said to have to do paid work, housework and emotional work – they are said to suffer from the dual
burden;
• Gender role socialisation is still very segregated – males are raised into a different role to females e.g. canalisation and
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manipulation which is said to benefit men later in life in terms of jobs, income and status;
• Inheritance in the family usually goes to a male heir showing more power and status ascribed to the male than the woman;

PUBLISHED
1(c) Explain how family life can vary cross-culturally. 6
Possible answers:
• Different forms of marriage e.g. monogamy, polygamy etc.;
• Different types of marriage in different cultures e.g. arranged, love-based, same-sex etc.;
• Different gender roles in different cultures e.g. segregated (traditional), joint (modern) etc.;
• Children’s/grandparents’ roles in the family are different in different cultures e.g. child-centredness;
• Different family types in different cultures e.g. extended, single parent, nuclear, matrifocal etc.;
• Specific examples in different cultures e.g. prevalence of extended families in Asian culture, single parent Afro-Caribbean
families, one child policy in China etc.;
• Performing of different functions in different families in different cultures e.g. socialisation, social control etc.;
• Family members in Western societies are likely to live in different types of family through their life course due to increased
family diversity, less likely in more traditional cultures;
• Class cultures e.g. working class families are associated with extended families and segregated conjugal roles;
Band 0 [0 marks]
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Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the concept of cross-cultural variations and how they affect family life
and may talk about e.g. ‘different roles for men and women’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the
band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there
may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language.
Band 2 [4 – 6 marks]
A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of the relationship between cross–
cultural differences and the effects on family life. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘in tribal cultures,
polygamy within families is a norm whereas in modern industrial societies this would be both frowned upon and illegal. Here,
instead, serial monogamy is the norm.’ This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band,
the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-

PUBLISHED
1(d) Explain why there is a growth of joint conjugal roles in modern industrial societies. 8
Possible answers:
• Dual worker families are the norm meaning that conjugal roles have to be shared;
• Role of feminism – women are more aware of their status and rights in society and in the family so demand a change from
patriarchy;
• Equal rights legislation – allows women to participate equally in the workplace which affects the role that they play within the
family;
• Changing nature of masculinity – it has become more acceptable for men to be involved in domestic work and childcare as new
men and househusbands, for example;
• Role of the state – provision for childcare, education and financial support means that women are no longer required to stay at
home;
• Changing norms, values and attitudes – women are seen to have the same rights and opportunities as men;
• Changing nature of relationships and families/households – the decline of the nuclear family has seen the emergence of
different types of families that are often more equal in their form e.g. gay families, living with friends, communes, etc.;
• As nuclear families became privatised, couples organised their lives around the family home rather than the community and
work, meaning a more equal partnership became necessary;
• Media representations of marriage relationships have changed resulting in a global spread of more equal norms and values
through digital communication;
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• Labour saving devices in the home – make the home more attractive to men and the workplace more attractive to women as
housework is less of a chore;
• Decline of extended families in MISs means that wider kin have less influence over husband and wife and are unable to
pressure them into traditional conjugal roles;
Band 0 [0 marks]

PUBLISHED

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why conjugal roles are becoming more joint in modern industrial
societies. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘women don’t just want to do
housework anymore’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band
(1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.

Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why conjugal roles are becoming more joint in
modern industrial societies. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘We see more joint conjugal role
relationships because of the rise of feminism. There are a lot more women working today.’ At the bottom of the band, candidates
are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological
terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained.

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why conjugal roles are becoming more joint in
modern industrial societies and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘There are more examples of joint conjugal roles in
families because the definitions of femininity and masculinity are changing. It is now no longer unusual for a women to be in full time
paid work and therefore to share household tasks and responsibilities with her partner. Similarly, male roles are also changing and
the rises in male identities, such as the new man and the househusband, make male involvement in the domestic sphere more of a
PAGE 332
norm.’ They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be
used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of

PUBLISHED
1(e) To what extent are grandparents important to the family today? 15
Possible answers:
FOR:
• With an ageing population and increased life expectancy, grandparents are living longer and actively ageing meaning they can
play a crucial part in family life;
• Many grandparents perform childcare duties for families with dual worker parents or a single parent;
• Many grandparents pass on their advice and wisdom to their children and are seen as the matriarchs and patriarchs of the
family;
• Financial assistance is given by many grandparents to their families via economic support;
• Grandparents may live with their children (part of an extended family) and so are a centrally important part of family life;
• Grandparents are seen to give extensive emotional and moral support, particularly with giving their daughters advice about
motherhood and childcare;
• Grandparents can use new media to keep in touch with and support their wider kin despite not necessarily living close by which
can make their role important;
• With increasing numbers of single parent families, grandparents often are very important as they are actively involved in the
nurturing of the children;
• With beanpole families grandparents may live with their children and grandchildren and be heavily involved in
socialisation/social control, etc.;
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• With more dual worker parents and working women, grandparents are often vital in supporting the needs of parents and
children through unpaid childcare;
• Grandparents can act as role models to their grandchildren and therefore have a very important role to play in family life;

PUBLISHED
1(e) AGAINST:
• As women have children later in life or not at all, the need for grandparents to play an active role is diminishing;
• Privatised nuclear families mean that grandparents are unlikely to play a pivotal role in family life anymore;
• The state (social institutions) now performs many of the functions needed in a family if both parents are working – not the
grandparents;
• Pensioner poverty in some societies means that it is unlikely for grandparents to be able to help out their families financially,
reducing their importance;
• Increased retirement age/ageing population in many societies means that it is unlikely that grandparents are in a position to
help families out as they are too busy with their own lives;
• With rising divorce rates, an increase in reconstituted families and social changes such as industrialisation and urbanisation,
many grandparents do not see their grandchildren regularly and thus do not play an important role in family life;
• How important the role of grandparents is in family life depends upon the culture, individual context and society of the family in
question – you can’t generalise;
• The generation gap may mean that grandparents input to family life is not perceived to be important as they are seen to be ‘out
of touch’;
Band 0 [0 marks]
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Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which
grandparents are important to the family today. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short,
undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘Grandparents lend families money’ or ‘Children are sometimes looked after by grandparents’.
Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two
points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question.

PUBLISHED

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which grandparents are important to the family today.
Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the
question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range.
Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘A lot of families have parents that both work so grandparents
are often used to look after the children’ or ‘Grandparents offer advice and support to their children’. Lower in the band, the
response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be
covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which grandparents are important to
the family today. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers
will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘despite
grandparents still being a strong source of emotional support in the family, because most families are now privatised and nuclear,
their influence and importance is diminishing’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the
band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and
PAGE 335

Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which grandparents play an increasingly
important role in the family today. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological
terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points.
Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion.
Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a
focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of grandparents being important to the
family today, citing some of the examples given.

PUBLISHED
2(a) What is meant by the term ‘social mobility’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘getting more status’.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘the movement of individuals or groups up or down the social hierarchy’.
2(b) Describe two ways that schools socially control pupils. 4
Possible answers:
• Through formal social control – exclusions and school rules;
• Through informal social control – warnings;
• Through negative sanctions such as detentions – fear of punishment;
• Through deterrence – punishment puts children off from misbehaving again;
• Through encouraging conformity – children like to fit in;
• Through positive sanctions such as stickers and praise – this encourages children to continue behaving in the ‘right’ way;
• Through the hidden curriculum – Marxist ideas of ideological control;
• Through the patriarchal curriculum – feminist ideas of male control;
• Through positive or negative peer pressure – anti-school or pro-school sub-cultures;
• Through secondary socialisation processes – teachers teaching the expected norms and values for later life;
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PUBLISHED
2(c) Explain how positive discrimination can improve the educational achievement of some social groups. 6
Possible answers:
• Some schools have introduced schemes to encourage girls to aim higher, especially in science and technology subjects (STEM
policies, GIST, WISE, etc.). Girls may be given preferential access to lab equipment, for example;
• Single-sex classes within co-educational schools – thought to improve the performance of both males and females;
• Lessons geared towards boys’ ways of learning (active learning) have been introduced in many schools to enable boys to fulfil
their academic potential;
• Ethnic minority pupils may be given small group/individual/additional lessons in English as an additional or secondary language
to boost educational achievement;
• Some universities and private schools are now setting quotas that ensure they admit pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds –
often with lower results than the average;
• Financial bursaries, scholarships, policies that give financial aid/resources to students and incentives are often available to
benefit and support those from socioeconomically deprived and/or ethnic minority backgrounds;
• Extra-curricular, additional and holiday lessons/summer schools are run by many schools for less privileged social groups to
attend;
• Educational priority zones/ZEPs can receive better funding and additional resources to improve educational achievement of
deprived individuals;
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Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the concept of positive discrimination and its influence on educational
achievement and may talk about e.g. ‘helping poorer students do better’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the
bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak
point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological
language.

A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of the relationship between positive
discrimination and improved educational achievement. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘Many schools
have introduced STEM initiatives and clubs to better engage females in science and technology subjects. They have been given
privileged access to equipment and offered mentors and visits to improve their motivation and performance.’ This would be followed
by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher
in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.
PUBLISHED
2(d) Explain why education is necessary in modern industrial societies. 8
Possible answers:
• Hidden curriculum – to learn and accept society’s culture;
• Socialisation – learning and reinforcing of norms and values;
• Social control – to ensure that individual’s know their place in society and/or conform;
• Knowledge – to learn and to understand further;
• To gain qualifications which will allow for further study and access to a career of choice;
• Learning of national identity through such things as the singing of the national anthem, culture and history, shared values, etc.;
• To provide the skills and abilities to ensure that society and the economy functions well in a modern, technological society;
• Marxists believe education exists to indoctrinate individuals into accepting capitalism and its inequalities as normal and fair;
• Feminists believe that education reinforces and teaches patriarchal values and makes distinctions between the expectations of
males and females;
• Education is meritocratic according to functionalists and therefore exists as a means of social mobility;
• Functionalism – role allocation – getting the right people into the right positions, allowing society to function smoothly;
Band 0 [0 marks]
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Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why education is necessary in modern industrial societies. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘so we know about important things’ stated without
explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point.

Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why education is necessary in modern industrial
societies. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘Education is a crucial part of the socialisation process and
reinforces norms, values and gender roles in individuals’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological
terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with
greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained.

PUBLISHED

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why education is necessary in modern industrial
societies and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘Different sociological theories believe there are different reasons as to why
education is important. Functionalists see it as a positive institution where social mobility possibilities are created whereas Marxists
see it as an agency where capitalist inequalities are reproduced’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors
as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and
there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.
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PUBLISHED
2(e) To what extent do social factors, such as gender, determine an individual’s educational achievement? 15
Possible answers:
FOR:
• Gender – in some developing countries and in some cultures boys may be more likely to attend school than girls and so
achieve better;
• In most industrial societies girls perform better than boys in their examinations – the culture of masculinity and pressure to be a
‘lad’ may be a reason to explain this;
• Boys are more likely to join an anti-school subculture than girls which may negatively affect their achievement;
• Negative peer pressure is thought to affect boys more than girls and the fear of informal sanctions from their peers discourages
boys from studying and working hard;
• More positive role models in education for girls may be one of the reasons for their improved performance;
• Positive discrimination policies regarding gender e.g. girls into STEM can affect achievement;
• Pupils from ethnic minorities tend to do less well in education – cultural factors such as language barriers may be one reason
for this;
• Prejudice, discrimination and racism may explain why some ethnic minorities do not do well in education;
• The ethnocentric curriculum may be a factor to explain why ethnic minorities do not do well in education;
• Some ethnic groups e.g. Chinese, do well in education due to parental expectations and the value placed on educational
success;
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• Higher class students are more likely to attend private schools and so are more likely to do well in education;
• Bourdieu – lack of capital (e.g. cultural) may be a reason to explain different attainment levels by students from different social
classes;
• Material deprivation is more likely to be relevant for those in the lower social classes and may affect how well an individual does
in education;
• Immediate gratification may be a cultural norm for the lower social classes, whereas deferred gratification is linked with those
from the higher social groups;
• Teacher labelling (either positive or negative) regarding gender/class/ethnicity may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy and thus
affect educational achievement;

PUBLISHED
2(e) AGAINST:
• Nothing to do with social factors but with genetic differences in intelligence;
• This approach is too deterministic – every individual is different, you cannot generalise about all members of a social group
being the same in terms of educational achievement;
• Functionalism – educational success depends upon how hard you work and the efforts you make;
• Education today is based on equal opportunities (functionalism and meritocracy) therefore social factors are no longer relevant;
• Educational success is not determined by your social group but by school factors e.g. culture of learning/setting/teacher
labelling/curriculum options/fee paying schools, etc.;
• Educational success is not determined by your social group but by the value placed upon education in the home and how much
parental encouragement a child receives;
• Educational success is closely linked to location (this could be on a global, national or local scale) and funding not on social
factors;
• Educational success is determined by the teacher and the school structures and expectations, not on social factors;
• Peer group factors – it is the peer group that the student associates with that determines educational achievement, not social
factors;
• Positive discrimination and equal rights legislation means that previous barriers faced by some social groups in education are
no longer relevant;
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Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which social
factors determine educational success. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short,
undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘Girls do better than boys because they work harder’ or ‘Poor people don’t do as well as rich
people’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more
than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘educational success is how well a person does in education’, in the
question.

PUBLISHED

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which social factors determine educational success.
Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the
question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range.
Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘Some social groups do much better in education than others.
Ethnic minorities may face racism in schools and so they don’t do very well’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow
in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited
development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score
up to 8 marks.

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which social factors determine
educational success. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part,
answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that
e.g. ‘despite more equal opportunity legislation in education, some social groups still do better than others. In many countries, for
example, boys are more valued than girls and so are more likely to go to school and study. Girls fall behind and so do not achieve
as well. Feminists would link this to patriarchy.’ There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the
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band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and

Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which social factors determine educational
success. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts.
Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided
and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a
clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates
should show consideration of points for and against the idea of social factors determining educational success, citing some of the
examples given.

PUBLISHED
3(a) What is meant by the term ‘self-report studies’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘you tell someone about crime’.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘a research method that asks people what crimes or deviant acts they have committed’.
3(b) Describe two examples of how crime and deviance are relative. 4
Possible answers:
• Role based explanations, e.g. it is ok to kill as a soldier in wartime but that same individual is not allowed to kill when not in the
soldier role;
• Cultural/societal explanations, e.g. in Rastafarianism it is acceptable to smoke marijuana whereas in many cultures this is an
illegal act;
• Situational deviance, e.g. it is acceptable to be naked in the shower but not in a public place;
• Social factors, e.g. age of the offender – something that is considered as criminal for an adult may not be seen as such for a
child;
• Time/era – definitions of crime and deviance change over time, e.g. smoking used to be widespread, in many countries today it
has now been banned from public places;
• Interactionism – one person’s definition of what is criminal/deviant may not be the same as someone else’s;
• Public and private deviance – what is ok in private is often not ok in public where it would be considered criminal or deviant;
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PUBLISHED
3(c) Explain how the police enforce the law. 6
Possible answers:
• The power of arrest is a formal method of control that the police can use to ensure the law is adhered to;
• Police are able to use physical restraint or force in order to ensure the law is followed;
• The sight of a police officer on the street often acts as a deterrent to criminals and thus prevents crimes from being committed;
• Police may target certain individuals, areas or social groups (often due to media labelling) in order to reduce crime – this could
be through a large police presence on the streets;
• Zero tolerance campaigns can be used by the police in order to send out the message that they are getting tough on crime;
• Community policing can be used whereby the public are encouraged to support the police and integrate them into the
community to increase social cohesion and conformity;
• Military policing – weapons/force can be used to enforce the law and to deter individuals from crime;
• Police surveillance – can be through technology e.g. cameras or through police officers themselves;
• Stop and search – this can help to both deter individuals from crime as well as detect crimes;
Band 0 [0 marks]
PAGE 344

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the police enforce the law and may talk about, e.g. ‘they arrest bad
people’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in
the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers,

A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how the police enforce the law.
Sociological terms and concepts should be expected, e.g. ‘Police targeting is frequently used to try and reduce crimes in particular
areas or by particular social groups such as targeting inner city areas for gang crime’. This would be followed by explanation of
factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band,
answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.

PUBLISHED
3(d) Explain why informal methods of social control may deter people from committing crime. 8
Possible answers:
• Informal agents of social control typically have a closer relationship to people than formal agents therefore people conform to
social expectations and don’t commit crime as they don’t want to let people down;
• The family deters people from committing crime through positive role modelling that family members can imitate;
• Education deters people from committing crime through the hidden curriculum that teaches the importance of conformity and
reinforces commonly accepted norms and values e.g. following the law;
• The media shows the negative consequences of committing crime e.g. the harshness of prison life;
• The media often turns criminality into a moral panic e.g. drug taking, and criminals into folk devils which deters others from
committing crime;
• The peer group may encourage conformity through positive peer pressure and ostracise/exclude those who do not conform
and commit deviance instead;
• The workplace deters people from committing crime through the fear/threat of dismissal or other sanctions;
• All of the informal agencies of social control can use negative sanctions to put people off committing crime;
• All of the informal agencies of social control can use positive sanctions to encourage people to conform and to avoid a criminal
lifestyle;
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Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why informal methods of social control may deter people from
committing crime. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘people don’t want to lose
their job’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),
expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.

PUBLISHED

Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why informal methods of social control may deter
people from committing crime. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘The family teaches children that
crime is bad and so children don’t do it as they don’t want to be sanctioned’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to
use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and
concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained.

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why informal methods of social control may deter
people from committing crime and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘Informal methods of social control all socialise people
to believe that crime is wrong, The media, for example, shows the negative consequences of criminality and often turns criminals
into folk devils through sensationalised reporting and moral panics. Similarly, both the formal and the hidden curriculum in education
teach that crime is a bad thing and give out negative sanctions if it is committed. Positive sanctions on the other hand are given
when people conform to society’s non-criminal norms and values’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other
factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question
and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout.
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PUBLISHED
3(e) To what extent can crime be explained by an individual’s lack of status in society? 15
Possible answers:
FOR:
• Cohen – status frustration – a lack of educational success can lead to crime for many working class youths;
• Gang crime – lack of status in society is a reason for many young people to join gangs and to commit crimes to ‘prove
themselves’;
• Women may commit crime e.g. white collar crime due to a lack of status in the business world;
• Men may commit crime as a way to prove their masculinity and gain status in a society that increasingly sees women gaining
power and status;
• Ethnic minorities may suffer from racism, prejudice and discrimination in society and so turn to crime as a way to increase their
status;
• Merton’s ‘strain theory’ suggests that not everyone can be successful in society and so those with lower status are more likely
to turn to crime;
• Sexual crimes maybe committed as a form of power and control in order for the perpetrator to increase their status;
• Young people suffer from a lack of status in society and so may turn to crime as a way to gain this;
• Terrorism may be interpreted by some as a way of gaining status for a belief/religion/ideology in society;
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AGAINST:
• Lack of status may be a useful explanation for many youth crimes but not for adult crime;
• Expressive crimes cannot be adequately explained by lack of status;
• Middle class crimes e.g. white collar/fraud cannot be explained by a lack of status;
• Upper class, corporate and green crimes have little to do with a lack of status in society;
• Youth crime may be more about resistance and rebellion than a lack of status;
• Crime may be committed due to material/relative deprivation, not a lack of status;
• Interactionists believe crime is caused due to the labelling of individuals/police targeting, not a lack of status;
• The New Right believe crime is committed because of a lack of adequate socialisation leading to moral decline in the form of an
underclass;
• A lack of status may be one explanation for crime but it does not fit every crime or criminal;

PUBLISHED


Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which crimes
can be explained by an individual’s lack of status. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short,
undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘Gang members beat people up to get status’ or ‘People with little status in society may commit
crime to get it’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer
more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘status is a person’s social standing in society’, in the
question.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which crimes can be explained by an individual’s lack of
status. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues
raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and
lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘People who don’t do very well in education will
find it hard to get status in society so might turn to crime’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points
covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development
of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.
PAGE 348

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which crimes can be explained by
an individual’s lack of status. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most
part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say
that e.g. ‘despite Cohen showing that status frustration was a major reason for much crime, this cannot explain the crimes
committed by the higher classes who already have considerable power in society’. There will be a two-sided response but this may
be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well developed points. At the top of the
band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question.

PUBLISHED

Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which crimes can be explained by an
individual’s lack of status. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms
and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will
be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band,
there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.
Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of lack of status being an explanation for crime, citing
some of the examples given.
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PUBLISHED
4(a) What is meant by the term ‘gate-keeping’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘a media editor’

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘the ability of individuals in the media to decide what is and isn’t published/broadcast’
4(b) Describe two differences between traditional and new media. 4
Possible answers:
• New media uses digital technology, whereas traditional media is analogue;
• New media is much more interactive with two-way communication than traditional media which is more one-way;
• New media can often be generated by the audience (i.e. uploading to social media) whereas traditional media content is
created/controlled by media professionals;
• Traditional media uses a top to bottom structure whereas new media is more democratic making media control more difficult;
• New media is global in scale whereas traditional media is more likely to be national or local;
• New media does not rely upon a schedule, unlike traditional media, as it is ‘on demand’;
• New media is harder to regulate than traditional media;
• New media is multi-platform (often due to diversification) whereas traditional media is often found in just one form e.g. the
newspaper was traditionally a print product;
• New media products exist in far greater numbers than traditional media;
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• New media is often accessed through a portable electronic device ‘on the go’ whereas traditional media is more context
specific;

PUBLISHED
4(c) Explain how the media shape values, attitudes and behaviour. 6
Possible answers:
• Hypodermic syringe theory says the media inject the audience with a dominant message and the audience believe this to be
true therefore shaping values, attitudes and behaviour;
• Advertising and consumer society – the audience are made to believe that they need material possessions/status symbols –
promotes the value of consumption;
• The media is able to show the negative consequences of non-conformity in society i.e. punishing the bad guys which shapes
people’s values, attitudes and behaviour – they tend to conform to the norm;
• Role models – these are found in the media and give the audience individuals to aspire to which can shape values, attitudes
and behaviour e.g. celebrity culture;
• Norm referencing – the media determines what we see as ‘normal’ in society;
• Gender roles – the media represent males and females differently and this reinforces what it means to be masculine and
feminine;
• Imitation – the media may encourage the audience to copy what it sees/hears;
• stereotyping – the media perpetuates stereotyping of certain social groups and encourages the audience to think in particular
ways about them;
• Moral panics – the media use folk devils to create ideas about criminals in society and thus affects the audiences values,
attitudes and behaviour;
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• Political socialisation – the media teaches us our political beliefs and knowledge;
• Secondary socialisation agent – a way of reinforcing and perhaps altering values and attitudes from the primary stage
(particularly for young people);
• Postmodernism – the media is all around us and so is a very powerful agency of socialisation;
• Feminism – the media teaches individuals that men have more power and control and therefore reinforces patriarchy;
• Marxism – the media acts as a tool of the state and serves the interest of the ruling classes in its agenda setting and
normalisation of capitalism – this affects people’s values, attitudes and behaviour;

PUBLISHED
4(c) Band 0 [0 marks]


Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the media shapes values, attitudes and behaviour and may talk
about e.g. ‘we copy what we see in the media’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1
mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a
tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language.

