ELECTRIC CELLS AS ENERGY SYSTEMS

Revision
• A circuit is a system that transfers electrical energy.
• For a device to work, a closed circuit and a source of electrical energy is
needed.
• A circuit is either connected in series or a branched circuit where the components
are connected in parallel.

Examples of parallel
circuits.

Examples of series circuits

 ELECTRIC CELLS
What is a cell?
A cell is a device that produces electricity by
converting chemical energy into electrical energy.
• A cell contains chemical substances which undergo a chemical
reaction if an external circuit is connected across the terminals.
• The cell stores chemical potential energy which
is transformed into electrical potential energy
and then kinetic energy when charges flow
through the external circuit.
The cell at one terminal (the negative
terminal) has an excess of electrons.
The other terminal (the positive terminal) has
a shortage of electrons.
Electrons flow out of the negative side of the
cell(s), through the circuit, and back to the
positive side of the cell(s).

• A chemical reaction occurs between the two

beakers.
• Electrons move from the zinc plate (negative
terminal), through the conducting wire, to the
copper plate (positive terminal).
Voltage

• Voltage is also called the potential difference. Voltage is a measure

of the amount of potential energy stored in a cell.
• The voltage therefore tells us how much energy a cell can provide to
push the charges through a circuit.
• Voltage is measured in volts (V)
• The voltmeter is always connected in parallel in a circuit and has
infinite (very large) resistance. The voltmeter is connected in parallel
because it measures a difference and therefore has to be connected
between two different points.
A battery is a number of cells connected together.
Cells can either be connected in series or parallel:
In series (positive to negative).
• Voltages add up to give more energy to the charges that it pushes through
the circuit. The voltage of the battery increases.
• The voltmeter reading over all the cells is greater than over just one cell.
• Cells connected in series can supply a greater current.
Voltmeter reading over
these 3 cells:

1,5V + 1,5V + 1,5V = 4,5 V

In parallel (positive to positive).

• The voltage of a parallel battery is the same as the voltage of each cell.
• The voltmeter reading over all the cells together is the same as over just one cell.
• Cells connected in parallel can supply the same current as one cell, but can supply it for a
longer period.

Voltmeter reading
over all 3 cells = 1,5
V
Current
• Current is the flow of electric
charge.
• The unit of current is the
Ampere (A)
• The symbol for current is I
• Current is measured with an ammeter.
• The ammeter is always connected in series in
a circuit.
In a series circuit there is only one pathway for
the current to flow so if one bulb blows then the
other bulb will stop working. The bulb that has
blown has created a gap in the circuit.

In a parallel circuit there is more than one

pathway for the current to flow so if one bulb
blows, the other bulb(s) will continue to work.
TOPIC 12: RESISTANCE
Substances that allow current to flow through them are called
conductors, while substances that don’t allow the flow of current
through them are called insulators.

Although current is allowed to flow through a conductor, it doesn’t

mean that there is not disturbance.

Collisions between the charges and the particles of the conductor

obstruct the flow of charge. We say that resistance is caused by the
conductor against the flow of current.
A good conductor has a low resistance, while a poor conductor has a
very high resistance.

A conductor with a very high resistance is known as a

resistor.

The filament in an incandescent lightbulb and the element in a

kettle are examples of resistors.

Resistance: the ability of a component in an electrical circuit to

oppose the flow of current.
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of charge.

• Unit of resistance is the Ohm (Ω)

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• Symbol is R. Example: A resistance of 20 ohm is shown as R = 20 Ω

• Ohms law – the potential difference (V), in a simple electrical
circuit, is equal to the current strength (I) multiplied by the
resistance R.

•V = I x R
SOLVING PROBLEMS WITH OHM’S LAW:
Use Ohm’s law: V = I x R to answer the following:

1. What is the potential difference across a toaster of

resistance 13.7 Ω when the current flowing through it is
8.75A?