A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how the media shapes values,
attitudes and behaviour. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘Feminists believe that stereotypical gender
representations in the media teach the audience that males and females have different social positions and roles. They perpetuate
the patriarchal values seen in society and normalise this ideology thus affecting how people think and behave’. This would be
followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack
detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.
PAGE 352

PUBLISHED
4(d) Explain why Marxists criticise media content. 8
Possible answers:
• The media are biased – stories and representations favour the ruling class (propaganda);
• Media are thought to be an ideological tool of oppression used to control and suppress the working classes (avoiding
revolution) – a dominant ideology;
• Capitalism is seen as normal, inevitable and fair in the media creating a false class consciousness;
• The media encourages consumption through advertising – helping to support capitalism through the creation of false needs;
• The voice of the working class is rarely seen or heard in the media, they are under-represented;
• Media owners and professionals are from the higher classes and thus the working classes are not accurately or fairly
represented;
• Views and opinions that oppose capitalism are unlikely to be given a voice in the media – invisibility of working class values
and ideas;
• News values and agenda setting are commonplace in the media and favour the ruling class elite;
• GUMG (Glasgow University Media Group) research shows that the lower classes are not given the same airtime as the higher
classes and that when they do feature this is often as objects of ridicule or not to be taken seriously;
• Trivial media content e.g. soap operas and celeb gossip act as a distraction for the working class – diverting attention from
serious issues in society;
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Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why Marxists criticise the content of the media. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘there aren’t many people from the lower classes working in
the media’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),

PUBLISHED

Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why Marxists criticise the content of the media.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘Media owners are typically drawn from the elite and therefore the
needs and opinions of the lower social classes are rarely seen or heard in the media’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are
unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological
terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained.

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why Marxists criticise the content of the media
and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘Marxists believe the media is a tool of oppression used by the capitalist state to
brainwash and suppress the working class. Inequalities in society are masked through the focus on the ‘shallow activities’ of
popular culture and the scapegoating of the working class for society’s problems. This is therefore not a fair representation.’ They
can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately
overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band
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PUBLISHED
4(e) To what extent are media representations of minority ethnic groups stereotypical? 15
Possible answers:
FOR:
• Invisibility – minority ethnic groups are under-represented in the media, particularly in high status and powerful positions,
stereotypically in the lower classes;
• Tokenism – in order to counter accusations of being racist or unfair, representations of minority ethnic groups may be seen as
merely being a token gesture – this becomes a stereotype;
• White gaze – it is thought that the media sees and represents content through white eyes, marginalising and inaccurately
representing minority ethnic groups stereotypically;
• Binary opposites – we frequently see and hear ideas of ‘black vs white’ in the media – presenting the ethnic groups as
completely different and not in harmony;
• The savage – research shows minority ethnic groups to be presented as people who want to harm the ethnic majority e.g.
reporting of Muslim extremist terrorism could be viewed in this way;
• The entertainer – some minority ethnic groups are frequently seen in comedy roles or linked to sport, dance or music – not
serious roles or representations;
• Women from minority ethnic groups are often shown to be sexually exotic – differences are exaggerated;
• Asian women may be shown to be timid, passive and controlled by men;
• The tyrant – non-white world leaders are often shown to be corrupt despots, politically corrupt and power hungry;
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• Villains and tricksters – Chinese masterminds are often portrayed to be using their intelligence in evil ways against the ethnic
majority;
• Black male youths are often shown as violent gang members and criminals;
• Asians may be shown to have large extended families and strong, unusual accents in a very stereotypical way;

PUBLISHED
4(e) AGAINST:
• New media is much more democratic therefore minority ethnic groups are able to create their own representations;
• New media can preserve local culture and traditions and present minority ethnic groups in terms of this;
• Equal opportunities legislation means that the media cannot afford to be prejudiced or stereotypical in its coverage of minority
ethnic groups for fear of prosecution;
• Role models from minority ethnic groups are now more prolific in the media and move away from stereotypical representations;
• The interactive nature of new media gives minority ethnic groups the possibility to use forums, comments and blogs to criticise
and challenge stereotypical representations;
• Programming and media content is now frequently targeted at specific minority ethnic groups, reflecting their lives and interests
in a non-stereotypical way;
• Minority ethnic groups now hold positions of power in the media and are thus able to influence media content and
representations;
• Representation cannot be generalised – they depend upon the context, the country and the interpretation by the audience;
• Media representations of minority ethnic groups merely reflect their roles and positions in society – thus they are not
stereotypical;
Band 0 [0 marks]
PAGE 356

Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which ethnic
minorities are represented stereotypically in the media. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be
short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘Minority ethnic groups are shown differently, often as bad people’. Lower in the band (1–2
marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a
weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘representation is how you are shown in the media’, in the question.

PUBLISHED

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which minority ethnic groups are represented
stereotypically in the media. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to
assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘Black people are often
shown to be criminals or in gangs in the media but lots of black people don’t do this so it’s a stereotype’. Lower in the band, the
response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be
covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which minority ethnic groups are
represented stereotypically in the media. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For
the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates
may say that e.g. ‘despite stereotypical representations still being very visible in the media, new media means that minority ethnic
groups are able to actively construct their own representations and to challenge any stereotypes that they may come across.’ There
will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of
PAGE 357
well developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question.

Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which minority ethnic groups are
represented stereotypically in the media. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of
sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of
points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific
conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question
through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of stereotypical
representations of minority ethnic groups in the media, citing some of the examples given.

PAGE 358

SOCIOLOGY 2251/23

*3436282776*

11_2251_23_2018_1.1
PAGE 359
2
Section A: Family
1 Not everyone lives in a family or believes that families perform important functions in society. In
fact, some sociologists see the family as a negative institution that does not benefit its members.
A commune is one example of an alternative to the family that is popular in some cultures.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘commune’? [2]
(b) Describe two types of cohabitation. [4]
(c) Explain how urbanisation has affected family life. [6]
(d) Explain why the symmetrical family has become more common in modern industrial societies.
[8]
(e) To what extent are nuclear families patriarchal? [15]
2 In modern industrial societies many different types of schools exist, for example private schools.
All types of schools function to help students pass exams as well as prepare them for the world of
work. For this reason, schools are an important agency of socialisation.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘private school’. [2]
(b) Describe two types of schools, apart from private schools. [4]
(c) Explain how a school’s use of IQ tests could affect a child’s experience of education. [6]
(d) Explain why some students may reject the norms and values of a school. [8]
(e) To what extent is the functionalist view of education correct? [15]
© UCLES 2018 11_2251_23_2018_1.1

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3
3 Researching why crime is committed is a complex issue due to the many possible explanations.
One explanation is status frustration. This is further complicated because there are so many ways
to measure crime. Some sociologists believe using victim surveys is the most accurate measure.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘status frustration’? [2]
(b) Describe two reasons why the police might not record a crime that has been reported to
them. [4]
(c) Explain how the media can create deviancy amplification. [6]
(d) Explain why males commit more crime than females. [8]
(e) To what extent do victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime? [15]
Section D: Media
4 Sociologists debate how the audience is affected by the content of the media. Some believe the
uses and gratifications model is the most accurate. Whilst representations in the media are changing,
many sociologists argue that it is still important to consider if media content is stereotypical.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘uses and gratifications model’? [2]
(b) Describe two recent developments in the media. [4]
(c) Explain how the media acts as an agency of secondary socialisation. [6]
(d) Explain why sociologists cannot agree on the ways the media affects its audience. [8]
(e) To what extent is the content of the media stereotypical? [15]
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SOCIOLOGY 2251/23
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Teachers.
components.

PUBLISHED
These general marking principles must be applied by all examiners when marking candidate answers. They should be applied alongside the
specific content of the mark scheme or generic level descriptors for a question. Each question paper and mark scheme will also comply with these
marking principles.

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marks are awarded for correct/valid answers, as defined in the mark scheme. However, credit is given for valid answers which go beyond the
scope of the syllabus and mark scheme, referring to your Team Leader as appropriate
answers should only be judged on the quality of spelling, punctuation and grammar when these features are specifically assessed by the
question as indicated by the mark scheme. The meaning, however, should be unambiguous.
Rules must be applied consistently e.g. in situations where candidates have not followed instructions or in the application of generic level
descriptors.

PUBLISHED
Marks should be awarded using the full range of marks defined in the mark scheme for the question (however; the use of the full mark range may
be limited according to the quality of the candidate responses seen).
Marks awarded are based solely on the requirements as defined in the mark scheme. Marks should not be awarded with grade thresholds or
grade descriptors in mind.
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PUBLISHED
1(a) What is meant by the term ‘commune’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘living together’

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘a group of people who choose to live together and share at least some of their
property’.
1(b) Describe two types of cohabitation. 4
Possible answers:
• a trial marriage – living together before marriage;
• a short-term relationship without real commitment;
• a permanent or long-term relationship – the same as a marriage just without the ceremony;
• two heterosexuals living together (with or without children);
• two homosexuals living together (with or without children);
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PUBLISHED
1(c) Explain how urbanisation has affected family life. 6
Possible answers:
• traditional large extended family units have reduced and been replaced by smaller family units such as the
nuclear family;
• functions that were once performed by the family i.e. care of the young and the elderly are now performed by the
state and its institutions;
• face to face contact with wider family members is thought to be less than previously, replaced in part by
technology e.g. email, skype, facetime, social media, etc.;
• young adults tend to move to cities leaving rural areas with mainly older people/children;
• families living very close to other families in shanty towns;
• nuclear families tend to live further away from their extended families due to the need to be geographically mobile;
• in times of crisis the extended family are unlikely to be the source of help and support that they once were as now
the welfare state steps in;
• living in cities means the cost of living is likely to be higher and so families are likely to be smaller to make life
more affordable;
• family life has become privatised (particularly in the nuclear family) with the home being at the centre of family life
– this has led to factors such as child centredness/symmetry, etc.;
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Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how urbanisation has affected family life and may talk
about e.g. ‘families living apart’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1
mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but
there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological
language.

PUBLISHED

A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of the relationship
between urbanisation and the effects on family life. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g.
‘Urbanisation results in extended families having to live apart from one another as families have to be geographically
mobile in order to look for work in the city’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the
bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover
PAGE 366

PUBLISHED
1(d) Explain why the symmetrical family has become more common in modern industrial societies. 8
Possible answers:
• privatised nuclear families mean that couples spend a lot of time together in the home which encourages a more
equal partnership;
• being away from the extended family means less pressure can be applied to conform to traditional gender roles in
the family;
• in society women have a higher status and so this is transferred into their family relationships also – they expect
equality – feminism;
• women frequently do paid work today and so have an income, meaning they have greater status and a joint say in
financial decisions in the family;
• roles today are more flexible and so there is greater choice and freedom for men and women to find what works
best for them, challenging tradition – Postmodernism;
• homosexual relationships challenge ideas about traditional conjugal roles and so allow for greater equality;
• labour saving devices in the home and paid help have reduced the burden of housework and again allow for
greater equality;
• children are often expected to help out in the home and so this allows for greater equality between husband and
wife;
• child centredness as a norm in MIS’s means children are often viewed as equals in the family;
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• pressure and influence from the media to give women more power in society e.g. The Equal Pay Act, translates to
the home as well;
• changing norms and values means that definitions of what it means to be ‘male’ and ‘female’ have become more
fluid allowing men to be hands on dads, new men, etc.;

PUBLISHED
1(d) Band 0 [0 marks]


Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why some families are more symmetrical today. A
tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘women go out to work’ stated
without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),

Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why some families are more
symmetrical today. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘families are increasingly
symmetrical because women earn a wage and so have more of a say in household decisions’. At the bottom of the
band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may
be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why some families are more
PAGE 368
symmetrical today and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘families today are more symmetrical because of the
expectation in women for equality created by the Feminist movement. They have gained higher status in society
through employment and wages and expect this to be replicated in the family roles undertaken. Conjugal roles are
therefore now more likely to be joint and women expect to be consulted on important decisions affecting the family’.
They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will
be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons

PUBLISHED
1(e) To what extent are nuclear families patriarchal? 15
Possible answers:
FOR:
• traditional gender roles in the nuclear family make men the breadwinner and head of the household so giving him
more power;
• the expected role of a wife in a nuclear family is to be expressive and look after the needs of the husband,
meaning that the man benefits more than she does;
• socialisation of children into gender roles in the nuclear family through processes such as canalisation and
manipulation – this can be very stereotyped, leading to patriarchy;
• the dual burden/triple shift – means that women in the nuclear family have more responsibilities and stress than
men;
• feminists believe that as long as society remains patriarchal so the domestic division of labour will remain and
gender inequalities will persist in the nuclear family;
• men may help out more in the home and with the childcare today but women do this for a lot longer and often do
the worst, tedious domestic jobs;
• men continue to make the important household decisions meaning nuclear family life is patriarchal;
• house husbands and the new man remain the exception in nuclear family life;
• domestic violence and abuse in the nuclear family – men are the main perpetrators of this;
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PUBLISHED
1(e) AGAINST:
• feminism has raised the expectations of women so that they are no longer prepared to accept their subordinate
role in the nuclear family;
• men help out regularly with housework and childcare in privatised nuclear families;
• there are now many stay at home dads/house husbands in nuclear families which allows women to go out to work
and not be tied to the home;
• some women choose to stay at home and be a housewife, this is not patriarchy, this is their choice;
• most women in nuclear families now work meaning that their power and status in the home has increased;
• many nuclear families are now symmetrical – the sharing of conjugal roles and decision making means they
cannot be patriarchal;
• parents are making active choices not to bring their children up in a stereotypical way, so breaking the cycle of
patriarchy;
• lesbian nuclear families allow for the roles to be redefined and for patriarchy not to be relevant;
• how patriarchal a nuclear family is will depend upon the individual family members, the culture and religion, etc. –
it cannot be generalised to all;
• domestic violence and abuse is not just committed by males in nuclear families;
• in most societies domestic violence has been criminalised and is thought to be unacceptable – this prevents
patriarchy in the family;
• it is not just nuclear families that can be patriarchal – this kind of inequality may be present in many different types
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of families;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to
which nuclear families are patriarchal. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short,
undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘women cook more than men’ or ‘men earn more money so can tell women what to
do’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may
offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘patriarchy means men have more power
than women’.

PUBLISHED

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which nuclear families are patriarchal.
Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues
raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘women still do
most of the housework and childcare in the home’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points
covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited
development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which nuclear families
are patriarchal. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most
part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented.
Candidates may say that e.g. ‘despite more equality and changing roles within the family, women still do most of the
housework and childcare but this is not the same in every nuclear family’ or ‘men and women are equal now in society
and so this has also been and transferred to the family where conjugal roles are now shared, but this isn’t the same
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for everybody’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates
may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and

Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which nuclear families are
patriarchal. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms
and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points.
Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific
conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of
the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of
nuclear families being patriarchal, citing some of the examples given.

PUBLISHED
2(a) What is meant by the term ‘private school’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘a school you pay for’.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘a school that is not run or controlled by the Government and is funded through
tuition fees’.
2(b) Describe two types of schools, apart from private schools. 4
Possible answers:
• primary/elementary – where children receive the first years of their education;
• pre-school – education received before starting primary school largely looking to develop children’s cognitive and
social skills;
• secondary/high school – a range of different subjects are studied and examined;
• state schools – run directly or indirectly by the government;
• faith schools – controlled by a religious organisation;
• comprehensive schools – non-selective secondary schools;
• grammar schools – secondary education focused on academic excellence;
• academies – businesses and other sponsors decide how the school is run;
• free schools – charities/parents and other groups can set up their own school directly funded by the government;
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• vocational schools/training schools – students learn practical subjects and/or skills that will prepare them for the
workforce;

PUBLISHED
2(c) Explain how a school’s use of IQ tests could affect a child’s experience of education. 6
Possible answers:
• pupils who get high IQ scores in a test are categorised as intelligent, those that don’t are seen as not as intelligent
by teachers;
• IQ test results can determine the set or stream a pupil gets placed into;
• IQ tests will determine which students a pupil spends their time with and thus affects peer group relationships;
• students in a lower set may be negatively labelled by teachers and face a self-fulfilling prophecy;
• students in higher sets may be positively labelled and face the halo effect;
• numbers and level of examination entry may be determined by IQ test results;
• results of IQ tests may indirectly lead to the formation of pro or anti-school subcultures dependent on the scores
achieved;
• IQ test results may determine which subjects a pupil can/cannot study whilst in education;
• IQ tests have been accused by some of being ethnocentric and so can be used by schools as a form of
institutional racism;
• IQ tests have been criticised for favouring middle class students therefore may serve to reinforce (according to
Marxists) working class feelings of failure and higher class superiority;
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Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how IQ tests can affect a student’s experience of education
and may talk about e.g. ‘getting bad results means you go in the lower sets’. Responses may be short and un/under
developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates
may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with

PUBLISHED

A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how IQ tests can affect
a student’s experience of education. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘IQ tests essentially
filter students into bright and not bright streams and this may result in teacher labelling. If a student is given a negative
teacher label as a result of their IQ test this could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy and under achievement in school’.
This would be followed by an explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points
covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed
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PUBLISHED
2(d) Explain why some students may reject the norms and values of a school. 8
Possible answers:
• schools divide students into achievers and failures through the testing and setting system and this causes some
pupils to become disillusioned and thus to rebel;
• functionalist view – part of the wider teenage rejection of authority, testing the boundaries within the transition
stage;
• status frustration – those who are labelled as failures by the school do not gain status from academic
achievement and therefore reject school’s norms and values in order to get this through deviance;
• some pupils form an anti-school sub-culture whereby they reject the values of school and create their own
hierarchy and opportunities to gain status and respect – often linked to social characteristics of class, gender
and/or ethnicity;
• school and education is perceived to be feminine, boys are under pressure to assert their masculinity and so
reject the school’s norms and values as a way of doing this;
• some students have not been socialised into a culture that values education and so are unlikely to conform to the
rules it imposes;
• some students do not follow the norms and values of a school in order to resist the institution that they believe has
failed them and not given them the opportunities to succeed;
• for some students an academic education is not accessible or appropriate and there may be no vocational
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alternatives, therefore they rebel against the school ethos and values;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why some students may reject the norms and values of a
school. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘they rebel because they
find school hard’, stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of
the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak
point.

PUBLISHED

Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why some students may reject the
norms and values of a school. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘schools set pupils
based on ability and those in the bottom sets are often looked down on by teachers. This means they see no point to
education and so rebel against it instead’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms
and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts
with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained.

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why some students may reject the
norms and values of a school and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘students in school who choose not to
follow the norms and values are typically male and working class. They are labelled by the teachers as failures and
therefore see little point in trying hard, often living up to their self-fulfilling prophecy as they turn to their peer group for
status’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and
concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of
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PUBLISHED
2(e) To what extent is the functionalist view of education correct? 15
Possible answers:
FOR:
• education contributes to the smooth running of society and therefore helps to maintain social order;
• schools transmit norms and values to individuals and continue the socialisation that has begun in the family;
• schools act as an agency of social control, using sanctions and rewards to reinforce right and wrong and to
ensure conformity in pupils;
• children are socialised into a shared set of values and therefore they feel a sense of belonging through shared
interests and beliefs;
• education can promote key values such as patriotism through history and literature lessons, the learning and
singing of the national anthem and prominence of national symbols;
• education teaches children the importance of achievement, it encourages them to work hard and to set goals,
everyone is judged in the same way, it is meritocratic;
• education produces individuals with the skills and knowledge necessary to promote economic growth and stability;
• role allocation – education ensures the most talented and able children go into the top jobs – examination results
ensure that individuals take different career paths suited to their needs and abilities – ‘sifting and sorting’;
• functionalists believe that educational success leads to social mobility and greater life chances;
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2(e) AGAINST:
• many sociologists believe that there isn’t a shared set of values in society to be passed on through education
anymore because of the diverse and multicultural society we live in;
• Marxists believe education passes on the dominant ideology and therefore ensures that the status quo is
maintained in society;
• feminists believe that patriarchal values are transmitted through education in, for example, the perpetuation of
traditional and stereotypical gender roles;
• some sociologists believe that education is ethnocentric and presents a very narrow view of the world which
alienates ethnic minority students;
• education is a tool used by the ruling class, according to Marxists, to legitimise and normalise capitalism –
competition is promoted in readiness for society and students are indoctrinated into capitalist ideologies;
• Marxists believe there is a hidden curriculum in education that serves to promote dominant norms and values that
benefit those in positions of power in society e.g. students are trained in dealing with boredom to prepare them for
their routine, dull jobs in later life;
• education can be unfair – those that pay for an education through private schooling, for example, are likely to gain
better examination results than those that attend state schools leading to better jobs in society – this is not
meritocratic;
• feminists believe there is still gendered subject choice in schools and that this limits the power and status women
can have in the labour market in society;
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• girls are socialised into nurturing and caring roles through education whereas boys are taught to be independent
and aggressive – feminism;
• functionalist view may be correct for some individuals but may not be the case for everybody – it perhaps
depends upon the school itself, the subject choices, the individuals and the type of school;

PUBLISHED


which the functionalist view of education is correct. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses
may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘education gives everyone the chance to be successful’. Lower in the
band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than
two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘functionalists say that education is a good thing for
everybody’.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which the functionalist view of education is
correct. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess
the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may
be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘education is
a key agency of socialisation that teaches norms and values to children and encourages everyone to behave
correctly’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little
development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points.
PAGE 379
Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which the functionalist
view of education is correct. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For
the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented.
Candidates may say that e.g. ‘despite there being many positive factors to education, like gaining skills and
knowledge, Marxists believe that it serves the interests of the ruling class and indoctrinates students into capitalist
norms and values that ensure the working class remain in their low status positions in society’. There will be a two-
sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of
well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question.

PUBLISHED

Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which the functionalist view of
education is correct. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological
terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of
points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a
specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’
part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the
idea of the functionalist view of education being correct, citing some of the examples given.
PAGE 380

PUBLISHED
3(a) What is meant by the term ‘status frustration’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘annoyed by your low status’.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘when people are unable to achieve the socially accepted goals due to their
position in society’.
3(b) Describe two reasons why the police might not record a crime that has been reported to them. 4
Possible answers:
• police may be under pressure to focus on particular crimes and so are reluctant to report crimes that aren’t in this
category – police targets and quotas;
• the police may believe the crime to be too petty to bother recording it;
• the police may feel it is a domestic incident that should be dealt with by the individuals involved and so don’t
record it;
• the police may be doubtful of the credibility of the person reporting the crime and so don’t record it;
• police need evidence that the crime reported is indeed a crime, if not then they are unlikely to record it e.g. theft
rather than lost property;
• police discretion means that the police have the power to decide whether something should be recorded as a
crime or not;
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• the police may not believe that they are able to solve the crime and so do not record it e.g. cybercrime;
• the police may be corrupt and so do not record the crime in order to protect a powerful and influential
individual/group;

PUBLISHED
3(c) Explain how the media can create deviancy amplification. 6
Possible answers:
• media exaggeration, glamorisation and sensationalism leads to people copying what they see so leading to
deviancy amplification;
• criminals believe that there are certain crimes they are able to get away with due to its representation in the media
and so this leads to more crime being committed;
• creating folk devils e.g. young people, drug addicts, etc. in the media leads to them feeling frustrated/alienated
and therefore committing more crime;
• moral panics and stigmatisation e.g. the mods and the rockers – stereotypical reporting leads to the ‘criminals’
acting in the way they have been portrayed in the media and so more crime is committed – labelling theory and
the self-fulfilling prophecy;
• moral panics – the media predict crime and therefore cause the police/authorities to look out for that crime so
seemingly more crime has been committed;
• media reports of crime can lead to a bigger police presence e.g. with the mods and rockers in Clacton (Cohen)
which increases the risk of confrontation and therefore increases the likelihood of crime;
• scapegoating – some social groups are blamed for society’s problems by the media and so it is unsurprising that
they turn to crime as a reaction to this e.g. ethnic minorities;
• Marxism – the media promotes consumption as desirable, those that cannot afford to buy the consumer goods
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seen may turn to crime instead;

Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the media can create deviancy amplification and may
talk about e.g. ‘the media show some people in a bad way so they can’t get jobs and turn to crime’. Responses may
be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3
marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers,

PUBLISHED

A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how the media can
create deviancy amplification. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected, e.g. ‘the media create folk devils
who are blamed for certain crimes. This can lead to the group or individual feeling status frustration and therefore
turning to crime as a response’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the
band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one
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PUBLISHED
3(d) Explain why males commit more crime than females. 8
Possible answers:
• differential socialisation – processes such as canalisation and manipulation (Oakley) mean that boys and girls
grow up with very different gender identities – males are tougher, more independent and so more likely to commit
crime;
• differential social control – males tend to have less social control imposed upon them than females – this gives
them more opportunities to commit crime;
• masculinity – males are often under pressure to prove their masculinity – being criminal is one way to do this e.g.
male peer group pressure;
• breadwinner role – males may feel pressure to provide for their partner/family and if they do not have a job or
enough money they may suffer from status frustration and thus turn to instrumental crime;
• males are more susceptible to peer pressure and so could join an anti-school sub-culture or a deviant group
where criminality is normal;
• males are more likely to join gangs than females – gangs are based upon criminal behaviour, indeed this gains
members status;
• opportunity – some crimes, such as corporate crime, are committed in the work place – as these are typically
male dominated it is easier for the male to commit the crime;
• males are thought to be naturally more aggressive than females, e.g. testosterone levels, and so may be more
PAGE 384
likely to commit crime;

• media role models – many of these for males engage in criminal behaviour and this is not sanctioned, rather it can
bring positive rewards – imitation may occur;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why males commit more crime than females. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘men are more aggressive’ stated without
explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one
weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.

PUBLISHED

Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why males commit more crime than
females. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘males commit more crime because they have
been socialised in their families to be tough and independent’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to
use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological
terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why males commit more crime than
females and will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘males commit more crime than females because of the
pressure on them to prove their masculinity. If they don’t do this then they can be labelled as effeminate by their
peers. One way to do this is to commit crime. Young males are far more likely to be gang members than young
females and may engage in criminal rites of passages such as robbing someone in order to gain status and show their
masculinity’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and
concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of
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PUBLISHED
3(e) To what extent do victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime? 15
Possible answers:
FOR:
• they uncover unreported (hidden) crimes that the formal agents do not know about and so are more valid than the
OCS;
• asking people what crimes they have been a victim of is likely to provoke a true response as there is no
harm/threat to the respondent;
• national victim surveys such as the BCS/CSEW are now so well thought of that they are published alongside the
OCS by the government in order to show a more accurate picture of crime;
• victim surveys are typically completed using interviews, allowing the researcher to gain a rapport with the
respondent and so get them to open up honestly about things/crimes;
• victim surveys offer full confidentiality to the respondent and so encourage truthful/valid answers;
• local victim surveys, such as The Islington Survey, allow for researchers to gain an in-depth understanding of the
nature of crime victims in a local area;
• victim surveys can call into question the validity of the patterns and trends seen in the OCS e.g. the BCS has
shown that the group thought to be the most criminal in society (young working class males) are also the most
likely to be victims of crime;
• victim surveys can show those crimes that have not been recorded by the police, so giving a more accurate
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picture of crime and uncovering more of the ‘dark figure’;

• feminist researchers believe that local victim surveys help to uncover the true extent of the victimisation that
women have to endure;

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3(e) AGAINST:
• victim surveys cannot cover all types of crimes – they do not, for example, cover victimless crimes such as drug
use;
• victim surveys do not usually cover crimes committed against children as children are not normally the
respondents in this research method – therefore they still do not reveal the full, true picture;
• some respondents may be unwilling to reveal personal information about themselves to a researcher e.g. victims
of sexual assault or abuse, therefore the picture of crime that is produced is still not accurate;
• this method relies on the memory of the respondents and so is unlikely to be fully accurate as people will forget
things;
• national victim surveys will inevitably generalise the picture of crime and are therefore thought by some
sociologists to be of little use in really understanding crime and its victims;
• local victim surveys are typically based upon a small and unrepresentative sample and are criticised by many
sociologists as being atypical and not generalisable;
• white collar and corporate crime is likely to be under-represented in victim surveys as those involved may not
know that they were the victims of crime;
Band 0 [0 marks]
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which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely.
Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘they find out about crimes the police don’t know about’.
Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer
more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘victim surveys are where people are asked what
crimes they have been a victim of’.

PUBLISHED

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate
measure of crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to
assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely
e.g. ‘not everyone reports a crime committed against them to the police and victim surveys are a good way to find out
about these’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little
development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points.
Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks.

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which victim surveys
provide an accurate measure of crime. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or
frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of
points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘despite the OCS being recognised as the most easily accessible
source of information on crime, victim surveys are thought by many sociologists to produce a far more valid picture
due to the uncovering of the dark figure of crime’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At
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the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band,

Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which victim surveys provide
an accurate measure of crime. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of
sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide
range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may
lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what
extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and
against the idea of the usefulness of the victim survey in providing an accurate picture of crime, citing some of the
examples given.

PUBLISHED
4(a) What is meant by the term ‘uses and gratifications model’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘how people enjoy the media’.
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘how audiences use and are in control of the media, not how they are affected by
them’.
4(b) Describe two recent developments in the media. 4
Possible answers:
• the creation of a digital divide through those that can afford and access new media and those that can’t;
• interactivity – new media offer a lot of opportunities for audience involvement;
• horizontal integration – many media conglomerates own a range of companies in different media in order to
increase profits and market share;
• vertical integration – a company controls different stages of production and distribution to increase its power and
control;
• media conglomerates are now typical whereby a concentration of ownership leads perhaps to less
diverse/independent content e.g. Disney, Sony, etc.;
• globalisation – media is now instant and available all around the world via the internet;
• media streaming – digital technology and the internet means media content need not be in ‘hard’ format any
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longer and can be accessed ‘on demand’;

• print products are becoming extinct as they become available in digital only versions e.g. newspapers/magazines;
• diversification – media corporations extend their interests into other areas so increasing their power, profits and
control;
• convergence – media technologies are moving towards being able to perform similar tasks e.g. television
programmes can now be watched on a variety of different devices;

PUBLISHED
4(c) Explain how the media acts as an agency of secondary socialisation. 6
Possible answers:
• gender representations – the media sets the expectations for the roles males and females should occupy in
society – feminists are critical of this;
• imitation – people, especially children, may copy what they see in the media i.e. violence in films/computer
games, etc. may lead to violence in society;
• role models – people look up to and aspire to be like various people in the media and so this teaches us how to
think and behave;
• norm referencing – the media teaches us core norms and values in society;
• celebrity culture – we learn from the media how much the cult of celebrity is valued in MIS;
• consumption – Marxists believe that the media encourages and normalises consumer society and the acceptance
of capitalism e.g. via advertising;
• new media provides audiences with alternative ideologies to consider and so gives them more ideas and options
for their own identities;
• agenda setting – the media tells us what is important and what we should think about in society e.g. the work of
the GUMG on favouring the higher classes;
• folk devils and moral panics – the media can create panic and concern in society as individuals and groups are
negatively labelled – we learn who the ‘goodies’ and ‘baddies’ are;
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• stereotyping – the media often represents less powerful groups in stereotypical and negative ways and these may
be accepted as real/correct by the audience;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the ways the media can act as an agency of secondary
socialisation and may talk about e.g. ‘the audience copy styles that look good’. The term ‘secondary socialisation’ may
not be fully understood. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect
one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a
tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language.

PUBLISHED

A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of the ways the media can
act as an agency of secondary socialisation. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘the media
uses role modelling as one way of socialising the audience. Individuals who the audience aspire to be like are highly
influential when it comes to fashion, behaviour and beliefs. Sometimes this can be negative, for example, how the
media has been blamed for promoting and normalising eating disorders amongst young females’. This would be
followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be
narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover
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PUBLISHED
4(d) Explain why sociologists cannot agree on the ways the media affects its audience. 8
Possible answers:
• the perspective and theory the sociologist is working in will affect how they think the media influences the
audience e.g. a feminist will see the media as a tool of patriarchy;
• evidence exists to prove that the media does influence the audience, directly through hypodermic syringe model
and indirectly through the cultural effects approach – which to believe?;
• counter evidence exists to show that the audience controls how the media effects them e.g. uses and
gratifications approach, active audience;
• results from experiments and investigations into media effects can often be criticised, e.g. the bobo doll
experiment due to its flawed methodology and testing;
• Marxists believe that the media is a tool of the ruling class used to manipulate and control the audience, other
theories disagree;
• feminists believe the media is an extension of patriarchy – benefiting men rather than women, other theories
disagree;
• postmodernists believe that the media is now 24/7, offering choice and flexibility to the audience, other theories
disagree;
• advertising shows that the media can influence the audience to consume and want material goods but this is only
one effect of the media;
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• examples of copycat violence shows that the media can influence the audience e.g. children and violence, eating
disorders, etc. but other studies show the audience can resist;
• media role models are often looked up to and emulated by the audience e.g. fashion, celebrities, etc. but
audience members are affected differently and have different role models;
• you can’t generalise about how an individual will be influenced or affected by the media, everyone is different;
• the new media is very different to traditional media and due to its diversity and potential for audience interactivity it
is very hard to know how much of an influence it has on the audience;

PUBLISHED
4(d) Band 0 [0 marks]


Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why there is a lack of agreement amongst sociologists
about how the media influences the audience. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and
undeveloped, e.g. ‘evidence from experiments/research shows very different things’, stated without explanation.
Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point.

Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why there is a lack of agreement
amongst sociologists about how the media influence the audience. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in
range, e.g. ‘media effects theories show very different findings about how the media influences the audience’ or
‘pluralists talk about how the audience can control the media whereas models like the hypodermic syringe show that
the audiences are manipulated by what they consume’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use
sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological
terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially
PAGE 393

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why there is a lack of agreement
amongst sociologists about how the media influence the audience and will be well developed and explained. e.g.
‘postmodernists believe that with new media it is impossible to know how the audience are influenced by the media as
the media today is so diverse and is available in so many different formats. More traditional theories look at traditional
media and its effects and therefore come up with different conclusions’. They can then expand on the explanation of
this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be
well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will

PUBLISHED
4(e) To what extent is the content of the media stereotypical? 15
Possible answers:
FOR:
• stereotypes are thought to be easily understood by the audience and so are used frequently in the media in order
to get an idea across quickly and simply;
• feminists believe the media uses a ‘male gaze’ to show content from a male perspective – this leads to
stereotypical representations of females;
• there is also said to be a ‘white gaze’ in the media whereby content is created from a white perspective with a
white audience in mind – this leads to stereotypical content of non-whites;
• binary opposites (e.g. good and bad) are thought to be central to media content – these are very simplistic and
therefore very stereotyped;
• gender roles and expectations are typically very narrow and fixed in the media e.g. female housewives and male
breadwinners = stereotyped;
• representations of females are often digitally manipulated based upon a stereotypical notion of beauty;
• stereotypical focus on women’s physical appearance, body image and youth whereas this is not prioritised for
males;
• minority ethnic groups are thought to be portrayed in the media in a very stereotypical way e.g. Afro-Caribbeans
and sport/crime/gangs;
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• different age groups tend to be represented in stereotypical ways in the media e.g. rebellious teens/older people
as a burden;
• the different social classes are shown very differently in the media and stereotypes are often used e.g. the
working class with extended families and community spirit and the feckless, workshy underclass;
• disabled people are shown in a very limited range of roles in the media and often as ‘not normal’ when compared
to non-disabled people – this is very stereotyped;

PUBLISHED
4(e) AGAINST:
• new media is frequently created by the audience not the producer and therefore is far less likely to be
stereotypical in its content;
• legislation exists to prevent stereotypes in the media e.g. The Equality Act;
• specialist/niche media products are more of the norm today and allow for alternative representations of previously
stereotyped groups to be created and shown;
• campaigns for change have operated in society and within the media in order to tackle stereotypical media
representations;
• social positions of previously stereotyped groups have changed in society and media representations have also
changed in order to reflect this;
• employment/ownership in the media is less biased towards white, middle class, middle aged males today and
thus as the personnel becomes more diverse so too does the media content;
• the media industry itself recognises the spending power of previously stereotyped groups e.g. the grey/pink pound
and therefore the content of the media has had to change in order to appeal more to these social groups;
• the media itself has become more diverse as it exists now in so many different forms – this has provided
opportunities for once stereotyped groups to produce their own media if they are dissatisfied with the traditional
media content out there;
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Band 0 [0 marks]

which the content of the media is stereotypical. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may
be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘women are seen as housewives in the media’. Lower in the band (1–2
marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or
provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘a stereotype is a simple and negative way of showing someone’.

PUBLISHED

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which the content of the media is
stereotypical. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to
assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely
e.g. ‘stereotypes are easy for the audience to understand so you see a lot of them in the media’. Lower in the band,
the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more
points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which the content of
the media is stereotypical. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For
the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented.
Candidates may say that e.g. ‘despite the content of the media often being stereotyped – disabled people are still
shown in a very limited range of roles, for example – things are starting to change. Minority groups are gaining more
power and more rights in society and this is being seen in how they are represented in the media. Ethnic minorities,
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for example, are often seen today as lead characters in films and TV shows. The repetitive and simplistic negative
portrayals of some social groups are also starting to change as these groups themselves become more prolific and
more powerful within the media industry. This can be as traditional media personnel or in terms of them creating their
own media via user generated content’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom
of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider

Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which the content of the media
is stereotypical. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological
terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of
points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a
specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’
part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the
idea of the content of the media being stereotypical, citing some of the examples given.

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/22

*7021509701*
An answer booklet is provided inside the question paper. You should follow the instructions on the front cover

06_2251_22_2019_1.1
PAGE 398
2
Section A: Family
1 Family life is not always a positive experience for individuals. The dark side of family life and
empty-shell marriages are two good examples of this. Family life can be made more positive by
changes to maternal and paternal roles as well as to family structures.
(a) What is meant by the term 'empty-shell marriage'? [2]
(b) Describe two paternal roles in the family. [4]
(c) Explain how the extended family exists in different forms today. [6]
(d) Explain why living alone has become more common for individuals in modern industrial societies.
[8]
(e) To what extent are families functional for individuals and society? [15]
2 Sociologists debate the reasons why some individuals do better in education than others. Anti-school
sub-cultures and family background are two explanations that are often considered. Schools have
introduced programmes such as positive discrimination to try and make school a better experience
for all.
(a) What is meant by the term 'positive discrimination'? [2]
(b) Describe two sociological reasons why children go to school. [4]
(c) Explain how anti-school sub-cultures can affect educational achievement. [6]
(d) Explain why schools are not functional for all students. [8]
(e) To what extent does family background influence educational achievement? [15]
© UCLES 2019 06_2251_22_2019_1.1

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3
3 Crime remains a big problem in society with many people believing that crime rates are rising.
Formal and informal agencies of social control are used to try and stop deviant behaviour and make
individuals conform. Prisons, fines and community sentencing are all used to try and solve the
crime problem. This is not always successful and for some individuals the label ‘criminal’ affects
their master status.
(a) What is meant by the term 'community sentencing'? [2]
(b) Describe two crimes related to new technologies. [4]
(c) Explain how crime rates are measured. [6]
(d) Explain why labelling an individual as ‘criminal’ can affect their master status. [8]
(e) To what extent can agencies of social control prevent crime? [15]
Section D: Media
4 Young people are not always presented fairly in the media. Many sociologists believe that they are
represented stereotypically and can sometimes be shown as scapegoats. The audience now have
more power to influence media content and therefore many sociologists believe that representations
of age will start to change.
(a) What is meant by the term 'scapegoats'? [2]
(b) Describe two ways the audience can influence media content. [4]
(c) Explain how the media create folk devils. [6]
(d) Explain why media content needs to be controlled. [8]
(e) To what extent are representations of age in the media stereotypical? [15]
© UCLES 2019 06_2251_22_2019_1.1

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Teachers.

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PUBLISHED
responses seen).

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PUBLISHED
1(a) What is meant by the term ‘empty-shell marriage’? 2
One mark for partial definition e.g. they don’t love each other anymore
Two marks for clear definition e.g. a married couple continue to live together
but without love or affection
1(b) Describe two paternal roles in the family. 4
Candidates may discuss either traditional or new paternal roles or a mixture

of both. A paternal role is the part played by the man in the family as a
father.
Possible answers:
• instrumental role as head of the family e.g. the decision maker;

• breadwinner / provider role as the one who brings in the income for the
family;
• emotional / expressive new role – spending time with children and
nurturing them;
• protector role – the one to look after the rest of the family;
• dual / shared roles – gender equality means many family roles are now
shared with partner;
• disciplinarian role – carries out the social control for the family e.g. of
the children;
• gender role socialisation – teaching skills and norms to their sons of
masculinity;
One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One
mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two).

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PUBLISHED
1(c) Explain how the extended family exists in different forms today. 6
Possible answers:
• vertically extended families – more than two generations, traditional,

grandparents;
• horizontally extended families – family members of the same generation
(e.g. aunts and uncles etc.) as the parents and children;
• all the relatives sharing a household, living under one roof, one unit;
• several nuclear families living close to one another – typical of the
traditional working class in the UK;
• modified extended family – relatives who live far apart remaining in close
contact with one another often enabled by technological change and the
new media;
• beanpole family – very ‘tall and thin’ families with few people in each
generation, often typical of contemporary Western societies where
perhaps grand-parents help with childcare;
Band 0 [0 marks]
No creditworthy response

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question and
may talk about, for example, big families. Responses may be short and un /
underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point.
Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak
point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging

understanding of the question. Sociological terms and concepts should be
expected e.g. ‘Many extended family units still exist today. These can take
various forms depending on the culture involved. In Western societies, for
example, modified extended families where relatives live far apart but keep in
regular contact through improved technology are common’. This would be
the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band,
answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover

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1(d) Explain why living alone has become more common for individuals in 8
Candidates should show awareness of the various reasons for individuals

living alone in MIS’s.
Possible answers:
• marriage and children are no longer social expectations (e.g.

secularisation);
• women are typically working therefore have a career and can afford to
live alone;
• feminism has encouraged females to be independent and to resist
patriarchy;
• the decline of the extended family means that living alone is more
commonplace;
• urbanisation and industrialisation leads to individuals leaving their families
and communities and starting their own life elsewhere (geographical
mobility);
• rise in divorce rates leading to increased numbers of single divorcees;
• as life expectancy increases so there are increasing numbers of elderly
single people still fit and well enough to live alone;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question.
Responses may be short and undeveloped e.g. ‘people don’t have to get
married anymore’, stated without explanation. Sociological terms and
language.

expected. For example, ‘Divorce rates are high in most MIS’s which means
there is more likelihood of people living alone due to relationship
breakdowns’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to
this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or
lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a
well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail.

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understanding of the question. For example, ‘Feminists believe that
singlehood is on the increase as women are actively deciding to live alone.
They are able to do this due to the rise of career women and equal rights
legislation. It may also be resistance to patriarchy’. They can then expand
on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms
1(e) To what extent are families functional for individuals and society? 15
Candidates do not need to explicitly discuss both individuals and society

separately.
Candidates should show awareness of the ways that families can be seen to
be functional – functionalist theory is likely to be discussed here. In
evaluation, candidates are likely to discuss how families may not be
functional and may refer to Marxism and/or feminism whilst doing so.
However, theories can be used in both the ‘for’ and ‘against’ sides of the
argument e.g. Marxism could be used either ‘for’ or ‘against’. All valid points
should therefore be credited in the context of the candidate’s answer.
Possible answers:
For:
• reproduction – societies must produce new generations of children in
order to survive, family life encourages children;
• socialisation – children need to learn the norms and values of their
society through the family;
• social control – how the behaviour of children is controlled by the family
so that they conform to the norms;
• care of children – children need to be fed, clothed and nurtured by
families;
• status – families provide status for children and involve them in a variety
of different relationships;
• regulation of sexual behaviour – encouraging children to be born in a
socially approved sexual relationship;
• nuclear families perform family functions best through clear gender
roles;
• Marxists believe the family is functional for capitalist society through the
transmission of pro-capitalist norms and values;
• feminists believe the nuclear family is functional for patriarchal society
by giving men a powerful role;

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1(e) Against:
• Leach – demands on nuclear families are too great which leads to
conflict within the family and so it is not functional;
• dark side of the family – abuse and neglect demonstrate that family life
may not always be functional;
• Barrett and McIntosh – the ‘anti-social family’ – the nuclear family does
not work for many people;
• feminists criticise the segregated gender roles in the family (triple shift)
and therefore do not see it as functional for individuals (patriarchal);
• family diversity means that the nuclear family has declined in numbers
and importance meaning that the functions may have also declined;
• alternatives to the family such as one-person households and
communes challenge the argument that families are functional;
• other institutions are now performing the functions once performed by
the family (e.g. healthcare in the medical system, education at school
etc) so reducing the family’s functions;
• other reasonable response
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will be vague and largely based on common sense
showing limited knowledge of the extent of the question. Use of sociological
terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped
and one-sided. For example, ‘Children need a family for food and shelter’.
Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the
band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a
weak definition of key terms.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent of the
question. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature
but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question.
There may be limited / some use of sociological terms or concepts.
simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. For example, ‘Families are
the main agent of socialisation and social control for children so are very
important’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points
covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points
will be covered and there will be limited development of some points.
Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of
the argument may score up to 8 marks.