2. What current is flowing through an electric heater with a

resistance of 38Ω when the potential difference across it is
240 V?
A resistor is a conductor that is placed in a circuit to:
1. control the current
2. provide useful energy transfer.

If a resistor in a circuit is connected with another electrical

component, it will maintain a safe current within the
component.
Resistors provide useful energy transfer:

In an incandescent light bub or an appliance such as a heater, kettle

or toaster, the resistor provides useful energy transfer from electrical
energy to heat energy.

Nichrome wire has high resistance and is used as the element in

electric kettles, toasters and heaters.
Variable resistors
Some resistors do not supply a fixed resistance. They have a mechanism that
allows them to change their resistance. These resistors are called rheostats.
Dimmer light switches and the volume control knob on a radio are examples.

A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is sensitive to the amount of

light that shines onto it. It normally has a higher resistance in
the dark than in the light.
Often used to automatically switch lights on or off outside a
house.
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT RESISTANCE IN A CIRCUIT
• Type of material – different conducting materials have different resistance to electric
current.
Good conductors such as copper, silver and gold offer low resistance.
Metals such as tungsten or nichrome offer high resistance.

• Length of the conductor – longer wires have more resistance than shorter wires.
• Thickness of the conductor – thinner wires have more resistance than thicker wires.
• Temperature of the conductor – generally, hotter metal conductors have more resistance
than colder conductors.
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
• Recall that in a series circuit there is only one pathway for the current
to flow through.

• Recall that when cells are connected in series, the total voltage of the
battery is the sum of the individual cells. This means that the more cells
you connect, the higher the voltage of the battery.
• Recall that the voltmeter is always connected in parallel over the
component. When the voltmeter is connected across the
terminals of a cell(s), it measures the
energy that the cell(s) can supply.
When we measure the voltage across a
resistor, the voltmeter measures the energy
transferred to that resistor.
Voltage in a series circuit
If there is only one resistor in the circuit,
the voltage of the cell(s) is the voltage
across the resistor.
Consider the following circuit that has two resistors in series:

Vᴛ = V₁ + V₂ and V₃ = V₁ + V₂
Therefore Vᴛ = V₃ = 4,5 V

Resistors in series are voltage

dividers, they share the voltage
among themselves such that the sum
of the voltages across the individual
resistors equals the total available
voltage.
• The total voltage across all the
resistors in a series circuit is equal to
the voltage over the battery.

• The higher the resistance of a resistor,

the higher the voltage across it.

• The total voltage in a series circuit is

the same as the sum of the voltages
across all the resistors in the circuit
Current in a series circuit
Recall that current is the flow of electric charge. We measure current by connecting an
ammeter in series.
A₁ = A₂ = A₃
• The current is the same at any point in a series circuit.

• The total current decreases if the number of resistors

in a series circuit increases.

• Explanation: The bulbs get dimmer because the

available energy remains constant whilst the
number of resistors increases therefore less energy
is available to each user.
 HOMEWORK
Activity 6 Page 166
Parallel circuits
Recall that in a parallel circuit there is more than one pathway for the current to flow
through.
Recall that when cells of the same voltage are connected in parallel, the total voltage of the
battery is the same as for one cell only.

VOLTAGE IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

V₁ = V₂ = V₃ = Vᴛ

The energy available to each of the

resistors in parallel is the same and
equal to the total voltage available.
In a parallel circuit, we can measure the voltage over each resistor, but also over all the
resistors together.

• For resistors in parallel:

• Voltage across each resistors = voltage of the
battery.

• For resistors connected in parallel, the voltage

measured across each resistor has the same value
for all the resistors.
• This is also equal to the voltage measured over
all the resistors together, that is, between A and B.
CURRENT IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Consider the following circuits:

• The brightness of the bulbs remains the same. The

ammeter reading increases as more bulbs are
added in parallel.