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understanding of the extent of the debate in the question. Sociological terms
and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the
most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there
will be a range of points presented.
There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. For example,
‘Despite a range of convincing functionalist arguments about the positive
functions of the family, many sociologists would argue that family life can be
negative. Marxists talk about the exploitation of the working classes whilst
feminists consider the dark side of the family and factors such as the triple
shift that exploit women’. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide
a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a

the extent to which families are functional for individuals and society. There
will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use
of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly
be two-sided and balanced.
At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific
conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an
assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused
conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against
the debate in the question, citing some of the examples given.

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2(a) What is meant by the term ‘positive discrimination’? 2
One mark for partial definition e.g. treating some people differently to others
Two marks for clear definition e.g. giving disadvantaged groups better
treatment than others to try and make up for their disadvantage
2(b) Describe two sociological reasons why children go to school. 4
Responses may engage with functionalist and/or Marxist theory in their

response, although this is not necessary for the marks to be awarded.
Possible answers:
• to learn the necessary knowledge and skills for society;

• to be socialised into the norms and values of society;
• to learn social expectations such as how to get on with others;
• to control the thoughts and behaviour of children;
• to learn the importance of conformity through sanctions and social
control;
• to learn and accept their future roles in society;
• to be prepared for the world of work e.g. ICT skills, importance of
punctuality etc.;
• feminism – to learn that males have more power than females in society
thus reinforcing patriarchy;
• Marxism – to learn to be a good, conformist worker for capitalist society;

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2(c) Explain how anti-school sub-cultures can affect educational 6

achievement.
Possible answers:
• these sub-cultures reject the rules and values of the school and develop
an alternative value system instead which may disrupt educational
achievement;
• these sub-cultures are peer group based and therefore there is a lot of
pressure not to conform to school norms and values thus affecting
achievement;
• these sub-cultures are often associated with lower sets and streams
where educational achievement is less – teacher expectations;
• teacher labelling – those in an anti-school subculture may be negatively
labelled by their teachers so leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy of low
• the counter values of anti-school sub-cultures often involve truancy,
getting into mischief, not completing work and being rude to the teacher
– these are unlikely to lead to high educational achievement;
• anti-school sub-cultures allow students to gain respect and status from
their peer group therefore there is less of a need to gain this from
• Paul Willis’ study – the working class ‘lads’ came to school not to learn
but to ‘have a laugh’, enjoying breaking the school rules and messing
about in and out of lessons to annoy teachers;
Band 0 [0 marks]

may talk about ‘naughty students who don’t do their school work’. Responses
may be short and un / underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),
language.

expected e.g. ‘anti-school sub-cultures are based on an alternative set of
values than those associated with educational success. Peer group
pressure means that students search for status from their peer group rather
than from doing well at school. This often results in work not being
completed, truancy and being placed into lower sets’. This would be followed

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2(d) Explain why schools are not functional for all students. 8
Candidates should show an awareness of the various reasons why schools

are not functional for all students.
Possible answers:
• feminists believe that schools benefit males more than females;

• Marxists believe that schools benefit the higher classes rather than the
lower classes;
• setting and streaming means that the experience of schooling for
students can be very different with those in the lower sets often
experiencing low teacher expectations;
• the ethnocentric curriculum may mean that schools are not perceived to
address the needs of ethnic minority students;
• schools have been accused of institutional racism and so may not be
functional for ethnic minority students;
• anti-school sub-cultures evidence the fact that not all students engage
well with schools and value education – students rebel against the
social control;
• teacher stereotyping and labelling means that some students may not be
well thought of and may suffer from a self-fulfilling prophecy;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Responses may be short and un / underdeveloped. For example, ‘not all
students do well at school, some are naughty and do not do their work’. At
the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band
(2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may
be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas

expected. For example, ‘ Setting and streaming is thought by the labelling
theory to stereotype some students as successes and some as failures. This
can cause a self-fulfilling prophecy to occur’. This would be followed by
points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will
cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors
in less detail.

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understanding of the question. For example, ‘Marxists talk about education
being a tool of the ruling class that exploits the working class through Bourdieu’s
idea of capital, setting and streaming and negative teacher labelling. This
may result in the formation of an anti-school sub-culture where academic
achievement is low’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and
2(e) To what extent does family background influence educational 15

achievement?
In interpreting ‘family background’, candidates may discuss factors such as

ethnicity, religion, social class, locality, culture etc.
Candidates should show awareness of the ways that family background may
influence educational achievement. This could be culturally and/or materially.
In evaluation, they should consider how these family factors may not
influence educational achievement and discuss how other factors such as
school / peer group can be influential instead.
Possible answers:
For:
• material factors – children living in poverty are likely to be educationally
disadvantaged i.e. over-crowded accommodation, part-time jobs, few
resources to support education at home etc;
• cultural factors – members of the working class are thought to want
immediate rather than deferred gratification and therefore value
education less than middle class parents;
• there may be an absence of successful role models in the family who
have done well in education and therefore this route is not seen as an
option for many children;
• Bourdieu – cultural capital – familiarity with literature, visits to museums
and galleries and knowledge of how the education system works are
seen to advantage some children in education;
• gender roles – girls may be socialised to see their future roles in terms
of marriage and children and not in terms of educational success;
• Bernstein – believes the working class use a restricted code and the
higher classes an elaborated code at home which makes the ‘world’ of
education far easier to access and be successful in;
• minority students may be taught in a language that is not their home
language and so may face problems of understanding and of written /
verbal expression;

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2(e) Against:
• pupil sub-cultures may be influential over educational achievement (pro
or anti-school sub-cultures); the set / stream a pupil is in may be a very
important factor in determining educational achievement;
• teacher expectations may affect educational achievement through labelling
and the self-fulfilling prophecy or the halo effect;
• students in private schools typically achieve better educational
qualifications than those in state schools, perhaps due to smaller class
sizes, better resources and better teachers;
• the ethnocentric curriculum may be a reason why ethnic minority
students do less well in education than others;
• schools can be seen as institutions that reinforce traditional gender roles
through careers advice, subject choice etc and this can affect
• a culture of masculinity is encouraged in many peer groups and this
makes it very difficult for males to be hard working and studious in
school;
• government / school policy may influence educational achievement
more than family background e.g. girls aren’t always sent to school /
compensatory education etc;
Band 0 [0 marks]

and one-sided. For example, ‘if parents don’t think education is important
then the children won’t either’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or
two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more
than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms.

simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. For example, ‘families with
more money are able to buy resources like laptops and revision guides
which can help to improve student achievement, poorer students can’t afford
this’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points
covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points
will be covered and there will be limited development of some points.

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will be a range of points presented. For example, ‘As Bourdieu points out
family background is very important when it comes to capital however it is
not the only relevant factor. For ethnic minorities it might be an ethnocentric
curriculum and institutional racism that determines educational success, for
example’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced.
At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-

the extent to which family background influences educational achievement.
There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and
frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well
extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates
should show consideration of points for and against the debate in the
question, citing some of the examples given.

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3(a) What is meant by the term ‘community sentencing’? 2
One mark for partial definition e.g. doing work in the community
Two marks for clear definition e.g. a punishment that involves a non-
custodial sentence like carrying work out for the community e.g. litter
picking.
3(b) Describe two crimes related to new technologies. 4
Candidates may describe specific crimes in their response or may describe

a type of crime – either way is fine to credit.
Possible answers:
• cybercrime – crimes involving new technologies such as computers;

• fraud / identity theft e.g. creating false social media accounts for
criminal activity;
• the spreading of obscene or offensive content via the internet (the dark
web / net may be referred to);
• harassment through the internet e.g. cyberbullying;
• trading in illegal goods / drugs;
• cyberterrorism – the internet is used to deliberately attack computer
networks e.g. to disable a Government website;
• internet crime and scams – crimes committed through use of the
internet e.g. hacking;
• people / human trafficking e.g. for sex crimes, slavery etc;

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3(c) Explain how crime rates are measured. 6
Possible answers:
• police records of the numbers of crimes committed based on crimes

reported to them and crimes recorded by them;
• court records of the total number of convictions for different offences
and the social characteristics of the offenders;
• Government official statistics published each year compiled from figures
submitted by all police forces used to measure patterns and trends and
make comparisons;
• national victim surveys (e.g. the Crime Survey of England and Wales /
British Crime Survey) that ask a representative sample of people
whether they have been a victim of crime, often in the past year;
• local victim surveys that try and establish the amount and type of crime
in a particular area e.g. Lea and Young / Islington Survey etc;
• feminist victim surveys that focus particularly on women’s experiences
as victims of crime e.g. sexual crimes and uncover much of the OCS’s
‘dark figure’;
• self-report studies – these ask a sample of people what crimes they
have committed in the last year;
• non-official measures e.g. surveys, questionnaires etc that are often
used by sociologists to measure crime rates;
Band 0 [0 marks]

may talk about ‘percentages of crimes shown in the media’. Responses may
be short and un / underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),
language.

expected e.g. ‘Sociologists use a wide variety of means to measure crime.
The official way is through analysis of the official crime statistics that show
patterns and trends in offending. However, other alternatives have also been
developed such as victim surveys which ask a sample of people whether
they have been a victim of crime in the last year. An example of this is The
Islington Crime Survey from the UK’. This would be followed by explanation
of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points
covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover
more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less
detail.

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3(d) Explain why labelling an individual as ‘criminal’ can affect their master 8
status.
Candidates should show an awareness of the various reasons why the label
‘criminal’ can affect an individual’s master status.
Master status – a status that overrides all others and becomes the way that
individuals see themselves and are seen by others.
Possible answers:
• the label of ‘criminal’ is a negative one and can override all other labels
that an individual has e.g. when looking for a job;
• Cicourel proved that working class youths were more likely to be
labelled and thought of as criminals than the middle class so making
them more likely to be targeted by the police;
• if others think of an individual in a particular way e.g. as a criminal, then
this label may stick and become a self-fulfilling prophecy for the person;
• the labelled person’s identity may change as they adopt a deviant career
and join an organised criminal group due to being labelled as criminal;
• others may reject an individual if they are believed to be criminal and
therefore the individual spends more and more time with other
criminals, so reinforcing their criminal master status;
• ethnicity – higher rates of stop and search by the police may lead to a
self-fulfilling prophecy and so make some ethnic minorities more likely
to be caught and labelled as criminals;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Responses may be short and undeveloped / underdeveloped. For example,
‘Everyone thinks that the person is a thief’. At the bottom of the band (1
mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates
may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards
simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using

expected. For example, ‘The label may become a person’s master status
through the self-fulfilling prophecy where they start to act like the label’. This
would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of
the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in

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understanding of the question. For example, ‘Cicourel’s study shows that the
police and the courts have a stereotypical idea of who the typical delinquent is.
This means that the police will target these people most frequently which
may cause them to become disillusioned with the police and so cause
deviancy amplification. In this way they have started to be thought of in terms
of the negative label of ‘criminal’ and it has become their master status.
throughout.

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3(e) To what extent can agencies of social control prevent crime? 15
Candidates may refer to agencies of social control generally or may choose

to discuss specific agencies more explicitly. Both formal and informal
agencies could be discussed here. To evaluate, candidates may consider
how agencies of social control (either collectively or individually) cannot
prevent crime and so may consider other preventative measures instead.
Possible answers:
For:
• informal agencies of social control can use negative and positive
sanctions to ensure people conform to society’s norms and values;
• formal agencies of social control are enforced by government and its
agencies and so can prevent crime through rules and legislation;
• family can prevent crime through effective socialisation and through the
bond created between members (Hirschi);
• education can prevent crime through teachings about right and wrong
through the hidden curriculum and through citizenship / morality
lessons;
• religion can prevent crime through teachings about the afterlife and
rewards and punishments based on life choices;
• media can prevent crime through showing the consequences of being a
criminal and through public naming and shaming;
• peer group can prevent crime through being pro-school and valuing
educational success and working hard;
• police can prevent crime through the power of arrest and their presence
– a deterrent;
• courts can prevent crime through sending out a clear message about
the consequences of criminality through their sentencing;
• prisons can prevent crime by taking away a person’s freedom and
removing criminals from society;
Against:
• agencies of social control can be ignored and therefore may not prevent
crime;
• socialisation processes do not guarantee conformity to societal norms
and values;
• informal agencies do not prevent crime – if they did there would be no
need for formal agencies;
• formal agencies do not prevent crime – despite their existence we still
have high rates of criminality in society;
• outside agencies offering restorative justice may be more successful at
preventing crime;
• outside agencies offering therapy, rehab and discussion groups may be
better equipped to prevent crime;
• structural factors may cause crime e.g. poverty / racism and therefore
agencies of social control will not be able to combat this;
• biological factors may cause crime e.g. the criminal genes / hormones
and therefore agencies of social control will not be able to combat this;

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and one-sided. For example, ‘prisons control crime because people get
locked up’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points.
or provide a weak definition of key terms.

simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. For example, ‘the family can
prevent crime by making sure that people are socialised correctly to know
the difference between right and wrong’. ‘Lower in the band, the response
will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little
development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will
be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with
little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8
marks.A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks.

will be a range of points presented. For example, ‘agencies of social control
can be both formal and informal and all can help to prevent crime. However,
they are not completely successful because we still have high crime rates and
rates of re-offending remain high’. There will be a two-sided response but
this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide
a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a

the extent to which agencies of social control can prevent crime. There will
be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of
be two-sided and balanced.

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4(a) What is meant by the term ‘scapegoats’? 2
One mark for partial definition e.g. blamed for something
Two marks for clear definition e.g. a group singled out for negative treatment
after being wrongly blamed for something
4(b) Describe two ways the audience can influence media content. 4
Possible answers:
• user generated content – the audience upload content to the media;

• citizen journalism – the audience write, create and influence news
content;
• interactivity e.g. voting for acts on television shows influences media
content;
• pressure groups – can lobby and push for change to media content;
• self-censorship by the audience e.g. parental filters allows the audience
to influence media content;
• the audience can choose the channel / print product / web content that
they wish to consume and so are in charge of the content they
consume;
• personalisation – having news, for example, on particular topics emailed
to them influences content;
• contributions to online discussions, forums, chat rooms influences
content;
• making a website or writing a blog influences media content;
• the audience have control of social media e.g. can control who they
follow on Twitter, the content and style of their Facebook profile etc;

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4(c) Explain how the media create folk devils. 6
Possible answers:
• media content is decided by a small group of people and their views may
well be biased against certain groups e.g. young people, so creating folk
devils;
• within a moral panic, events and actions can be exaggerated and
sensationalised so leading to the formation of folk devils;
• media labelling of some social groups can lead to a self-fulfilling
prophecy which in turn creates a folk devil;
• certain stereotypical representations are dominant in the media and this
leads to the creation and reinforcement of folk devils;
• some social groups are blamed by the media for problems in society
(scapegoated) and so become folk devils;
• Cohen’s study of the Mods and the Rockers may be quoted as an
example of a moral panic made by the media;
• Fawbert’s study of the ‘hoodies’ maybe used as a more modern
example of the media creating folk devils;
• social media today can create a moral panic through the speed of
sharing information as stories and news goes viral on a global scale;
• repetition of ‘facts’ can cause folk devils to be created as people start to
believe the dominant media message;
Band 0 [0 marks]

may talk about ‘the important people control what’s put into the media’.
Responses may be short and un / underdeveloped. At the bottom of the
band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks),

expected e.g. ‘the study by Cohen on the Mods and the Rockers shows how
the media can create folk devils through their stereotypical, negative and
repeated representations. This study shows how sensationalised the media
reporting really was’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading
to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be
narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one

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4(d) Explain why media content needs to be controlled. 8
Candidates should show awareness of the various reasons why media

content needs to be controlled.
Possible answers:
• vulnerable groups in the population e.g. children, need to be protected

from adult content hence film certification and parental advisory
censorship;
• laws are needed to protect the state e.g. UK Official Secrets Act;
• libel and slander laws prevent the media from making unfounded
allegations against individuals;
• laws are needed to prevent the unfair and discriminatory treatment of
such groups as ethnic minorities, homosexuals, women etc;
• the watershed for TV prevents some sex, violence, swearing and drug
use being shown before 9pm, again to prevent children from viewing
unsuitable material;
• in a democracy, propaganda should not be allowed, allowing instead ‘due
impartiality’ that gives a much fairer and more balanced picture;
• the hypodermic model of media effects says that the audience copy what
they see / hear therefore media content needs to be controlled in order
to protect the public;
• postmodernists believe with the advent of new media we now live in a
media saturated society therefore the possibility of the media
influencing the audience is amplified (social media, fake news,
cyberbullying, cyberterrorism etc.) – increasing the need for content to
be controlled;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Responses may be short and un / underdeveloped. For example, ‘obscene
materials and violence should not be shown in the media’. At the bottom of
the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks),

expected. For example, ‘the watershed on TV protects children from
inappropriate material such as bad language and swearing which children
might copy’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this.
At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack
detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-

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understanding of the question. For example, ‘laws are required to keep the
country safe, particularly in times of war and conflict. There are acts in place
such as The Official Secrets Act and the D Notice which ensure that material
that could harm the nation is not allowed to be shown.’ They can then
Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will
be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons

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4(e) To what extent are representations of age in the media stereotypical? 15
Candidates should show awareness of the ways that media representations

of age are stereotypical and are likely to refer to examples of this. They may
talk about such age groups as children, youth, adults and the elderly in their
answer. To evaluate, candidates could consider how media representations
of age are changing and are no longer stereotypical . Different forms of
media may be referred to here e.g. traditional ‘vs’ new media.
Possible answers:
For:
• stereotypes of age are frequently used in the media to attract a mass
audience as they are easy to understand and so are used regularly;
• children – typically represented as innocent and vulnerable e.g. in
advertising;
• teenagers are typically shown as rebellious and irresponsible e.g. the
coverage of the Mods and the Rockers (Cohen);
• teenagers are often shown as folk devils in a moral panic e.g. Fawbert’s
‘hoodies’ study saw teenagers as a threat to society;
• middle aged people are often shown as responsible and law-abiding
figures of authority;
• middle aged people are often shown as being boring with no sense of
fun;
• older people may be stereotyped as vulnerable, weak and a burden to
society;
Against:
• new media starts to challenge traditional stereotypes and introduces
newer and less rigid representations of age;
• social media allows people to create their own identities and
representations through user generated content and citizen journalism;
• children can also be represented as having greater wisdom than adults,
dealing with complex and sensitive issues themselves;
• children / teens today may be sexualized in the media e.g. Postman’s
study on childhood;
• teenagers can also be represented positively e.g. in the Harry Potter
films;
• middle aged people can be shown to be throwing off their air of
respectability e.g. a mid-life crisis, having an affair, selling their material
assets and going travelling etc;
• older people can be shown positively as wise and caring characters;
• older actors / actresses are challenging their representations of being
‘past it’ e.g. Helen Mirren;
• the spending power of the older generation means that representations
of this age group in advertising are changing in order to maximise profits
(the grey pound);
• postmodernists believe that in the ‘mix and match’ society we now live
in, age is just a number and therefore representations of age are
diverse and fluid;

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and one-sided. For example, ‘old people are shown to be grumpy in the
media’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points.
Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or
provide a weak definition of key terms.

simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. For example, ‘sociological
studies show that teenagers are often represented negatively in the media,
as ‘thugs’ or deviants for example’. Lower in the band, the response will be

will be a range of points presented. For example, ‘age representations of the
young and the old remain stereotypical in the media. However, there are
some changes occurring. Due to allegations of ageism in the film industry,
we are starting to see older people taking more active roles, as action
heroes for example. Postmodernists believe this is typical of the ‘mix and
match’ generation in which we now live’.


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the extent to which age representations in the media are stereotypical.
extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates
should show consideration of points for and against the debate, citing some of
the examples given.

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/23

*9668606716*

06_2251_23_2019_1.1
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2
Section A: Family
1 Traditionally, the nuclear family was thought to be important for a successful marriage and a happy
family life. It was the norm and an expectation for most societies. Some family roles and structures
are starting to change, although this may depend upon the social class and ethnicity of the family.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘nuclear family’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways conjugal roles have changed over time. [4]
(c) Explain how social class can affect marriage and family life. [6]
(d) Explain why reconstituted families are becoming more common in modern industrial societies.
[8]
(e) To what extent is family life today based on gender inequalities? [15]
2 Some sociologists view education and the official curriculum as essential to improving an individual’s
life chances. Other sociologists believe education maintains social inequalities. Whilst every school
is different they all operate a system of rules and rewards for students.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘official curriculum’? [2]
(b) Describe two features of the hidden curriculum. [4]
(c) Explain how schools have tried to improve the educational achievement of ethnic minority
students. [6]
(d) Explain why sanctions are used in schools. [8]
(e) To what extent is education a major factor in improving an individual's life chances? [15]
© UCLES 2019 06_2251_23_2019_1.1

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3
3 According to official crime statistics an individual’s social characteristics can affect whether they
become a criminal. Some sociologists believe that ethnic minority groups and the lower classes
have higher conviction rates due to agencies such as the police and the media. Trends in crime
also vary depending on the crime committed, for example whether it is internet crime, green crime
or white-collar crime.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘internet crime’? [2]
(b) Describe two criminal sub-cultures. [4]
(c) Explain how the police can cause deviancy amplification. [6]
(d) Explain why effective socialisation can reduce crime. [8]
(e) To what extent is ethnicity the most important factor in determining whether an individual
commits crime? [15]
Section D: Media
4 In the past media owners and professionals were criticised for creating folk devils. Today new
media have given more power and control to the audience and media is starting to change.This
may affect how the audience use and interpret media content.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘folk devils’? [2]
(b) Describe two types of new media. [4]
(c) Explain how diversification occurs in today’s media industry. [6]
(d) Explain why the uses and gratifications model of media effects can be criticised. [8]
(e) To what extent do media professionals such as editors and journalists control media content?
[15]
© UCLES 2019 06_2251_23_2019_1.1

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/23
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Teachers.

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responses seen).

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1(a) What is meant by the term ‘nuclear family’. 2
One mark for partial definition e.g. married with children
Two marks for clear definition e.g. man and woman who are married or
living together with dependent children
1(b) Describe two ways conjugal roles have changed over time. 4
Possible answers:
move from segregated to joint conjugal roles;
men less likely to be the sole breadwinner and provider for the family;
working women means that women are less likely to take sole
responsibility for the expressive role;
men are more likely to be involved in childcare and domestic
responsibilities e.g. the new man;
diversity in family types means that what we understand by conjugal
roles may need to change e.g. single parent families where one parent
performs all the roles/same sex families etc.;
One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two)

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1(c) Explain how social class can affect marriage and family life. 6
Candidates may talk about marriage, family life or both. These are all fine to
credit.
Possible answers:
in the UK the extended family structure was typically associated with
the working class;
lower class families are typically more likely to have segregated
conjugal roles;
middle class, educated women are more likely to remain single and not
to have children or to have smaller families e.g. just one child;
because divorce is now cheaper and easier, more lower class people
are filing for divorce;
symmetry within family life is more likely today within the middle classes
where women are working in a career and expect equality;
child-centredness is commonly associated with the higher classes
rather than the lower;
family size tends to be bigger in the lower social classes;
middle class children in China often make substantial contributions to
their parents’ living expenses;
the higher classes can afford to pay for others to be involved in their
family life e.g. housework, nannies etc.;
lower class children are less likely to go to school/remain in education
and are often working to provide for their family;
Band 0 [0 marks]

may talk about ‘families are often bigger in the lower social classes.’
Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band
(1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks),

expected e.g. ‘family life can be diverse when we look at financial issues
linked to class. Those from the higher social classes are able to employ non
family members to get involved in family tasks/the domestic role and duties
such as childcare, housework and emotional support’. This would be

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1(d) Explain why reconstituted families are becoming more common in 8

Candidates should discuss the various reasons why reconstituted families

are becoming more common in modern industrial societies. (reconstituted =
step families)
Possible answers:
secularisation – the decline of religion means that divorce is more
common in many societies, leading to increased reconstituted families;
remarriage rates are increasing which is leading to increases in the
numbers of reconstituted families;
divorce is cheaper, quicker and easier than ever before meaning that it
is more likely for reconstituted families to form;
feminism – women are not prepared to accept unhappy marriages
anymore and so are more likely to leave and to enter a different, better
relationship, hence forming a reconstituted family;
changing norms, values and attitudes means that people believe in the
right to be happy (often promoted through the media) and so have
higher expectations of marriage, leading to more reconstituted families;
decline of the extended family structure in many societies means there
is less pressure to stay in an unhappy marriage which can lead to more
reconstituted families forming;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A
tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped
e.g. ‘people don’t want to stay in unhappy marriages anymore so divorce
and form step families’. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be
used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point.
Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak
point.

understanding of the question. Responses may be underdeveloped and
lacking in range e.g. ‘divorce rates are rising as it is much easier and
cheaper to do this, meaning people can leave unhappy marriages and
eventually remarry and form reconstituted families’. At the bottom of the
band candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts

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understanding of the question., e.g. ‘Many societies are now secular
meaning that there is less pressure to stay in an unhappy marriage. This
leads to increasing divorce rates, particularly by women, who will look for
different, better relationships. This is further encouraged by feminism and so
increased numbers of reconstituted families start to form’. They can then

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1(e) To what extent is family life today based on gender inequalities? 15
Candidates should show awareness of the ways that family life is based on
gender inequalities and may discuss feminism/patriarchy here. They should
also consider in evaluation how gender inequalities are now disappearing in
the family and/or that other inequalities characterise family life instead of
gender.
Possible answers:
For:
differential socialisation – Oakley’s study of canalisation and
manipulation demonstrated how children learn their different gender
roles that can then lead to gender inequalities;
feminists believe the family is a patriarchal institution that benefits men
due to its gender inequalities and gendered power imbalance;
polygyny allows men to have multiple wives in some cultures – this
reduces the importance and status of women;
functionalists believe that instrumental roles for men and expressive
roles for women offer the best solution for successful family life – many
people believe this leads to gender inequalities as men are seen to
have more power and status than women;
many families today (particularly in traditional societies or the working
class) still operate with segregated conjugal roles whereby men have
more power than women;
in modern industrial societies where conjugal roles tend to be more
joint, women still find themselves doing more of the laborious and dull
domestic tasks = not equal;
women today often suffer from the dual or triple burden, juggling paid
and domestic work in a way that men don’t have to;
Pahl/Edgell – men typically make the financial and more important
decisions in the home;
men are still seen to be the primary breadwinner and protector of the
family, giving him more power than the woman;
the dark side of the family – women remain the hidden victims of
domestic abuse;
women typically work part time so that they can combine paid work with
household responsibilities = less pay and status than men;
the perceived greater importance of the male role means that a family is
more likely to move to a new area/country for a man’s promotion than
for a woman’s promotion;

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1(e) Against:
Willmott and Young, the symmetrical family – joint conjugal roles are
said by many to characterise family life today, not inequalities;
socialisation of children today tends to be far more equal and less
gender stereotypical;
single parent families are typically headed by women, removing any
gender inequalities;
same sex families and alternatives to the family (communes, friends
etc.) all challenge the idea of family life being characterised by gender
inequalities;
men are now far more involved in childcare and domestic tasks than
ever before due to the rise of the career woman, the new man and the
househusband;
privatised nuclear families are frequently seen and typically involve both
partners and children being responsible for the household tasks;
inequalities in the family may not be based on gender but on other
social characteristics such as age/ethnicity/culture/social class instead;
in a postmodern world, gender roles are being eradicated as we live in
a ‘pick and mix’ society where identities can be constructed and
negotiated at will, they are no longer fixed;
other reasonable response
Band 0 [0 marks]

showing limited knowledge of the extent of the debate in the question. Use
of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short,
undeveloped and one-sided e.g. ‘women do most of the housework and
childcare’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points.
or provide a weak definition of key terms in the question, inequalities are
when things aren’t fair.

debate in the question. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-
like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by
the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or
concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers
may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘family life today
is not equal. Men do DIY work and gardening whereas women look after the
children, do the housework and make sure everyone is happy’. Lower in the

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most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and
there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that, ‘despite
criticisms from some feminists about continued inequalities based on gender
in family life, it cannot be denied that roles are far more equal than they
were previously. This may well depend upon factors such as culture,
ethnicity and class but men’s role in family life is far greater than it was in
the past and women are no longer solely responsible for the home. They
have careers too, for example’. There will be a two-sided response but this
may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a
narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a

the extent to which family life today is based upon gender inequalities.
extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates
should show consideration of points for and against the idea of family life
today being characterised by gender inequalities, citing some of the
examples given.

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2(a) What is meant by the term ‘official curriculum’. 2
One mark for partial definition e.g. subjects studied
Two marks for clear definition e.g. the subjects and lessons studied at
school and their content
2(b) Describe two features of the hidden curriculum. 4
Possible answers:
competitive sports and testing – sends out the message that doing
better than others is valued in society;
learning the importance of punctuality in school, preparing you for later
working life;
through school uniform requirements, students learn expectations for
dress codes e.g. at work;
abiding by school rules – you have to do as you’re told by those in
authority regardless of whether you agree;
schools are hierarchies – students learn their place in the hierarchy and
the associated norms with this status position;
functionalists – hidden curriculum gives the skills and attitudes
necessary for the smooth running of society, social order;
Marxists – hidden curriculum maintains the control of the working class
by the bourgeoisie;
feminists – students learn the expectations associated with their gender
and their future gender roles;
respect and manners and reinforced to students through the hidden
curriculum;
values and morals of society are taught and reinforced through the
hidden curriculum;

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2(c) Explain how schools have tried to improve the educational 6

achievement of ethnic minority students.
Candidates may talk about ethnic minority students in general terms or may
focus on specific ethnic groups in their answer. Either way is fine to credit.
Possible answers:
anti-racism programmes – teachers have been trained in equal
opportunities and the need to change their expectations and
stereotypes of ethnic minority students;
legislation now exists to ensure that ethnic minority students get a ‘fair
deal’ in education;
curriculums are far less ethnocentric in nature today and thus ethnic
minority students are far more likely to engage and be successful;
representations of ethnic minority students in textbooks are more
regular and frequent meaning that education is seen to be something
for everyone;
positive discrimination – schools can place ethnic minority students into
higher sets and introduce compensatory education
programmes/intervention in order to try and improve performance;
recruitment of more ethnic minority teachers can help ethnic minority
students to see that education is something that they can be successful
in – positive role modelling;
Band 0 [0 marks]

may talk about ‘not being racist and treating ethnic minority students
equally’. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of

expected e.g. ‘positive discrimination can be used to try and improve the
educational achievement of ethnic minority students. This can involve
additional tuition, a non-ethnocentric curriculum, placing EM students into
higher sets and bringing in motivational speakers’. This would be followed
by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the
range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band,
answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover

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2(d) Explain why sanctions are used in schools. 8
Candidates should show awareness of the various reasons why sanctions

(positive rewards and/or negative punishments may be discussed) are used
in schools.
Possible answers:
negative sanctions such as detentions are used in schools in order to
promote conformity;
punishments in schools are used to teach individuals that certain
behaviours are ‘wrong’ and should not be repeated;
positive sanctions such as treat trips are used in schools to encourage
students to engage in and repeat socially encouraged behaviour;
functionalists believe sanctions in schools are necessary as one of the
functions of education is social control – to produce social stability;
feminists believe sanctions are used in schools to maintain patriarchy in
terms of gender roles and gender expectations in behaviour and
attitudes;
Marxists believe sanctions are used in schools to allow the promotion of
the belief that it is ‘natural’ to conform to the wishes of those in positions
of authority and power;
sanctions in schools could be seen to be an extension of the power of
the state to ideologically control individuals (Marxism) through the
promotion of socially approved attitudes, beliefs and behaviour that
benefit the ruling class;
Marxists believe sanctions in schools allow the promotion of the
capitalist ideology as something that is fair and just;
prizes and rewards are used as positive sanctions in order to raise
attainment;
Band 0[ 0 marks]

e.g. ‘to punish students’. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be

understanding of why sanctions are used in schools. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lacking in range e.g. ‘sanctions can be punishments or
rewards and they make students do what they are told, so acting as a type
of social control’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use

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understanding of why sanctions are used in schools and will be well
developed and explained e.g. ‘Sanctions in school ensure conformity to the
roles and to those in positions of authority. For functionalists this is a good
thing as it socialises us to accept orders from others and so keeps society
running smoothly. For Marxists, though, it allows the ruling class to maintain
power over the lower class’. They can then expand on the explanation of
this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be
used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and
there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band

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2(e) To what extent is education a major factor in improving an individual’s 15

life chances?
Life Chances – the opportunities that individuals have to improve their lives.
Candidates should show awareness of the ways that education can improve
a person’s life chances and should also consider how life chances are
already fixed and cannot be changed by education. Factors to do with
ethnicity, gender and social class may be referred to here.
Possible answers:
For:
functionalists see education as being meritocratic and so by working
hard you will be successful and will improve your life chances;
educational qualifications are seen in MIS’s as being vital in order to
obtain professional and high status jobs;
higher education is thought to be a major factor in determining the type
and level of job a person can obtain – this then can be life changing;
education is thought to lead to social mobility, offering individuals the
opportunity to change their social status and lifestyle;
education is free for children in many countries and so opens doors for
everybody in terms of increasing life chances;
education may lead to improved and widened social networks which
may heighten job opportunities and prospects;
education can lift poor people out of poverty and break the cycle;
education allows for equality of opportunity regardless of a person’s
social characteristics (gender/ethnicity/social class);
compensatory education and/or positive discrimination can improve the
life chances of disadvantaged groups;
the teaching of the hidden curriculum promotes life skills and ensures
that students know the expected norms and values in order to function
successfully and so improves life chances;
Against:
those with more money have better chances of being successful in
education than poorer people e.g. through private education, which then
affects life chances;
despite girls performing better than boys in education in many societies,
when it comes to life chances, males still fare better e.g. the gender pay
gap;
ethnic minorities do not do as well in education as the ethnic majority
and therefore do not have improved life chances;
Marxists do not believe that education is meritocratic and instead see it
as an institution that maintains social inequalities and thus does not
change life chances as it is a tool to keep the working class in their
place;
feminists believe that patriarchal ideologies are so ingrained in society
that educational performance is irrelevant in determining life chances;

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2(e) life chances may be fixed and ascribed by social characteristics and so
education cannot affect life chances (ascribed status);
other social agents e.g. the peer group may be more influential than
education in terms of improving life chances;
other reasonable response
Band 0 [0 marks]

undeveloped and one-sided e.g. ‘qualifications help you get a good job’.
Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the
band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a
weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘life chances are the opportunities you
have to succeed’.
may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘education is
often free and available to everyone so if you do well in it you have more
chances to improve your status’. Lower in the band, the response will be

there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that, for
example, ‘whilst functionalists believe that education is a meritocratic
system, that allows everyone to better themselves if they work and try hard,
it remains the case that most people will remain in the class or status
position into which they were born. This shows that education has little
effect on life chances’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be

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the extent of the debate in the question. There will be a strong grasp of the
argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and
concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question
and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and
balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a
specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer
an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a
focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and
against the debate in the question, citing some of the examples given.
3(a) What is meant by the term ‘internet crime’? 2
One mark for partial definition e.g. fraud

Two marks for clear definition e.g. illegal act using the web, often referred to
as a cybercrime, e.g. identity theft
3(b) Describe two criminal sub-cultures 4
Local examples may well be seen here – these should be duly credited.
Possible answers:
gangs e.g. a group of people who use violence and intimidation to
commit crime;
mafia – a highly organised criminal sub-culture, often involved in violent
crime;
drug dealers – money is made through the illegal drugs trade;
youth sub-cultures such as the Skinheads who engaged in criminal
behaviour;
Cloward and Ohlin – illegitimate opportunity structure – successful
criminal role models exist in a community to train others to be
successful criminals;
sub-cultures on the internet that commit crime e.g. the dark net, terrorist
groups etc.;

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3(c) Explain how the police can cause deviancy amplification. 6
Deviancy Amplification – when responses to crime and/or deviance by the

police lead to greater deviance occurring in society.
Possible answers:
police stereotypes and labels of criminals means that some people are
more likely to be the subject of police scrutiny than others and this can
lead to increased deviance as a response (self-fulfilling prophecy);
police targeting – certain areas are targeted and focused on by the
police and thus some groups of people are more likely to be arrested
than others – this can lead to anger and frustration and thus increased
levels of deviance;
moral panics – such as the Mods and Rockers (Cohen) have shown
how the actions of the police can lead to increased levels of deviance
amongst the targeted groups of people;
stop and search rates – these are higher for some social groups than
others and this can lead to accusations of police bias/riots;
institutional racism and the canteen culture – the police are sometimes
accused of racist behaviour and this can then lead to angry retaliation
and thus deviancy amplification e.g. rioting;
Jock Young’s study ‘The Drugtakers’, found that police actions and
stereotypes led to more illegal drug taking behaviour and so increased
the problem;
Band 0 [0 marks]

may talk about
e.g. ‘police treat some criminals badly and so others get involved in criminal
behaviour’. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom
of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3
marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a

expected e.g. ‘police targeting of powerless groups in society through
increased surveillance and high stop and search rates is one reason. The
reactions of these groups are unlikely to be positive and may result in
feelings of marginalisation and frustration that lead to increased levels of
deviance. The London Riots could be one such example of this’. This would
band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in

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3(d) Explain why effective socialisation can reduce crime. 8
Candidates should show awareness of the various reasons why effective

socialisation can reduce crime. Answers are likely to focus on the family but
other factors can also be used.
Possible answers:
the media can inform people that deviant behaviour will be punished
and encourage shared feelings about what is right and wrong through
its representations and content;
religion helps to shape morality and, through rules about behaviour and
conduct, encourages us to act in a non-criminal way;
peer group – positive peer pressure can help to reduce crime as we
want to ‘fit in’;
the family teaches and reinforces norms and values in the primary
stage and is thought by many to be the bedrock of determining whether
an individual commits crime;
education encourages individuals to work hard and to expect to work
hard in a job in the future, criminality is highly disapproved of as an
‘easy option’;
the workplace can be a big deterrent to committing crime as people do
not want to lose their job and the status and/or financial rewards and
security it brings;
informal social control uses both negative and positive sanctions to
encourage individuals to internalise society’s norms and values and to
conform to these – this can reduce crime;
Band 0 [0 marks]

e.g. ‘someone might be afraid of what their family would say’. Sociological
terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1
mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates

understanding of why effective socialisation can reduce levels of offending.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range e.g. ‘religion
teaches that crime is wrong, is not moral and that it will be punished. This
encourages people not to commit crime’. At the bottom of the band,

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understanding of why effective socialisation can reduce levels of offending
and will be well developed and explained e.g. ‘all of the agencies of
socialisation work together to teach and reinforce right and wrong behaviour
in society. Crime is seen to be wrong and is therefore discouraged through a
series of positive and negative sanctions’. They can then expand on the
explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and
concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on
the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of

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3(e) To what extent is ethnicity the most important factor in determining 15

whether an individual commits crime?
Candidates should show awareness of the ways that ethnicity is an

important factor in determining whether a person commits crime. In
evaluation they may consider other social factors such as class, age and
gender that may also affect whether an individual commits crime.
Ethnicity may be considered as a generic social group or more specific

examples of ethnic minorities may be discussed by the candidate e.g. Afro-
Caribbean, Pakistani etc.
NB: Remember that points can be used for or against the question,
depending on the candidate’s explanation. For example, institutional racism
could be used to say that ethnicity is an important factor as ethnic minorities
perceive it to be unjust and unfair, or it could be used to argue that it’s not
ethnicity but police behaviour and perceptions that causes an individual to
commit crime.
Possible answers:
For:
ethnic minorities are also often located within the lower classes/have
higher unemployment rates and so may suffer from material deprivation
that can lead to crime;
most crime is committed by young people and ethnic minorities have a
higher proportion of young people than the majority group hence higher
crime rates;
marginalisation may cause ethnic minorities to commit crime as they do
not have the same legitimate opportunities for success as the ethnic
majority and feel socially excluded;
racism may lead to crime through disillusionment at the unfairness and
therefore the rejection of society’s norms and values e.g. law abiding
behaviour;
resistance to racism/status frustration may lead to crime as ethnic
minorities become angry and frustrated at the way they are treated and
so turn to rioting, protesting in response;
ethnic minorities maybe more likely to be involved in gang/street
behaviour and so see criminality as a ‘normal’ part of life – street
culture;
differential socialisation in terms of ethnicity may determine whether a
person commits crime;
ethnicity may lead to crime due to labelling from the police/media which
can then lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy and a master status being
formed (e.g. Stuart Hall study ‘mugging’);

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3(e) Against:
ethnic minorities may be subject to institutional racism by the police and
the courts and so may just be more likely to be searched, arrested and
convicted than the ethnic majority;
victims of crime may be biased and so may be more likely to report
crimes committed by ethnic minorities;
police resources typically focus on street crime/urban areas which
ethnic minorities are more likely to be involved in rather than hidden
corporate or white-collar crime;
gender may be more important than ethnicity in terms of crime e.g. the
culture of masculinity, social control of females etc.;
age maybe more important than ethnicity in determining crime rates e.g.
low offending rates of the older generation;
social class maybe more important than ethnicity in determining crime
rates due to relative deprivation, lack of educational success and
unemployment in the lower classes;
most ethnic minority members do not commit crime;
high hidden/dark figure of ethnic majority crime may mean that the
OCS’s are misleading;
Band 0 [0 marks]

undeveloped and one-sided e.g. ‘the OCS show that ethnic minorities
commit the most crime’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two
weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more
than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms e.g. ‘ethnicity is a
person’s race’.

may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘ethnic
minorities are often poor and so they may commit crime for money’. Lower
in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and
there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be

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example, ‘the OCS does not give the full picture when it comes to ethnic
minority crime and it may be that this only appears high because of police
targeting areas where ethnic minorities live. They are then more likely to be
stopped and searched and arrested resulting in a hidden figure of ethnic
majority crime’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be

balanced.

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4(a) What is meant by the term ‘folk devils’? 2
One mark for partial definition e.g. bad people in the media
Two marks for clear definition e.g. a group who are presented as
scapegoats in a moral panic
4(b) Describe two types of new media. 4
New Media – technologies that are usually digital and involve greater
interactivity for the audience plus on-demand access. Examples may be
seen and credited here.
Possible answers:
websites e.g. for a music magazine;
forums/chat rooms/message boards;
social networking sites e.g. facebook, Twitter etc.;
instant messaging and email via multiple platforms and technologies;
blogging/vlogging where content is created and commented on by the
audience;
video-sharing websites such as Youtube, user generated content;
hardware e.g. smartphones, smart TVs that allow for convergence;

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4(c) Explain how diversification occurs in today’s media industry. 6
Diversification – when media corporations extend their activities into

different areas.
Candidates are likely to use examples in their answers to support the points
made.
Note: pay close attention to what the candidate is saying here as some are
confusing diversification with diversity – such answers are unlikely to be
creditworthy.
Possible answers:
• media corporations extend their interests into other media areas e.g.
News Corporation, Disney, Amazon to increase their stronghold on a
market;
• media corporations extend their interests into other non-media areas
e.g. Virgin (music, money, travel etc.) and so become more powerful;
• diversification occurs to produce greater profits for a company therefore
is frequently seen today;
• diversification can enable the spread of a particular set of messages,
values and ideologies across a range of different platforms e.g.
propaganda, bias etc.;
• diversification can be seen as a means of reducing/spreading the risk in
the media industry by having assets in more areas;
Band 0 [0 marks]

may talk about ‘media companies spreading out into different areas’.
Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band
(1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks),

expected e.g. ‘diversification is where a media company such as Murdoch’s
News International expands into different areas. This results in the company
having greater control over media content and being a more powerful and
influential institution. Profits are also increased as the company becomes a
media corporation’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading
to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be
narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one

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4(d) Explain why the uses and gratifications model of media effects can be 8
criticised.
Candidates should show awareness of the various reasons why the UAG
model of media effects can be criticised. This could be generally or could
focus on specific aspects of the model e.g. personal identity. Other media
effects theories may be used to criticise it but this is not essential.
Possible answers:
the UAG model only looks at how people use the media, it does not
look at the messages that the media transmits;
the UAG model overlooks how the social context of audiences such as
ethnic groups, social class, gender and age influences how different
social groups use the media differently;
new media is far more interactive than traditional media and so offers
new ways for how the audience use the media – the UAG model
doesn’t account for this;
UAG model ignores the fact that the audience can only consume what
media products are on offer to choose from – therefore the media
industry still has power over the audience;
the UAG model suggests that there are only four main ways that the
audience use the media – there is likely to be far more than this;
candidates may refer to another media effects model e.g. hypodermic
needle/cultural effects in order to criticise the UAG model e.g.
hypodermic needle model would say that the audience are affected by
the media rather than the audience controlling the effects of the media –
media violence leading to copycat killings;
candidates may specifically criticise the four media uses that the theory
identifies (more than one point could be made from this) –
entertainment, personal relationships, information and personal identity
(other names for the four uses may be seen e.g. escapism rather than
entertainment, obviously =this is fine to credit);
Band 0 [0 marks]

e.g. ‘UAG model isn’t really about new media’. Sociological terms and

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understanding of why the UAG model of media effects can be criticised.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range e.g. ‘the UAG
model says that people use the media for different things but it doesn’t
consider the powerful messages that the media can transmit such as
advertising and propaganda’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are

understanding of why the UAG model of media effects can be criticised and
will be well developed and explained e.g. ‘because the UAG model
attempted to explain how the audience used traditional media, it doesn’t
consider the huge changes in the industry since the advent of new media.
The digital and global nature of the industry and products today means that
the audience are far more interactive than ever before and so are finding
new ways to use the media which had never been considered by UAG’.
throughout.