Explanation: The bulbs remain just as bright

because the amount of energy available remains
the same. The ammeter reading (current) increases
because the total resistance in the circuit decreases.
 A₁ = A₂ + A₃ + A₄
Explanation:
The total current from the battery
branches/divides when it reaches
the parallel combination.
Since charges cannot be
destroyed, the number of charges
entering the branches must equal
the original number of charges.

Conclusion: Resistors in parallel are current dividers. They share the current.
 We can conclude:
• R₁ = greatest resistance,
• R₂ = smaller resistance than R₁
• R₃ has the smallest resistance
because it has the largest
current passing through it.
This shows that the current wants
to take the easiest path.

• The total current supplied by the battery is the same as the sum of the currents through all the
resistors.
• The higher the resistance of a resistor, the smaller the current through it. The lower the
resistance of a resistor, the larger the current through it.
• The more resistors we connect in parallel, the larger the current in the circuit is.
 HOMEWORK
Activity 9 page 169 & Activity 11 Page 171
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS IN THE HOME

Resistors can be connected in series or parallel in our homes

depending on what we need the specific circuit for.

Series circuits:
1. Fairy lights (Christmas lights)
2. Television set, the monitor is connected in series with the on/off
switch. When you move the switch to the off position and break
that circuit, the television monitor goes off.
Parallel:
The lighting system in a house is usually connected in parallel.
If one light bulb goes out, the rest of the lights in the other
rooms can remain on. Switches can be used to control specific
lights on specific branches of the parallel connections.

Importance of accurate resistances in a parallel circuit

The total current in a parallel circuit increases as the number of resistors increases.

This means that there is a risk of creating a dangerously high current if you connect too many
resistors in parallel in the same circuit.

To help control this, resistors are manufactured to have a specific resistance.

For two branches that have the
same voltage, the current is
smaller in the branch where the
resistance is higher.
TOPIC 14: SAFETY WITH ELECTRICITY AND THE
NATIONAL ELECTRICITY GRID.
Electricity has made life easier.
It can be dangerous though. If it is used incorrectly you can get seriously
hurt or killed, and houses can be destroyed.
Problems with parallel connections
• Even though this is a beneficial set up for lighting in your house,
remember that the potential difference remains the same throughout the
entire circuit.

• The voltage here is not small. Each branch in a circuit that is added in
parallel receives the full 240 V from the power source.
• This means that the current increases every time another load is
added in parallel.

• This can lead to the circuit becoming overloaded – it gets more

current to flow then the circuit can safely handle.

• This could lead to fires because the wire gets too hot or to a short
circuit because the wire melts and breaks the circuit.

• It is therefore very dangerous to plug too many plugs into a single

power point.
Circuit breakers, fuses and earth leakages
The electricity that you use comes from a power station
through overhead or underground cables to a meter box.
Different devices are used in electrical circuits to protect
them against possible problems…
• Fuses – a fuse is a safety device consisting of a thin
strip of metal which melts and breaks if the current
becomes too high.
The meter box measures the amount of
electricity used per hour in the house.

The electricity is then conducted to the

circuit breaker board within the house.

This is the mains supply. It is divided

into different circuits.
• Circuit breaker – Like a fuse, a circuit breaker is a safety device
that will open the circuit if too much current flows in the circuit.
When current
flows through
the coil, an
electromagnet
is formed.
The circuits on the circuit board lead to different parts of the house
where they end in plugs.
The maximum current that each circuit breaker will allow is printed on
the circuit breaker switch.
There are also circuit breakers for
each of the different circuits in the
house.
There will be one for the lights,
plugs, geyser, stove, etc.
These circuit breakers will disconnect
the electricity to that particular circuit if the current within them
becomes too high.
Earth leakage

For further protection from possible shock, a household circuit contains an

earth leakage circuit breaker.

The amount of current entering a device through an active wire, should equal
the amount of current leaving the device down the neutral wire.