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4(e) To what extent do media professionals such as editors and journalists 15

control media content?
Media Professionals – editors, journalists, directors, producers etc.
Candidates should show awareness of the ways that various media

professionals can control the content of the media. Candidates may talk
about traditional and new media in their answer. In evaluation, candidates
could consider other controls over the content of the media apart from
media professionals e.g. the audience, the state, media owners etc.
Possible answers:
For:
media professionals make decisions about what the audience are
allowed to consume – they effectively set the agenda;
news values (as determined by media professionals) determine the
content of the news e.g. human interest stories, natural disasters,
murder etc.;
editing and cutting decisions drastically affect the content of the media
and these decisions are made by media professionals;
GUMG (Glasgow University Media Group) discovered that the news
took a conservative stance in its reporting and it was the media
professionals that created this bias;
media professionals are thought to share similar backgrounds (e.g.
white, male, middle aged and middle class) and so create a media
world view that is very conservative, homogenous and non-
confrontational;
media professionals are employed by other people (boss) therefore
they will ensure that media content reflects the wishes of their
employers, otherwise they may lose their job;
media professionals make the day-to-day decisions regarding time and
space available in the media and so determine its content;
gatekeepers decide what to select and what to discard and this
therefore determines media content;
Against:
in many countries it is the state that controls the content of the media
through public service broadcasting and propaganda;
it is not media professionals but large media corporations that control
the content of the media through their huge brands e.g. Disney;
it is advertisers, not media professionals, who control the content of the
media as the media industry needs to pander to the advertisers in order
to raise revenue;
government censorship controls the content of the media through
legislation such as the Official Secrets Act, laws of libel etc.;
content of films is controlled through the certification system e.g. BBFC,
gaming through PEGI etc.;

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4(e) new media means that it may be the audience who control the content
of the media through UGC (user generated content) and citizen
journalism;
the audience can be said to control content through their power as
consumers – if they don’t like the content they won’t buy or consume it;
social media, blogs/vlogs and forums means that it is the audience who
directly control media content not the professionals as they make it;
Band 0 [0 marks]

undeveloped and one-sided e.g. ‘they control content because they decide
what to put into the media’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or
two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more
than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms e.g. ‘media
professionals can be editors and journalists’.

may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘news values
means that some stories are thought to be more important than others –
media professionals will use these to decide the content of the media’.

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example, ‘despite media professionals clearly being involved in the day-to-
day decisions regarding media content, they are not the only people to
influence content. Media today is largely privately owned and therefore is
set up to make a profit. To do so media needs to appeal to a mass audience
in order to attract advertising revenue. It is economic factors such as this
that determine content’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be

balanced.

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SOCIOLOGY 2251/22

*7328996786*

11_2251_22_2019_1.1
PAGE 460
2
Section A: Family
1 As the world and societies change, so do the institutions of marriage and the family. Some
sociologists claim that gender inequality has been reduced in the family and that matriarchy is now
a more relevant term in modern industrial societies.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘matriarchy’? [2]
(c) Explain how primary socialisation can lead to social conformity. [6]
(d) Explain why marriage is still important today. [8]
(e) To what extent can living in a single parent family have a negative effect on family life? [15]
2 Sociologists view education in different ways. Some sociologists believe that education is important
for society to function well. Others claim education is a source of inequality. For example, the culture
of masculinity found in some schools is blamed by many sociologists for gender inequality.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘culture of masculinity’? [2]
(b) Describe the two different types of gratification experienced by students. [4]
(c) Explain how education helps society to function well. [6]
(d) Explain why vocationalism is a feature of the education system today. [8]
(e) To what extent does the education system help males to maintain their powerful position in
society? [15]
© UCLES 2019 11_2251_22_2019_1.1

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3
3 Does deprivation cause crime? This question is debated by sociologists and politicians who want
to prevent anomie in society. However, due to the dark figure of crime it is difficult to claim that only
one social factor causes crime.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘anomie’? [2]
(b) Describe two reasons for the dark figure of crime. [4]
(c) Explain how crime can be committed using the internet. [6]
(d) Explain why societies need prisons. [8]
(e) To what extent is crime caused by deprivation? [15]
Section D: Media
4 Social groups vary in their use of media. The extent to which media affects individuals is a matter
of debate for sociologists. There are different views such as the hypodermic-syringe model and
the audience selection approach. However the effects of new media on the audience are likely to
be different to the effects of traditional media.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘hypodermic-syringe model’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of audience selection in the media. [4]
(c) Explain how men and women use media differently. [6]
(d) Explain why new media gives the audience more control over media content. [8]
(e) To what extent is violence in society caused by violence in the media? [15]
© UCLES 2019 11_2251_22_2019_1.1

PAGE 462

SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Teachers.
components.

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2251/22 Cambridge O Level – Mark Scheme October/November
PUBLISHED 2019
 the specific content of the mark scheme or the generic level descriptors for the question
 the specific skills defined in the mark scheme or in the generic level descriptors for the question
 the standard of response required by a candidate as exemplified by the standardisation scripts.
 marks are awarded for correct/valid answers, as defined in the mark scheme. However, credit
 marks are awarded when candidates clearly demonstrate what they know and can do
 marks are not deducted for errors
 marks are not deducted for omissions
 answers should only be judged on the quality of spelling, punctuation and grammar when these
responses seen).

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1(a) What is meant by the term ‘matriarchy’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. female is in charge
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. mother is the head of the household with
authority over the men and children
1(b) Describe two alternatives to the family. 4
Possible answers:
 one-person household – divorced or widowed adults;

 singletons – adults live alone out of choice;
 commune – a group of people who choose to live together and share
at least some of their property;
 living with friends – this can be through renting or, increasingly in
modern industrial societies, buying together;
 shared households – rooms of multiple occupancy all within one
house, often sharing kitchen and bathroom facilities;
 traditional societies – i.e. the Nayar tribe where large groups of
women and children live together under one roof;
 orphanages – groups of children are looked after and raised by
people other than their parents;
 other reasonable response.

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1(c) Explain how primary socialisation can lead to social conformity. 6
Possible answers:
 primary socialisation is carried out by family members who have a close

relationship to the child and so have a lot of influence over him/her, so
leading to conformity;
 positive sanctions administered through primary socialisation ensure
social conformity, e.g. reward charts, treats, praise;
 negative sanctions given through primary socialisation ensure social
conformity, e.g. telling the child off, punishment;
 primary socialisation occurs in the formative years (0–5) when children
are like ‘sponges’ and soak up everything they are taught so ensuring
social conformity;
 processes such as canalisation and manipulation (Oakley) lead to
children conforming to the expected gender roles;
 children see older adults as role models and so imitate what they see,
resulting in conformity;
 functionalists believe this primary stage is all about the transmission of
core norms and values, resulting in social conformity;
 other reasonable response
Band 0 [0 marks]

may talk about ‘how children learn everything from their family in these early
years’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of

expected, e.g. ‘sociologists such as Oakley have recognised how influential
the primary stage is in terms of teaching children society’s core norms and
values. Oakley talked about the processes of manipulation and canalisation
leading to children conforming to the expected gender roles’. This would be

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1(d) Explain why marriage is still important today. 8
Possible answers:
 in some cultures, e.g. South Asian, marriage is still highly valued;

 frequently seen media image of the ‘cereal packet’ family promotes the
institution of marriage;
 second and subsequent marriages are increasing in numbers
(remarriage) and so marriage must be thought to be important;
 marriage can provide financial security and emotional support for its
members;
 arranged marriages are the norm in many societies and cultures –
marriage is the expectation so is still important;
 people do still get married – many now choose to do so later in life;
 more weddings are now civil not religious ceremonies but marriage
itself still takes place;
 even though marriage is no longer a social norm or expectation in many
countries and cultures, most people do still choose to marry at some
point in their lives;
 minority groups have fought to achieve equality in terms of marriage
therefore it must still be perceived to be important, e.g. same sex
marriage legislation;
 many people still want to be married before having children, e.g.
religious societies/cultures – reproduction;
 Disney/Hollywood romanticism of marriage and a happy ending means
that marriage is still represented to be important;
 many governments offer tax breaks and incentives to marry therefore it
is still seen to be important in society;
 functionalist views that marriage is essential for the successful raising of
a family
Band 0 [0 marks]

tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped,
e.g. ‘marriage shows how much you love someone’, stated without
bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band

understanding of why marriage is still important despite secularisation.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘there may be
fewer religious weddings today but civil ceremonies are growing in
popularity, demonstrating that marriage itself is still important’. At the bottom
of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts

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understanding of why marriage is still important despite secularisation and
will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘despite there being little pressure
from the state and most families to get married, a large number of people
still value marriage as an institution and want to get married before they
have children. It is a lifestyle choice rather than a social expectation that
actually increases the importance of marriage for individuals’. They can then

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1(e) To what extent can living in a single parent family have a negative 15
effect on family life?
Possible answers:
For:
 New Right thinkers believe that the lack of a father figure in single
parent families leads to inadequate socialisation/lack of discipline for
children, particularly boys;
 functionalists believe that a family needs two adults to be most
effective, one as breadwinner and one in the nurturing role, therefore
single parent families are seen to be ‘broken’ and likely to create
problems for both children and society;
 single parent families are associated by New Right thinkers such as
Charles Murray with a child’s underachievement at school, criminal and
anti-social behaviour – negative effects on family life;
 the media and some political thinkers may demonise single parents, as
welfare scroungers who are only interested in benefits not raising a
child thus negatively effecting family life;
 single parent families are more likely to suffer from poverty and can
thus be seen to be a burden on the state;
 many functionalist writers believe that single parent families have
become an underclass in society who reproduce without thought for the
consequences, without a moral framework and then inadequately
socialise their children;
 single parent families are often the result of divorce and thus all the
negatives that this brings, e.g. short term distress for children, financial
insecurity;
 children may be split between two homes, due to a relationship
breakdown, and thus lack a clear sense of security and belonging;
Against:
 are functionalists correct to say that two parents are essential? Lots of
single parents have family and friendship networks that enable them to
support their children both financially and emotionally;
 being in a single parent family is likely to be far better for the
child/children than living in an unhappy home or an empty-shell
relationship characterised by arguments and sadness;
 many children brought up by single parents experience no issues or
problems whatsoever – it is not negative;
 children brought up by two parents do not always experience no
problems and can also be dysfunctional as adults despite having two
parents – here a single parent family is preferable;
 single parent families may be the result of escaping from domestic
violence, threatening behaviour or abuse. Being in a single parent
family situation is preferable to this and not negative;
 increasing support from the state via welfare benefits, child policies,
education and key professionals means that bringing up children as a
single parent need not be problematic or negative and is increasingly
seen as ‘normal’;

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1(e)  reasons/effects may be nothing to do with family type and structure but
to do with social factors such as class and poverty instead;
 feminists believe that women have the right to choose how they wish to
raise children and if they decide to do so alone they should be praised
and supported;
 feminists see single parent families as a means for women and children
to escape from patriarchy and/or the dark side of family life and
therefore view them as a good thing;
 many children in single parent families have regular contact with both
parents and are not affected by their family structure;
 being a single parent family is often a temporary stage in life as many
lone parents go on to re-marry or begin another relationship;
 other types of families may affect family life negatively more than a
single parent family, e.g. reconstituted, single-sex etc.;
Band 0 [0 marks]

undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘in a single parent family there is no dad to
tell the children off’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak
points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘a single parent family
is one parent and their dependent child living together’.

may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely, e.g. ‘single parent
families may suffer from poverty as there is only one parent bringing in a
wage. This will mean children do not have all the things that they would
like/need’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the
points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more
points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points.

example, ‘despite some single parent families seemingly being dysfunctional

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1(e) for their members, often due to the lack of a male role model, this is not true
of them all and for lots of children brought up by just one parent they have
no problems at all.’ OR ‘Single parent families may be, according to
feminists, the result of choices made by women to raise children without a
male presence. These women are often middle class professionals and
suffer no financial hardships or emotional neglect of the children’. There will
be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the
band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At
the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the
question.

an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a
against the debate in the question, citing some of the examples given.

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2(a) What is meant by the term ‘culture of masculinity’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. learning to be masculine
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. norms and values that involve masculine
characteristics such as sporting prowess at football rather than reading.
2(b) Describe the two types of gratification experienced by students. 4
Possible answers:
 immediate gratification – having short-term aims and wanting rewards

straight away, often associated with the working class;
 deferred gratification – having long-term aims and being willing to
postpone rewards, often associated with the middle class;
2(c) Explain how education helps society to function well. 6
Possible answers:
 functionalists believe education performs several vital functions which

lead to society functioning well;
 education acts as an agency of socialisation, teaching core norms and
values;
 education acts as an agency of social control, imposing sanctions on
children in order to create social order;
 from a feminist point of view, education maintains patriarchy and thus,
for men, society functions well;
 from a Marxist point of view, education helps society to function well
through the promotion of ruling class ideologies in the hidden
curriculum;
 education ensures that people with the skills and abilities needed to fuel
the economy and be prepared for the workplace are created;
 education teaches individuals to get on with people from a diverse
range of backgrounds, promoting tolerance and acceptance in society;
 allocation of future roles (sifting and sorting) – assessing student’s
performance by how well they do in tests allows them to follow different
career paths in society;
Band 0 [0 marks]

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may talk about ‘education teaching knowledge and skills’. Responses may
be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),
offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards

expected, e.g. ‘functionalists believe education has several functions that all
serve to ensure the smooth running of society. An example of this is the
socialisation function – education teaches and transmits acceptance of core
norms and values thus promoting social order’. This would be followed by
points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers
2(d) Explain why vocationalism is a feature of the education system today. 8
Possible answers:
 for functionalists education needs to be selective and to prepare

individuals for particular roles and jobs – vocationalism helps with this;
 some jobs are better prepared for through vocational rather than
academic education, e.g. manual labour, a trade;
 Marxists believe vocational education is seen as having less status and
worth and is a way of channelling working class students into typical
working class jobs;
 employers have complained about students not being adequately
prepared for the workplace through a traditional academic education –
vocationalism has therefore been introduced in order to fill this gap;
 for feminists vocational education allows for the continuation of a
patriarchal system that sees males and females working in very
different roles, e.g. brick laying for boys and childcare for girls;
 not everyone can be successful through a solely academic educational
route therefore vocational education provides a different pathway for
students to learn new skills and knowledge;
 vocational education provides students with valuable work experience,
helping to prepare them for the world of work;
 vocational education is more flexible than traditional education allowing
part academic and part work based timetables to be followed, e.g.
apprenticeships;
 vocational education can provide cheap labour for employers with low
pay for the young person and no guarantee of a job at the end;
Band 0 [0 marks]

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e.g. ‘not everyone can be good at academic subjects’, stated without
3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.

understanding of why vocationalism is a feature of the education system
today. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘work
based education allows students to be better prepared for the demands of
the workplace, so giving employers more of what they need’. At the bottom
of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts

understanding of ‘why’ vocationalism is a feature of the education system
today and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘Marxists believe that
vocational education keeps the lower classes in their place and ensures a
continuation of the capitalist system and ideology’. They can then expand on

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2(e) To what extent does the education system help males to maintain their 15
powerful position in society?
Possible answers:
For:
 the hidden curriculum reinforces traditional gender roles and

stereotypes that may translate to society;
 the hierarchy of schools is typically male dominated with males
occupying the highest status positions and females dominating the
more caring and low status jobs – role modelling/vertical segregation;
 subject choice – significantly more males than females take maths,
technology, engineering and physics qualifications (STEM subjects) –
often a route into the best paid jobs in society;
 representations in textbooks may still be quite stereotypical and
subconsciously influence girls into lowering their aspirations and
expectations for life;
 on a global scale, there are far more girls that do not attend schools
than boys, particularly in developing countries, – this is likely to
negatively impact upon life chances;
 teacher expectations/labelling of girls and boys can be very different,
e.g. with girls being seen as future housewives and males as the
breadwinner, for example;
 feminists believe the education system mirrors the patriarchal structures
and norms of wider society, therefore helping males to maintain their
powerful positions;
 male pupils are thought to dominate classroom space and teacher
attention in schools, this helps them to learn their higher status and
importance than females which can then also translate to wider society;

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2(e) Against:
 girls often achieve higher than boys in education today meaning they
are now challenging for the most powerful positions in society;
 equal opportunities in education means that social mobility is a
possibility for many young women who do well in education;
 positive discrimination has been used in some schools to encourage
girls to aim higher, through STEM (science, technology and
engineering) initiatives for example;
 positive female role models are now available for girls, both in
education and in society;
 the UN has made the education of girls a worldwide priority and a basic
human right, so encouraging possibilities for female success;
 careers advisors and teachers now encourage girls to be ambitious and
to push themselves for the top jobs in society;
 girls are more likely than boys to be placed in the higher sets and
streams and so to have the best chances of success in society;
 it is not the education system but other agents of social control or
socialisation that cause gender inequalities in society;
 many sociologists would now question whether males do have such
powerful positions in society, e.g. female representation and successes
in politics, business, the entertainment industry, etc.;
 functionalism – education is meritocratic therefore both genders can be
successful and powerful;
Band 0 [0 marks]

and one-sided, e.g. ‘males choose different subjects to females’. Lower in
the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band
definition of key terms.

There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts.
simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely, e.g. ‘males choose different
subjects to females in school and university and this leads them into
different occupations in the future. The male ones are often high status and
well paid’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the
points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more
points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points.

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2(e) A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks.

understanding of the extent of the question. Sociological terms and
part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will
be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that, e.g. ‘education
today is based on equal opportunities for males and females and
encourages girls to be successful and to aspire to careers and professions.
They typically do better in exams than boys and so this helps them to be
successful and achieve social mobility’. There will be a
two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band,
question.

the extent to which the education system helps males to maintain their
powerful position in society. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as
well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts.
Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss
a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the
bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion.
Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of
the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.
education helping males to maintain their powerful position in society, citing
some of the examples given.

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3(a) What is meant by the term ‘anomie’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. society has broken down ... is in chaos
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. when the social bonds and shared
values between society and individuals are broken ... normlessness
3(b) Describe two reasons for the dark figure of crime. 4
Possible answers:
 not all crimes are known about, e.g. victimless crimes;

 not all crimes are reported to the police, e.g. out of embarrassment/a
feeling that nothing will be done/fear of reprisals, etc.;
 sexual crimes are grossly under-reported due to the sensitive and
somewhat taboo nature of these crimes;
 not all crimes reported are recorded by the police – they may be
perceived as being too petty or unlikely to be solved;
 white-collar/corporate crimes are often dealt with by the
company/business involved and so never make it into the crime
statistics;
 governments may massage the crime statistics so that they appear in a
good light;

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3(c) Explain how crime can be committed using the internet. 6
Possible answers:
 cybercrimes – these are becoming more commonplace and include any

crime involving the use of new digital technologies such as the internet;
 examples of internet crime may be discussed such as fraud, identity
theft, catfishing, internet scams, etc.;
 cyberterrorism is a growing phenomenon whereby the internet is used
for deliberate, widespread attacks on computers, e.g. hacking a
Government website;
 trade in illegal drugs and goods is thought to be aided by the internet
which makes it easier for buyers and sellers to contact each other;
 harassment through cyberstalking and cyberbullying is increasing as
the internet provides anonymity to the criminal;
 policing internet crimes is difficult because they cross national
boundaries and/or are committed on the dark net;
 criminals often have more specialist internet knowledge than the police
or surveillance operations and thus can commit complex crimes that the
authorities have little idea how to prevent;
 digital piracy and illegal streaming of media entertainment occurs
regularly and is almost impossible to control;
 the dark web/dark net can be used to commit crime due to the lack of
control and formal surveillance;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question
and may talk about examples of crimes that can be committed on the
internet in a list-like manner, e.g. fraud, cybercrimes, etc. Responses may
be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark),
offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards

expected, e.g. ‘globalisation means that many internet crimes cross national
boundaries and so are hard to police. Different forces operate different
policies with different priorities. Also the criminals are often more adept than
the authorities at these cybercrimes as they involve the use of complex and
specialist technologies. Cyberterrorism is one such crime’. This would be

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3(d) Explain why societies need prisons. 8
Possible answers:
 prisons act as a formal agent of social control for society, maintaining

social order;
 incapacitation – prisons prevent offenders from committing more
crimes;
 deterrence – prisons deter both offenders and other members of society
from committing crimes by making them aware of the consequences of
offending;
 rehabilitation – prisons offer courses, support and training facilities that
can prevent the offender from committing further offences by changing
their attitudes and behaviour;
 prison offers a form of punishment and/or revenge by taking away a
person’s freedom and making them pay for the crimes they have
committed;
 for functionalists prisons act as a sign to the population of what will
happen if they step out of line and fail to conform to society’s norms and
values – warning functions;
 prisons lock dangerous criminals away and so protects society and
individuals – keeps them safe;
 a prison sentence allows victims to feel that justice has been served;
Band 0 [0 marks]

e.g. ‘they lock the bad people away’, stated without explanation.
Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of

understanding of why societies need prisons. Responses may be
underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘prisons send out a warning
signal to others in society about what will happen if they commit a crime’. At
the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms
and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning
to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However,

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3(d) Band [3–8 marks]

understanding of why societies need prisons and will be well developed and
explained, e.g. ‘prisons aim to rehabilitate prisoners in order to make them
better members of society. They do this through support programmes and
training courses and so are essential for society’. They can then expand on
3(e) To what extent is crime caused by deprivation? 15
Possible answers:
For:
 Marxism – inequalities caused by capitalism means that some people

find themselves living in poverty, this may lead to crime;
 events such as the London Riots 2011 saw those young people feeling
excluded and marginalised from society committing crime (Lea and
Young);
 material deprivation – lacking desirable resources and money may lead
some individuals to crime;
 relative deprivation – when individuals or social groups see themselves
as not having what others have crime may result;
 Merton’s strain theory – the inability to achieve what others are
achieving legitimately may lead some people into crime;
 cultural deprivation – those deprived of a good upbringing (inadequate
socialisation) may also turn to crime;
 those deprived of the opportunities to gain educational qualifications
and so to access the job ladder may turn to crime as a response;
 Cohen – status frustration – those deprived of status in society may turn
to crime as an alternative means of gaining their status;
 according to the OCS (official crime statistics) most crimes are
committed by those from the lower strata of society, i.e. the deprived;

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3(e) Against:
 deprivation cannot explain the crimes of the powerful, e.g. white-collar,

corporate, green, etc.;
 functionalists believe crime can be a good thing for society and that it is
not linked to deprivation, e.g. a warning function;
 postmodernists believe crime is committed as a release from boredom,
a way to have fun by participating in ‘edgework’;
 feminists believe that crime is committed to enable men to further
dominate women in a patriarchal society;
 Matza believes that crime is a normal part of growing up for young
people from all social classes and backgrounds – it is not linked to
deprivation;
 expressive crimes are often committed for no financial gain and
therefore cannot be linked to deprivation;
 labelling theorists believe that crime is caused by giving someone a
master status of ‘criminal’ through the creation of a self-fulfilling
prophecy;
 police targeting of certain social groups may lead to deviancy
amplification through, for example, perceived institutional racism;
 crime may be caused by peer pressure rather than deprivation,
particularly for young people;
 sub-cultural explanations for crime, e.g. Miller’s focal concerns, the
illegitimate opportunity structure may be more appropriate than
deprivation;
 status frustration may be a more convincing explanation for crime than
deprivation;
Band 0 [0 marks]

and one-sided, e.g. ‘people steal if they haven’t got enough money’. Lower
in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band
definition of key terms, e.g. ‘deprivation means being poor’.

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simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely, e.g. ‘when someone
realises they do not have the same as others they may turn to crime as a
way of getting what they want’. Lower in the band, the response will be

be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that ‘despite poverty
and deprivation clearly being a relevant factor in explaining crime, other
factors need to also be considered. For example, poor socialisation may be
a reason, with individuals either being brought up not knowing right from
wrong or with criminal role models to teach them about a life of crime’.

the extent to which crime is caused by deprivation. There will be a strong
grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological
terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the
question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided
and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a
an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a
against the idea of whether crime is caused by deprivation, citing some of
the examples given.

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4(a) What is meant by the term ‘hypodermic-syringe model’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. the audience copy what they see in the
media
Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the media have direct and immediate
effects on audiences
4(b) Describe two examples of audience selection in the media. 4
Possible answers:
 audiences actively (not passively) read the media, not everyone will
understand it in the same way – may depend on age, gender, etc.;
 the audience have much power in the media as they are able to choose
and select what they consume and, with new media, when and how
they consume;
 producers of media texts encode a meaning but audiences may decode
the text differently, they are not affected/not passive;
 audience members do not always give the media their full attention
 selective attention – they pick and choose what they consume;
 the audience remember some things that they have heard or read
better than others, so some media messages have a stronger impact
than others – selective retention;
 Hall/Morley’s different ways of reading the media: dominant reading –
agree with and accept the media’s preferred message;
 Hall/Morley’s different ways of reading the media: negotiated reading –
share some of the meanings in the media text but modify it in a way to
reflect their own interests and position;
 Hall/Morley’s different ways of reading the media: oppositional reading
– do not share the media text’s meaning, they interpret the text in a
different way;

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4(c) Explain how men and women use media differently. 6
Possible answers:
 males use computers and video games more than females and play
different games (often more active/violent);
 on TV men tend to prefer factual shows such as documentaries
whereas women prefer soap operas and costume drama;
 men typically have control of the remote control in the family so have
more choice over what to consume – male dominance;
 men prefer to consume media uninterrupted in silence whereas women
see TV viewing as a social activity, discussion points;
 men carefully plan their TV viewing, women tend not to;
 most women leave the recording of programmes or the personal
planner to men – they have the control;
 men consume more violent and adult content than women;
 women use social media more often than men;
 men read more news and politics than women (information – uses and
gratifications model);
 men consume more sports in the media than women;
 uses and gratifications theory – men use media more for information,
women for entertainment;
Band 0 [0 marks]

may talk about examples of the types of programmes on TV men and
women prefer. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the

expected, e.g. ‘according to research by Morley, men are far more passive
in their TV viewing, whereas women see it as a form of social activity
whereby they can define and discuss personal relationships and issues of
identity. Males often use the media for entertainment, whereas women often
use it for connections and communication hence their increased use of
social networks’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to
this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow
or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in

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4(d) Explain why new media gives the audience more control over media 8
content.
Possible answers:
 new media allows for the audience to alter and influence media content
through its interactive features, e.g. comments, forums;
 new media is available on multiple platforms and on-demand meaning
that the audience can control how they consume the content, when,
how and where;
 new media encourages greater diversification in the media content
available to the audience, meaning that more products for a niche or
specialist audience are available;
 new media allows the audience to challenge and change stereotypical
representations and content, e.g. through hashtag campaigns such as
#metoo;
 new media allows the audience to create the media, e.g. through citizen
journalism in the news, vlogs, YouTube channels;
 new media is global and so allows the audience to access media
content from across the world, increasing their control;
 new media comprises of user generated content whereby the audience
are directly making media content themselves – prosumers;
Band 0 [0 marks]

e.g. ‘new media can be made by the audience’. Sociological terms and

understanding of why new media gives the audience greater control over
media content. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range,
e.g. ‘the audience gets new media from the internet so it can be from all
over the world giving them lots of choice’. At the bottom of the band,

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understanding of why new media gives the audience greater control over
media content and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘new media is
‘on-demand’ and so the audience can decide when, what and how they
watch thus giving them far greater control over content’. They can then
4(e) To what extent is violence in society caused by violence in the media? 15
Possible answers:
For:
 hypodermic-syringe model – the media has a direct effect upon the

audience, e.g. it makes the audience more violent;
 imitation – children learn from copying others which means they may
copy the violence they see in the media;
 desensitisation – the audience become so used to images of violence
that people are no longer shocked by it;
 media violence is often glamorised meaning that the harsh realities for
the victims are not portrayed;
 even ‘good’ characters in the media use violence and so this shows it to
be normal and acceptable;
 computer games and films are often cited as examples of media forms
that cause violence in society, e.g. Grand Theft Auto;
 new media means that violence is prolific on a global scale and easily
accessible to all, potentially making it even more influential than before;
 the ‘drip-drip effect’– constant repetition of images and scenes of
violence in the media normalise it thus increasing levels of violence in
society;
 moral panics, folk devils and deviancy amplification – representations of
violence through these processes have been shown by sociologists
such as Cohen and Young to increase levels of violence in society;
 children may be particularly susceptible to being affected by violence in
the media and may then commit violent acts themselves in society, e.g.
Jamie Bulger case in the UK, school shootings in USA;

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4(e) Against:
 some media effects theories, e.g. the uses and gratifications

model/audience selection models, suggest that the media has very little
influence over the active audience;
 fictitious violence is recognised as such by the audience – they are not
stupid and realise that this is not real;
 most people who watch violence in the media do not commit it
themselves;
 catharsis – the release of strong emotions through safe channelling
such as playing video games reduces the need for real life violence;
 sensitisation – the shock effect of seeing violence in the media causes
people to be even more shocked by real life violence and so not partake
in it;
 access to violent material is regulated and restricted, protecting those
vulnerable to its effects from it, e.g. film certification;
 how can the effects of violent media be separated from all other
possible influences such as the family and peer group?;
 violence in society may be caused by factors other than the media, e.g.
peer pressure and proving your masculinity;
 violence in society may have nothing to do with violence in the media
and instead be about structural factors in society such as deprivation
and/or social exclusion;
 other reasonable response
Band 0 [0 marks]

and one-sided, e.g. ‘children copy what they see in the media’. Lower in the
band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4
definition of key terms.

simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely, e.g. ‘violence in the media
is often glamorised so it’s not clear what the negative effects of it really are
on the victims meaning people are more likely to do it in society’. Lower in

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be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that ‘different
sociological theories believe the media influences the audience differently.
For example, the uses and gratifications theory does not believe that
violence on TV will affect the audience at all in society’. There will be a two-
question.

the extent to which violence in society is caused by violence in the media.
extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates
should show consideration of points for and against the idea of whether
violence in society is caused by violence in the media, citing some of the
examples given.

PAGE 489
SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
You must answer on the enclosed answer booklet.
You will need: Answer booklet (enclosed)

*0867894026*
INSTRUCTIONS
• Answer two questions.
• Follow the instructions on the front cover of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper,
ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
INFORMATION
• The total mark for this paper is 70.
• The number of marks for each question or part question is shown in brackets [ ].
This document has 4 pages. Blank pages are indicated.
06_2251_22_2020_1.4
PAGE 490
2
Section A: Family
1 Whether gender equality in the family exists is a matter of debate. Many factors affect this, for
example social characteristics such as ethnicity and social class. Also important are the type and
size of the family as well as the roles family members play.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘gender equality’? [2]
(b) Describe two trends in divorce in modern industrial societies. [4]
(c) Explain how ethnicity can affect family life. [6]
(d) Explain why the average family size has decreased in modern industrial societies. [8]
(e) To what extent are family roles changing in modern industrial societies? [15]
2 Many sociologists believe that how well an individual does in education is not down to their efforts
or IQ but more to do with social characteristics such as ethnicity, gender and social class. This can
be explained by looking at both school and home factors. Other sociologists believe that academic
and vocational education are meritocratic and open to everyone.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘home factors’? [2]
(b) Describe two examples of vocational education. [4]
(c) Explain how private schools may reproduce social inequalities.

[6]
(d) Explain why some ethnic groups do less well than others in education. [8]
(e) To what extent is the feminist view of education accurate? [15]
© UCLES 2020 06_2251_22_2020_1.4

PAGE 491
3
3 There are official and non-official statistics that measure the crime rate in a society. However, not
all crimes are accurately represented in the statistics suggesting that some groups are less likely
than others to be prosecuted for their crimes. Some believe there is a need for more formal social
control and harsher punishments to deal with the high levels of offending.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘formal social control’? [2]
(b) Describe two punishments for crime. [4]
(c) Explain how poverty can be linked to crime. [6]
(d) Explain why white-collar crime is under-reported and under-recorded in the official crime
statistics. [8]
(e) To what extent are self-report studies the most accurate measurement of crime? [15]
Section D: Media
4 The media is often accused of exaggerated and sensationalist content, particularly in the news.
This can be due to the pressures of advertising, issues of agenda setting and news values. This
has led to the argument that the media and the news are biased. However, bias in the media may
be reducing due to increased levels of audience interactivity and social media.
(a) What is meant by the term ‘bias’? [2]
(b) Describe two ways media content can be censored. [4]
(c) Explain how people interact using social media. [6]
(d) Explain why the media is an important agency of social control. [8]
(e) To what extent does the news reflect reality? [15]
© UCLES 2020 06_2251_22_2020_1.4

PAGE 492
Cambridge O Level
SOCIOLOGY 2251/22
MARK SCHEME
Maximum Mark: 70
Published
Students did not sit exam papers in the June 2020 series due to the Covid-19 global pandemic.
This mark scheme is published to support teachers and students and should be read together with the
question paper. It shows the requirements of the exam. The answer column of the mark scheme shows the
proposed basis on which Examiners would award marks for this exam. Where appropriate, this column also
provides the most likely acceptable alternative responses expected from students. Examiners usually review
the mark scheme after they have seen student responses and update the mark scheme if appropriate. In the
June series, Examiners were unable to consider the acceptability of alternative responses, as there were no
student responses to consider.
Mark schemes should usually be read together with the Principal Examiner Report for Teachers. However,
because students did not sit exam papers, there is no Principal Examiner Report for Teachers for the June
2020 series.
Cambridge International is publishing the mark schemes for the June 2020 series for most Cambridge
IGCSE™ and Cambridge International A & AS Level components, and some Cambridge O Level
components.

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• the specific content of the mark scheme or the generic level descriptors for the question
• the specific skills defined in the mark scheme or in the generic level descriptors for the question
• the standard of response required by a candidate as exemplified by the standardisation scripts.
• marks are awarded for correct/valid answers, as defined in the mark scheme. However, credit
• marks are awarded when candidates clearly demonstrate what they know and can do
• marks are not deducted for errors
• marks are not deducted for omissions
• answers should only be judged on the quality of spelling, punctuation and grammar when these
responses seen).

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1(a) What is meant by the term ‘gender equality’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. women’s rights.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. when men and women have equal roles,
status and rights.
1(b) Describe two trends in divorce in modern industrial societies. 4
Candidates will describe two trends in divorce in MISs. A trend is any

pattern that can be seen when it comes to divorce. Statistics may be used
but are not essential.
Possible answers:
• age – those who marry young are more likely to divorce;
• class – middle class people are less likely to divorce than working class
people;
• society – the divorce rate is high in MIS’s as compared to other types of
society;
• patterns – currently the divorce rate has flattened off suggesting it is no
longer rising;
• gender – women are more likely to file for divorce than men;
• religion – those with strong religious beliefs are less likely to divorce
than those who are non-religious;
• era -in the UK the divorce rate is three times higher today than in 1969;
• country – the UK has the highest divorce rate in Europe – in 2010
120ௗ000 divorces took place;
• gender – women in the UK are two and a half times more likely to be
granted a divorce compared to men;

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1(c) Explain how ethnicity can affect family life. 6
Candidates can use ethnicity in many different ways – as long as this is

linked to family life it is fine to credit. They may well draw on local, cultural
examples. Typical areas of discussion may be family roles, family types,
family size etc.
Possible answers:
• ethnic minority families typically adapt to the country they are living in
whilst still holding onto cultural practices from their country of origin
(dual identity);
• Afro-Caribbean families may have high rates of single parents and are
typically matrifocal;
• South Asian families are often extended in form, have low divorce rates
and few instances of single parenthood;
• arranged marriages are practised by some ethnic groups as the norm e.g.
some South Asian families;
• for some ethnic groups the law determines aspects of family life e.g.
Chinese families may be influenced by China’s ‘one child’ policy;
• South Asian families are often patriarchal in nature with the males
(father and brothers) often having more power and influence than the
females;
• South Asian families often abide by traditional segregated conjugal roles –
male breadwinner and female housewife/mother;
• cultural defence – some families may socialise children into their
cultural norms and values rather than the host nations;
• dual heritage/mixed race families – hybridity may be seen here when it
comes to roles and experiences in the family;
• for some ethnic groups marital practices such as polygamy are normal;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how ethnicity can
affect family life and may talk about e.g. ‘different ethnic groups having
different sized families’. Responses may be short and un/under developed.
At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the
band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there
may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological
ideas without using sociological language.

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understanding of how ethnicity can affect family life. Sociological terms and
concepts should be expected e.g. ‘Primary socialisation often means that
ethnic groups follow the traditions of the previous generations. In some
South Asian families, for example, the extended family form is still typical
and this is usually patriarchal in structure, with the male as breadwinner’. This
would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of
the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher
in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed

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1(d) Explain why the average family size has decreased in modern 8
industrial societies.
Candidates should show an understanding of the various reasons to explain

why average family size has decreased in MIS’s.
Possible answers:
• secularisation has meant that there has been a growth in divorce and
single parenthood –this makes family size smaller;
• singlehood is now socially acceptable and increasingly popular, this
decreases family size;
• women are typically today having less children due to factors such as
contraception and their focus on careers – this leads to smaller families;
• advancements in medicine and health-care means that children rarely
die in infancy today in MIS’s therefore families have less need to have
lots of children;
• the family is less likely to look after elderly relatives, relying on other
institutions to do so instead, meaning larger families are no longer so
functionally necessary;
• there has been a big decline in the extended family, it often being replaced
by nuclear families
– these are much smaller;
• geographical and social mobility has meant that the family has become
dispersed – it is easier to function effectively like this as a smaller unit;
• feminism has encouraged women to take control of their own lives and
this has affected family size as more women work, choose to remain
childless or to remain single;
• dual-worker families are increasingly the norm in MIS’s and these do not
fit with the notion of large families – resulting in typically smaller family
sizes;
• child-centredness has led to expensive child-rearing where children are
consumers, no longer bringing money into the family, so parents choose
to have less children;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why average family
size has decreased in MIS’s. A tendency to description is likely. Responses
may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘women go out to work rather than have
babies’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are
point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more than one
weak point.

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understanding of why average family size has decreased in MIS’s.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range.
e.g. ‘Families are increasingly smaller in MIS’s because extended families no
longer fit the needs of a geographically dispersed society. They have
therefore been replaced by nuclear families.’ etc . At the bottom of the band,

understanding of why average family size has decreased in MIS’s and will be
well developed and explained. e.g. ‘Families today are typically smaller
because of the expectation by women for equality in all areas of social life.
Feminists have promoted careers, singlehood, little reliance on men and
lesbianism and all of these factors have resulted in smaller average family
sizes. With families now typically being dual-career there is less time
available for childcare, large families do not fit this type of family.’ They can
then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary.
Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will
be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons

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1(e) To what extent are family roles changing in modern industrial 15

societies?
Candidates should show an awareness of the various ways that family roles
are changing in MIS’s. They are likely to look at husbands’ and wives’ roles in
their response but the role of children may also be considered. It is likely that
candidates will engage with the feminist debate here.
Possible answers:
FOR
• loss of family functions means that roles once taken by the family e.g.
taking care of the children, are now performed by the state;
• sandwich/pivot generation – roles of parents now often involve
supporting children into adulthood – the boomerang family;
• changing legislation affects family roles e.g. equality acts, children’s acts,
maternity/paternity leave etc;
• increased levels of divorce in society means that both men and women
are having to change their roles to fit the new family structure they find
themselves in – single parent, singlehood, blended families etc;
• secularisation has meant there is less pressure for people to get married
and to have children in wedlock – this leads to greater family diversity
and therefore different family roles;
• in child-centred MIS’s, the role of the child has changed to be the focus
of many families, highly protected and with a lot of power over decisions
and day-to-day family life;
• traditional conjugal roles are typically being replaced by joint conjugal
roles, largely due to feminism and the greater power and status women
have in both society and the family;
• the maternal role has changed to the rise in working women and
childless women;
• the paternal role has changed to reflect the decline in the hegemonic
male and the rise in new men and househusbands;
• grand-parents may be playing an increasingly important role in organising
family life –through childcare, financial and emotional support;

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1(e) AGAINST
• grand-parents always played a large role in family life, through extended
family structures so this hasn’t changed;
• children are still lower in status and power than adult family members
and subject to adult authority, this hasn’t changed;
• whilst there is a lot of evidence to show that families today are more
symmetrical it is still typically the woman who performs the majority of
the household tasks;
• the maternal role has changed but stereotypes have not and for most
women, having children often leads to a career break or to part-time
work meaning that they become the primary care giver in the family;
• the paternal role may not have changed much at all in the family – it is still
typically the father who is in charge of household finances and important
decisions (Edgell, Pahl) as well as being the breadwinner;
• with an increase in boomerang families there has been a continuation in
MIS’s of the traditional parent-child relationship;
• there is often a dual or triple burden placed upon women in family life,
meaning she is responsible for both paid work, domestic work and
emotional work;
Band 0 [0 marks]

showing limited knowledge of the extent to which family roles are changing.
Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be
short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. ‘women and men both go out to
work now so they both have to do the housework’. Lower in the band (1-2
marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3-4 marks)
key terms, e.g. family roles means the parts played by different members of
the family e.g. the housewife role.

which family roles are changing. Alternatively, they may offer an answer
which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the
issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of
e.g. ‘Women are sometimes the ones who are the breadwinners in the
family today whilst the men stay at home as househusbands’ etc. Lower in

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understanding of the extent to which family roles are changing. Sociological
terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency.
For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question
and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g.
‘Despite more equality in society leading to changing roles within the family,
women still do most of the housework, emotional work and childcare whilst
men are still seen to be the ones who make the important financial decisions
in the home. This hasn’t changed’. Or ‘Men and women are equal now in
society thanks to the feminist movement and so this has also been
transferred to the family where conjugal roles are now shared. This has
reduced status and power divisions in the family and has resulted in
developments such as the househusband and the new man becoming more
normal male family roles’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be
range of well developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range

the extent to which family roles are changing. There will be a strong grasp of
the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and
against the idea of family roles changing, citing some of the examples given.

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2(a) What is meant by the term ‘home factors’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. family factors.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. things in the home background of children
(family or community) that affect how they do in school.
2(b) Describe two examples of vocational education. 4
Candidates will describe two examples of vocational education. This could be

to do with the skills learnt, the qualifications or the institution but must be
linked to preparing people for work in some way. Specific examples may be
referred to.
Possible answers:
• skills – where students are prepared for work e.g. ICT;
• training – training students for a particular job or career e.g.
hairdressing;
• courses – vocational courses offered in secondary schools or further
education institutions
e.g. BTEC’s;
• apprenticeships – e.g. training students to be car mechanics;
• workplace – on the job training;

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2(c) Explain how private schools may reproduce social inequalities. 6
Candidates should consider how private schools may reproduce social

inequalities. The Marxist theory may be referred to.
Possible answers:
• private schools are fee-paying therefore they exclude those who can’t
afford them from an elite education thus reproducing social inequalities;
• many private schools are single-sex with a lot being for boys – this can
mean a continuation of patriarchal institutions such as the ‘old boys
network that reproduce social inequalities (social capital);
• private schools typically get the best examination results which benefits
their students in terms of life chances and so reproduces social
inequalities;
• private schools are typically selective and it is argued that having cultural
capital (associated with the higher classes in society) aids passing the
entrance exam – this cultural capital reproduces social inequalities as
more of the higher classes get accepted;
• Marxists believe that education is another institution controlled by the
bourgeoisie and therefore private education ensures through social
closure that the elite maintain their privileged position in society;
• going to private school is seen to be advantageous to attending elite
universities and so reproducing social inequalities as this is likely to be
the higher classes (economic capital);
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how private
schools may reproduce social inequalities and may talk about e.g. ‘private
schools get better results than state schools so people who go there do
better in life’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the
bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-3
marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a

understanding of how private schools may reproduce social inequalities.
Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘Private schools
involve an entrance exam which favours those with cultural capital – the
higher classes. It is therefore easier for them to be admitted. Once there,
they will receive an elite education that facilitates entry to the best
universities and then the highest paid and highest status jobs’. This would
band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the

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2(d) Explain why some ethnic groups do less well than others in education. 8
Candidates need to explain different reasons why some ethnic groups do

less well in education than others. Candidates are likely to refer to their own
cultural context here so expect a wide variety of responses. Points may be
made generally or may focus on specific ethnic groups.
Either way is fine to credit.
Possible answers:
• an ethnocentric curriculum may explain why some ethnic minorities do
less well than the ethnic majority in education;
• social class and ethnicity often interlink – the lower an ethnic groups
social class, the less well they are likely to do in education;
• social factors -there is prejudice and discrimination in society which may
cause the formation of anti-school subcultures in school as an act of
rebellion against racism which negatively impacts upon educational
achievement;
• lack of ethnic minority teachers – if there is a lack of positive role models
in education it may be that ethnic minorities do not see educational
success as a possibility for them;
• cultural differences – if home values clash with school values e.g. on
uniform, religious practices/commitments, gender expectations etc, then
this may hamper pupil progress;
• some students’ home language or language code (e.g. restricted) may
not be the same as the schools, this makes educational success more
difficult (linguistic barriers);
• ethnic minority students are often disproportionately found in the lower
sets in school – this may be due to negative teacher labelling and could
lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy which limits educational success;
• some ethnic groups will have a more positive attitude towards education
than others e.g. Chinese and Indian parents are seen to value
education highly and so push their children to do well (Archer);
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why some ethnic
groups do less well in education than others. A tendency to description is
likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘some don’t do very
well because they don’t speak the same language as the school’, stated
the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.