The earth leakage circuit breaker detects when there is any reduction in
current through the neutral wire compared to the live wire (caused by some
“leakage to earth” at the appliance or device). The mains current is switched
off immediately.
Three pin plugs All appliances need a plug to connect them to the
power mains.
• live wire - carries electricity to the appliance
• neutral wire - returns the current to a connection
with the earth at the electrical substation.
• For current to pass through a kettle, the live wire to
must be in contact with the neutral wire.

• If there is a fault in the kettle so that the live wire

touches the metal casing of the kettle and we touch
the metal, we could get a dangerous electric shock.
• To prevent this, a third green and yellow wire,
called the earth wire connects the metal casing of
an appliance to a metal peg in the ground outside
the house.
Safety measures in the home

• Do not touch a switch with wet hands

• Do not overload your connections. Do not plug in too many appliances into one wall socket.
• Do not run electric wires under carpets or rugs.
• Do not use electric appliances in the bathroom
• Do not do any electrical repairs without first unplugging the appliance, or switching off the
mains switch when changing a light bulb.
Electricity generation
Power stations
A thermal power station uses heat to generate electricity. A
power station is a system that generates electricity from a fuel
source.
South Africa has coal, nuclear and
hydropower stations.
About 90% of our electricity in South Africa
is generated in power stations where coal
is burned to boil water and produce steam.
Disadvantages of fossil fuels

When fossil fuels are burned in air, carbon dioxide (CO₂), water vapor and heat are formed.
Impurities in the fuel such as sulfur will also burn and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) is also released into the air.

Increased levels of CO₂ in the atmosphere prevent heat from escaping from the Earth into space,
resulting in global warming.

SO₂ dissolves in water vapour in the atmosphere to form acid rain which has a sever impact on plants
and animals as well as buildings.

Fossil fuels are running out and alternative sources of electricity generation are needed.
• Falling water A pumped storage plant consists of an upper
In a hydroelectric power station the level dam and a lower level dam. Water is
water in dams is released directly onto released from the upper dam into the lower
a turbine of a generator at the base dam during the day. At night, or when the
of a dam wall. The turbine turns and demand for electrical energy is low, water is
electricity is generated by the pumped back up to the higher dam using the
generator. generator as a pump.
Tidal and wave power Sun heated steam
The ocean tides are cause by the Heliostats (flat movable mirrors) are used to
focus the the suns rays on a collector tower.
gravitational pull of the sun and moon. The
difference between low and high tide can
The focused rays heat water in the tower and
be used to produce electricity. the resulting steam is used to power the turbine
of a generator.
Ways have been found to convert the rising
and falling of water waves into the smooth
rotation of a generator.
NUCLEAR POWER IN SOUTH AFRICA
South Africa has one nuclear power station at Nuclear fission: Is the release of energy
Koeberg near Cape Town. from an atom when its nucleus is split
and the atom divides into two smaller
In a nuclear reactor, the process of nuclear atoms.
fission takes place. Fission means “to break
apart”. A radioactive element such as uranium is
split into other atoms. Large amounts of
energy are released in this process. The
heat released is used to heat water to
produce steam that can drive a generator.
National electricity grid

Most of South Africa’s electricity is generated

by coal-burning power stations in the north
eastern regions of South Africa.

Electricity is generated close to the coal mines

and then has to be transported thousands of
kilometres along transmission (power) lines.

The network of all the transmission lines in South

Africa is called the national electricity grid.
The disadvantage of long transmission lines is that the resistance of the wires results in a
waste of energy. Even the best, thickest wires have some resistance.

The electricity in transmission cables needs to be at a high voltage and a low current. If the
current is too high, the cables could melt. If the voltage is too low, not enough energy would
reach your home.

About 15% of energy is wasted due to heating of transmission. This loss of energy is reduced
if the electricity is transmitted at a very high voltage.

Power stations produce electricity at about 20 000 volts. A step-up transformer boosts the
electricity to voltages as high as 765 000 volts.
Power surges and grid overload
2 main problems that disrupt power supply in the national grid are:
• Power surges and grid overload.
• A power surge is a sudden increase in voltage supply
Caused by lightning or a breakdown in one part of the grid, the electricity is redirected to other parts
of the grid.
For each lost branch of the grid, the remaining branches take on more power and experience an
excess of electricity.
Power surges can also be caused by power coming back on again after a power outage. Power surges
can damage electrical appliances and sensitive electronic devices such as computers and televisions.
If too much electricity is used at the same time, there is an increased load on the supply grid. When this
happens, the national grid becomes overloaded from too much electricity flowing through it.
This can cause a breakdown in a substation. If this happens, the power supplied in that area will be cut
off and a black out (power failure) will occur,.
TOPIC 15: THE COST OF ELECTRICAL POWER
Energy is what is needed to make things work, move or live.
Energy is measured in joule (J)
Power is the rate at which work can be done. Power is measured in watts (W)
Energy and power are not the same things.
Rate – speed or how quickly or slowly something takes to happen or be done.
Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is supplied to an electrical device or
appliance.
Electrical power is measured in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).

A 100 W light bulb will use a lot more energy each second than a 20 W light bulb.
Every home has a meter to measure the amount of electrical energy used.
The power rating on an appliance only tells us what the appliance is rated at. To calculate the
cost, we measure how many watts are used over a period of one hour. This is called a kilowatt
hour (kWh). This means that if you run an appliance rated at 1000 W or 1kW for one hour,
then you will have used 1 kWh of electricity.
The cost to a consumer is calculated in the following way:
Cost = power rating of the appliance (in kW) x time (hours) x unit price

Example: Your municipality charges 80c per kWh, calculate the cost to run a 2200 W heater
for 5 hours.
Cost = power rating of appliance (kW) x time (hours) x unit price
Step 1: Convert 2200 W to kilowatt = 2200 ÷ 1000 = 2,2 kW
Step 2: Convert 80c to Rand = 80c = R0,80
Cost = 2,2 x 5 x 0,80 = R8, 80
Example: An electric heater is rated 230 V, 2000 W. Suppose that the unit cost is R1,25.
Calculate the cost of using the heater for 3 hours each evening for the whole of June.
Calculation:
June has 30 days
Number of hours: 3 x 30 = 90
Power rating = 2000W = 2kW
Cost = power rating (in kW) x time (hours) x unit price
= 2 x 90 x R1,25
=R225,00
A consumer purchases a R50 prepaid voucher. Each evening for a week, she uses her
tumble dryer (rated at 2 800W) for 90 minutes to dry washing.

a) How much money will be left if the unit cost is R1.20?

b) For how many hours can she use her electric heater (rated at 2500 W) before her
R50 voucher runs out?
Alternative energy in the home
Appliances such as geysers, heaters, stoves and tumble dryers use a lot of electricity.

Consider the following points:

• The more electricity we use, the more coal we burn.
• The more coal we burn, the more air pollution we cause.
• The more air pollution there is, the more unhealthy the environment we live in.
• The more coal we burn, the more money is needed to build new power stations and put
up power lines.
We need to save electricity and reduce pollution. We can do this by:

1. Using low-wattage appliances

2. Using energy-saving light bulbs
3. Using solar panel water heaters instead of electric geysers
4. Drying clothes in the sun rather than using a tumble dryer

Solar water heaters

Most geysers are rated at 3000W and although they are normally very well insulated, as
much as 40% of the electrical energy supplied to the home is used by the hot water system.
Many homes in South Africa are fitted with solar water heaters.
Eskom encourages home owners to fit these so as to reduce the owners’s electricity bill and to
reduce the amount of pollution caused by coal power stations. Many low-cost houses have
been installed with solar water heaters which is part of the governments plan to attempt to
increase the use of solar energy and to reduce poorer peoples costs to heat water.