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understanding of why some ethnic groups do less well than others in
education. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g.
‘Schools set pupils based on tested ability and those in the bottom sets are
often looked down on by teachers. There are a lot of ethnic minority
students in the lower sets. This means they see no point to education and
so rebel against it instead’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are

understanding of why some ethnic groups do less well in education than
others and will be well developed and explained.
e.g. Ethnic minority students in school may find that the curriculum they are
forced to study has little in it that reflects their own experiences. This kind of
ethnocentric curriculum can mean students lose interest in their academic
study. This can be further worsened by a lack of ethnic minority teachers in
schools, suggesting that academic achievement is no something that this
ethnic group does’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and

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2(e) To what extent is the feminist view of education accurate? 15
Candidates should consider feminist views of education in their answer and

debate the accuracy of the claims. In evaluation alternative theories such as
Marxism and functionalism may be considered but this is not essential.
Candidates may look at subjects studied, types of school, teachers,
classrooms, curriculum etc. Local examples may well be used and should be
credited.
Possible answers:
FOR
• in some countries, today and in the past, the education of boys is seen to
be more important than the education of girls;
• the gendered curriculum – the content of education has often been
different for boys and girls e.g. through the subjects offered to them;
• feminists believe that schools, like the other agents of socialisation,
send out the message to both boys and girls that boys are superior –
they reinforce and maintain patriarchy;
• feminists believe that education sends out the message to girls and
boys that girls should lower their expectations and accept
traditional/segregated gender roles in the future;
• gendered subject choice – even in countries where boys and girls have
access to the same subjects, they are pushed towards different choices
e.g. girls into cookery and childcare, boys into sciences, technology etc;
• teachers may have higher expectations of boys and encourage and
push them into future careers whereas girls may be assumed to be
heading for marriage and motherhood;
• gender role models in schools – headteachers and senior staff are often
male which gives pupils the impression that men are better suited to
leadership roles than women;
• some feminists believe that inside the classroom boys dominate the
space and the teacher’s attention, leaving girls on the ‘sidelines’;
• textbooks – these can be criticised by feminists for the often
stereotypical representations of males and females;
• even when girls do better than boys in education, feminists note that this
does not translate into pay and status in the workplace;

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2(e) AGAINST
• equal opportunities legislation has changed practices in schools and
ensured, through things such as the national curriculum and positive
discrimination, that girls and boys have the same opportunities;
• many believe the feminist views to be out-dated as girls now outperform
boys at every level of education;
• single sex schools can challenge feminist views as here there is only
one sex – results for girls are typically better than for boys;
• positive female role models around the world have raised female
aspirations and girls now grasp all the opportunities that education
offers them to be successful;
• representations of males and females in textbooks have changed to
show the more equal world that we now live in;
• more women are obtaining the highest positions in education, as senior
leaders and headteachers – this motivates females to do well and
encourages them to believe they can be successful;
• school – functionalists say that education is meritocratic therefore anyone
can be successful as long as they work hard, gender is irrelevant;
• social class – this factor may be more important than gender according
to Marxists in determining educational success e.g. elitism, private
education, capital;
• ethnicity – this factor may be more important than gender in determining
educational success
e.g. institutional racism, labelling;
Band 0 [0 marks]

showing limited knowledge of the extent to which the feminist view of
education is accurate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely.
Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. ‘In some
countries boys go to schools, not girls’ . Lower in the band (1-2 marks),
expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3-4 marks) candidates
may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms,
e.g. feminists believe society benefits men.

which the feminist view of education is accurate. Alternatively, they may
offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to
assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of
e.g. ‘Parents of boys may value their education more than girls and so
prioritise sending them to school’ etc. Lower in the band, the response will
be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development.

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understanding of the extent to which the feminist view of education is
accurate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater
presented. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘despite there being many ways
that education is seen to favour boys, today’s systems and schools see girls
typically achieving the most. The national curriculum ensures that girl and
boys are offered the same subjects for study in an attempt to remove
patriarchal barriers in society. Textbook representations have been altered to
better reflect the positive female role models and changing gender roles
typical of so many societies. Feminism, therefore, seems a little outdated in
their views’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced.
At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well

the extent to which feminist views are accurate. There will be a strong grasp
of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms
and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the
question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided
and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a
specific conclusion.
Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the
‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.
whether the feminist view of education is accurate, citing some of the
examples given.

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3(a) What is meant by the term ‘formal social control’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. the police.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. formal social control is the ways the
Government or its agencies get people to conform to the law.
3(b) Describe two punishments for crime. 4
Candidates will describe two different punishments for crime – these could
be formal or informal.
Possible answers:
• a prison sentence – takes away a person’s freedom;
• the death sentence – for the most serious crimes the punishment may
be death;
• corporal punishment – some societies punish criminals physically e.g.
with lashes;
• community sentencing – non-custodial sentences that help the
community in some way;
• exile or ostracism – the offender has to leave or is excluded from their
community;
• tagging – electronic tags can be used to monitor a person’s behaviour
and whereabouts;
• fine – a monetary sanction designed to punish offenders financially;

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3(c) Explain how poverty can be linked to crime. 6
Candidates should show an understanding of how poverty can be linked to

crime. Specific examples may be referred to as may the Marxist view.
Possible answers:
• relative deprivation – when individuals see themselves as deprived in
relation to others crime may occur (Merton strain theory);
• marginalisation – when groups have no organisations to represent and
protect their interests therefore may turn to crime to vent their
frustrations and anger at society (Lea and Young);
• in countries with no/inadequate welfare systems, crime may be the only
way to survive;
• Cloward and Ohlin believed that in deprived and poor communities
individuals engaged in criminal or deviant behaviour to be part of the
illegitimate opportunity structure when mainstream society offered them
few possibilities for legitimate success;
• poorer people are more likely to be labelled as criminal and are thus
targeted more by the formal agents e.g. stop and search/arrest rates;
• deviant careers – the effects of public labelling can devastate a person
and give them little choice but to adopt a life of crime;
• Cohen – status frustration – poorer people may find it difficult to achieve
status in legitimate means in society and so may turn to crime for this
instead;
• Marxists believe that capitalism causes crime as it creates an unequal
society that keeps poor people poor and rich people rich and sees a
growing gap in inequalities;
• the media often turn the poor into folk devils and blame them for criminal
activities in society;
• individuals may turn to crime in response to these negative labels;
• the underclass – Charles Murray – are said to have a distinct set of
deviant values which can be linked to criminality;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how poverty can
be linked to crime and may talk about e.g. ‘many poorer people may commit
crime as a way to get desirable items in society’. Responses may be short
and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak
point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more than one

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understanding of how poverty can be linked to crime and deviance.
Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘The media create
folk devils from poor people and the underclass in society who are blamed
for certain crimes e.g. inner-city riots. This can lead to the group or individual
feeling status frustration and therefore turning to crime as a response. They
self-fulfil their negative label which further links poverty to crime’. This would
band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the

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3(d) Explain why white-collar crime is under-reported and under-recorded 8

in the official crime statistics.
Candidates should show an understanding of a range of reasons why white-

collar crime is under-reported and under-recorded in the OCS. Candidates
do not need to discuss both under-reporting and under-recording separately
to score the marks.
WHITE-COLLAR CRIME – non-violent crime committed by middle class

people for financial gain
e.g. fraud, embezzlement.
Possible answers:
• not reported – as white-collar crimes are financial rather than physical
people are not always aware that they have been a victim;
• not reported – some people may feel that reporting a white-collar crime
is a waste of time as nothing can be done about it;
• not reported – sometimes white-collar crimes may not be reported
because the victim may be part of the organisation that has committed
the crime and does not want to get into trouble themselves;
• white collar crimes are sometimes not seen to be as important as other
types of crime hence why they are not always reported and not always
recorded;
• not recorded – the police may feel there is little chance of a prosecution
due to a lack of evidence;
• the police may take bribes from the offending company/individual which
leads to under-recording;
• Marxists believe that the police work for the state and therefore are
reluctant to record white-collar crimes as they are part of this same
exploitative elite leading to under-recording;
• police may not record white-collar crimes because they are dealt with
internally by the company involved;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why white-collar
crime is under-reported and under-recorded in the OCS. A tendency to
description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘police
officers take bribes from wealthy business men’ stated without explanation.
Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the
band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks),

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Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding
of why white-collar crime is under-reported and under-recorded in the OCS.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘white-collar
crime is financial and so does not cause any physical harm to people which
makes it harder to spot. Many people don’t know they have been a victim of
this kind of crime and so that is why it doesn’t get reported’ etc. At the
use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy.
However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially

Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding
of why white-collar crime is under-reported ad under-recorded in the OCS and
will be well developed and explained.
e.g. ‘under-reported and under-recorded crime is known as the dark figure.
There is a large dark figure of white-collar crime because many people are
not aware that they have been a victim of this kind of invisible crime. The
police may also not record these crimes very often as often other companies
deal with the offence instead e.g. credit card companies, financial
institutions. They do not want the crimes to be public knowledge and cause
a moral panic and so these are often kept hidden’ etc. ’ They can then expand
on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms
on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the

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3(e) To what extent are self-report studies the most accurate measurement 15
of crime?
Candidates should consider the ways in which self-report studies could be

the most accurate measurement of crime. Local/culturally specific examples
may be referred to. In evaluation the issues with self-report studies could be
considered and/or the advantages of victim surveys and official statistics as
better measurements of crime.
Possible answers:
FOR
• official measures of crime such as statistics contain a huge dark figure and
therefore unofficial methods like self report studies are a better measure
of crime as the dark figure is uncovered;
• self-report studies ask people anonymously whether they have
committed a crime thus revealing a better, more valid picture of crime
than the official one as non-convicted criminals are also included;
• criminals may be more likely to talk about their offending to a researcher
using a self-report study than a formal agent like the police as they
know there are no repercussions and so feel more comfortable;
• self-report studies are confidential therefore people may reveal crimes
they have committed that they would not have otherwise admitted to;
• self-report studies question who they ‘typical offender’ really is – they
show, for example, that significant amounts of crime are committed by
the middle class and women which challenges the accuracy of official
measures of crime;
• lots of data both qualitative and quantitative and can be gathered quickly
and cheaply from different groups and large samples by using a self-
report study;
AGAINST
• self-report studies may not include valid information as they are reliant on
individuals admitting to crimes that they have committed;
self-report studies can be criticised for a lack of representativeness as
they are often carried out with young people – serious and white-collar
crimes may therefore be omitted;
• official statistics are collected by official agencies and thus are more
credible and trustworthy;
• official statistics show police counts of the total numbers of charges for
different types of offences;
• official statistics show court records of the total number of convictions
for different crimes;
• official statistics reveal patterns and trends in the social characteristics
of offenders;
• official statistics are collected and published annually therefore always
show an up-to-date picture of crime;
• official statistics allow for comparisons to be made e.g. between
different areas, genders etc;

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3(e) • many non-official measurements of crime such as self-report studies do not

include victimless crimes such as drug use and therefore provide an
incomplete picture of crime;
• non-official measurements of crime such as self-report studies rely on the
criminal or victim’s memory for its information and this may not be true –
people forget things, exaggerate etc;
• local victim surveys take an in-depth look at the experiences of victims
which self-report studies do not, building up trust and so may get people
to open up about what has happened to them e.g. feminist VS’s and
sexual crime;
• victim surveys may be more accurate than self-report studies as non-
official ways of measuring crime as they ask the victims rather than the
offenders who are more likely to tell the truth;
Band 0 [0 marks]

showing limited knowledge of the extent to which self-report studies are the
most accurate way of measuring crime. Use of sociological terms or
sided. e.g. 'they find out about crimes the police don't know about'. Lower in
the band (1-2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3-4
definition of key terms, e.g. self-report studies ask people what crimes they
have committed. in the question.

In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which
self-report studies are the most accurate way of measuring crime.
be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided
responses are unlikely e.g. Not everyone reports a crime committed against
them to the police so unofficial measures of crime like self-report studies are
a good way to find out about these unknown crimes’ etc.
covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a
list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument

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understanding of the extent to which self-report studies are the most
accurate way of measuring crime. Sociological terms and concepts will be
used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers
will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of
points presented.
Candidates may say that e.g. ‘despite the OCS being recognised as the
most easily accessible and generalisable source of information on crime in
most societies, self-report studies are thought by many sociologists to
produce a far more valid picture due to their uncovering of the dark figure of
crime. They are both confidential and anonymous which means offenders
are likely to be honest in their answers. It is from these sources that our
understanding of who he typical criminal is in society has been challenged.
Self-report studies reveal, for example, the large amount of crime committed
by women and the middle classes.’. There will be a two-sided response but
this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a
narrower range of well developed points. At the top of the band, expect a

the extent to which self-report studies are the most accurate measurement
of crime. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate
and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well
points.
marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there
will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part
of the question through a focused conclusion.
the usefulness of self-report studies as a measure of crime, citing some of
the examples given.

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4(a) What is meant by the term ‘bias’? 2
One mark for partial definition, e.g. not being fair.

Two marks for clear definition, e.g. being one sided in the selection of which
events and stories are reported and how.
4(b) Describe two ways media content can be censored. 4
Possible answers:
• laws protecting the state – e.g. the UK Official Secrets Act;
• morals – laws on obscenity;
• libel and slander laws – to prevent unfounded allegations being made
against individuals;
• laws preventing the unfair treatment of minority groups – e.g.anti-
discrimination legislation;
• the certification system for films and music videos and computer games
– BBFC, PEGI etc;
• the TV watershed – which prevents some sex, violence, drug-taking and
swearing being shown before 9pm to protect children;
• agenda setting/bias – these will affect the content of the media through
informal censorship;
• internet and media self-regulation – of content, words and image;
• self-censorship – individuals censoring their own media representations
e.g. on social media accounts;

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4(c) Explain how people interact using social media. 6
Candidates need to show an understanding of what is meant by social

media (communication and networking) and how it can be used in different
ways to interact. Examples from an international, national or local context
may be included, these should be credited accordingly.
Possible answers:
• for communication e.g. to keep in touch with relatives and friends
across the globe;
• in order to share photos and videos through sites such as Youtube;
• for entertainment though memes, video shorts, viral joke, gossip, trivia
etc;
• to find employment and/or to make work-based connections – Linked In
is a good example here;
• for dating – social media sites are becoming the method of choice for
many people now when looking for a relationship;
• for information – an easy way to keep up to date with the latest news
and breaking stories from across the globe;
• to see what is fashionable and in style – used to help form a personal
identity;
• for support in areas of life such as friendship issues, mental health etc
as well as for study groups;
• social media can use ‘cookies’ to track audience interests so allowing
the user to interact with other people with similar interests;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the
audience can use social media for interaction and may talk about e.g. ‘using
it to communicate and keep in touch’. The terms ‘social media’ or ‘interact’
may not be fully understood. Responses may be short and un/under
developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point.
Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak
point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging

understanding of how the audience can use social media for interaction.
Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘The audience use
social media as a forum for creating and maintaining an online identity,
seeking likes and approval from others through interaction. They can keep
up-to-date with the latest fashion and style as well as cultivating existing
relationships and forming new one through the instant messaging systems
and video/photo sharing options available to users’. ’This would be followed

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4(d) Explain why the media is an important agency of social control. 8
Candidates need to consider how the media acts as an important agency of

social control and may illustrate this with examples. These may be linked
with relevant theories and perspectives, but this is not a necessity.
Possible answers:
• postmodernists believe we now live in a media saturated society with
children being digital natives and young people spending hours of every
day using the media;
• the media shows us what is normal and expected behaviour in society –
it norm references for the audience and therefore influences the way we
act and think;
• imitation – we may copy what we see in the media e.g. style and
fashion, therefore this controls us and encourages us to consume
particular brands;
• role modelling – the audience look up to particular people in the media,
be it celebrities, politicians or sports stars. These people can therefore
be highly influential in determining how the audience think and behave;
• dominant ideologies – these dominate the media and therefore this
discourages the audience from considering alternative ways of thinking
(Marxism);
• new media is interactive therefore has even more potential to control the
audience as we are so heavily immersed into the virtual world of social
networks, gaming and online communities;
• feminism – this theory believes that the media is a patriarchal industry that
reinforces gender roles and inequalities in society;
• media representations may be seen and believed by the audience and
therefore this can be important for determining how the audience see
particular social groups and individuals;
Band 0 [0 marks]

Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why the media is
an important agency of social control. A tendency to description is likely.
Responses may be short and undeveloped,
e.g. ‘the media shows the audience what is and is not acceptable in society’,
stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to
be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher
in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point.

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understanding of why the media is an important agency of social control.
Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘The media
sets the agenda for what is topical and important in society. In this way it
determines what the audience think about particular issues and events and
is often biased in its coverage. The audience may imitate their role models in
the media and agree with what they say and do’ etc. At the bottom of the
band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts

understanding of why the media is an important agency of social control and
will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘Postmodernists believe that we
now live in a media saturated society in which reality is often determined by
the media. This is particularly true of new interactive media that immerses
the audience into a media culture. The media typically takes a conservative
stance on issues and this norm referencing may influence the audience’s
own beliefs too. This is particularly true if, according to the GUMG (Glasgow
Uni Media Group), alternative viewpoints that challenge the dominant
ideology are marginalised in the media’. They can then expand on the
explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and
concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on
the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of

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4(e) To what extent does the news reflect reality? 15
Candidates should consider whether the news reflects reality. They may adopt
a general approach to the question or may focus on specific forms or
examples of news. Answers may be linked to sociological theories and
perspectives but this is not a necessity.
Possible answers:
FOR:
• laws of libel and slander protect individuals from unfounded stories
therefore ensuring that the news reflects reality;
• professional integrity of news professionals alongside codes of content
ensure through self-regulation that the news does reflect reality;
• laws that prevent the unfair treatment of minority groups exist and ensure
that these powerless groups are not misrepresented in the news but
instead are reflected fairly;
• media gatekeepers may add an angle or a bias to a piece of news
journalism but it is still based on fact, it is not fiction;
• news values determine the kind of stories that make the news and do
lead to some sensationalism and exaggeration in reporting but the
stories they cover are still real;
• postmodernists and pluralists believe that new media has made the news
more democratic, allowing diversity of opinion to be available globally
and reducing the dominant ideology so better reflecting reality;
• much news today is streamed live as it happens via news agencies,
mobile phones and citizen journalism- this is obviously real;
• social media allows those involved in a news story a voice to tell their
opinions and views so making the news we see more real than ever
before, we get a much fuller picture;
• many companies are publicly funded and are public service
broadcasters – this means that bias must be kept to a minimum as they
adopt a stance of due impartiality;
AGAINST:
• fake news stories shows that the news does not always reflect reality;
• new media allows for interpretations of events, jokes and social media
articles to be made, this distorts what we mean when we say that the
news is real;
• governments can and do censor the news e.g. in North Korea or in
wartime situations via the Official Secrets Act – this means that the
news does not always reflect reality;
• propaganda is often seen in the news and this distorts reality e.g. Jews
were demonised in the German news under Hitler;
• a selection process occurs when deciding which news stories should be
included in a publication or broadcast – those that make the cut contain
news values but other equally important news stories never make it –
this clearly does not reflect reality;

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4(e) • moral panics turn particular social groups into folk devils as they
demonise their behaviour and scapegoat them for society’s problems –
this stereotypical and exaggerated reporting does not reflect reality;
• the Glasgow University Media Group (GUMG) demonstrated that the
news was very biased, adopting a conservative standpoint and
presenting stories in a way that placed the ruling class in a favourable
light – this kind of distortion does not reflect reality;
• Marxists believe that the media generally and the news more
specifically are tools of the ruling class used to oppress and exploit the
working class – news doesn’t reflect reality therefore, instead it keeps
the bourgeoisie in their privileged position and the proletariat in their
place;
Band 0 [0 marks]

showing limited knowledge of the extent to which the news reflects reality.
Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be
short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. ‘news professionals are not allowed
to lie or make stories up so the news does reflect reality’. Lower in the band
(1-2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3-4 marks)
key terms, e.g. reality is what’s really happening in the news without bias.

which the news reflects reality. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which
is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised
by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or
concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may
be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘Stereotypes are easy
for the audience to understand so you see a lot of them in the news,
perhaps in the form of folk devils and moral panics. This exaggeration does
not reflect reality it distorts it’ etc. Lower in the band, the response will be

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understanding of the extent to which the news reflects reality. Sociological
terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For
the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and
there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g.
‘Despite the content of the news having to reflect reality to some degree it is
hard to deny the selection process that takes place by the media
gatekeepers to determine what the public see as news and what we never
hear about. Decisions are made based on how many news values a story has
and therefore how much it will help the story to sell. Fitting in with the
dominant ideology and protecting ruling class power may also be on the
agenda according to Marxists. These factors mean that the news does not
reflect reality at all’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be

the extent to which the news reflects reality. There will be a strong grasp of
the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and
against the idea of the news reflecting reality, citing some of the examples
given.

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PAGE 1

Cambridge International Examinations

READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS FIRST

Answer two questions.

This document consists of 3 printed pages, 1 blank page and 1 insert.

Section A: The Family

(a) What is meant by the term ‘urbanisation’? [2]

(c) Explain how urbanisation affects family life. [6]

(a) What is meant by the term ‘single sex school’? [2]

© UCLES 2015 2251/22/M/J/15

Section C: Crime, deviance and social control

(a) What is meant by the term ‘deterrent’? [2]

(d) Explain why there is a ‘dark figure’ of crime in society. [8]

(e) To what extent do prisons solve the problem of crime? [15]

4 The media is an increasingly important agent of secondary socialisation in modern industrial

(a) What is meant by the term ‘secondary socialisation’? [2]

© UCLES 2015 2251/22/M/J/15

CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL EXAMINATIONS

MARK SCHEME for the May/June 2015 series

® IGCSE is the registered trademark of Cambridge International Examinations.

Page 2 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

(a) What is meant by the term ‘urbanisation’? [2]

One mark for partial definition, e.g. moving to the city.

(c) Explain how urbanisation affects family life. [6]

Candidates need to show an understanding of the relationship between urbanisation and

© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

Page 3 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

Page 4 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

• Early retirement/pensions provisions (less stress so live longer);

© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

Page 5 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

• Growth in singlehood and childlessness;

A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks.

© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

Page 6 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

Page 7 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

(a) What is meant by the term ‘single sex school’? [2]

Candidates will describe two different ways.

Formal education – delivered in institutions specifically designed to educate people. Here a

© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

Page 8 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

Page 9 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

Candidates should show an awareness of the various types of schools available to

© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

Page 10 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks.

Section C: Crime, deviance and social control

© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

Page 11 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

(a) What is meant by the term ‘deterrent’? [2]

Something that is intended to discourage a person from doing something seen to be

Candidates will describe two ways of dealing with crime.

© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

Page 12 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper

(d) Explain why there is a ‘dark figure’ of crime in society. [8]

© Cambridge International Examinations 2015

Page 13 Mark Scheme Syllabus Paper